40:
1510:
824:"While defending the fundamental principle that the brain is the organ of the mind.... the phrenologists were exposed to violent abuse, ridicule and vituperation.... it was, of course, their craniological conclusions, their dissection of the mind into a number of component faculties.... that was the main point of attack, and that, it must be allowed, readily leant itself to burlesque...." James Crichton-Browne (1924)
262:
285:. The Society grew rapidly; in 1826, it had 120 members, an estimated one third of whom had a medical background. The Society acquired large numbers of phrenological artefacts, such as marked porcelain heads indicating the location of cerebral organs, and endocranial casts of individuals with unusual personalities. Their museum was located on Chambers Street.
546:, and was in some emotional turmoil: on 21 September, after his return to England, he recorded a vivid and disturbing dream in which he seemed to be involved in an execution at which the corpse came to life and joked about having died as a hero. Darwin committed his "gigantic blunder" concerning the parallel roads of
354:
concerning the expression of the human emotions. Bell held that human anatomy uniquely allowed the expression of the human moral self while Browne argued that there were no absolute distinctions between human and animal anatomy. Charles Darwin, then a 17-year-old student at the university, was there
405:
in
Edinburgh. Over the course of ten months in 1828, Burke and Hare murdered sixteen people and sold the bodies for dissection in the private anatomy schools. Burke was executed on 28 January 1829, while Hare turned King's evidence; Burke was publicly dissected by Professor Monro the next day, and
248:
John Gordon, who called phrenology a "mixture of gross errors" and "extravagant absurdities". In response, Spurzheim went to
Edinburgh to take part in public debates and to perform brain dissections in public. Whilst he was received politely by the scientific and medical community there, many were
686:
with the proceeds of a large inheritance, appointed himself as its editor in 1837. In the 1850s, Watson conducted an extensive correspondence with
Charles Darwin concerning the geographical distribution of British plant species, and Darwin made generous acknowledgement of Watson's scientific
431:
The
Edinburgh Phrenological Society received a financial boost by the death of a wealthy supporter in 1832. William Ramsay Henderson left a large bequest to the Edinburgh Society to promote phrenology as it saw fit. The Henderson Trust enabled the society to publish an inexpensive edition of
323:
in a debate, arguing that phrenology explained the intellectual and moral abilities of mankind. Both sides claimed victory after the lengthy debate, but the
Medical Society refused to publish an account. This prompted the Edinburgh Phrenological Society to establish its own journal in 1824:
759:"You interest me very much, Mr Holmes. I had hardly expected so dolicocephalic a skull or such well marked supra-orbital development.... A cast of your skull, sir, until the original is available, would be an ornament to any anthropological museum..." – Arthur Conan Doyle
530:: Darwin attended the University of Edinburgh Medical School and, as an active member of Plinian Society, observed the 1826-1827 controversies with phrenologist William A.F. Browne. In 1838, some eleven years after his hurried departure,
398:. It was denounced as an attack on faith and morals.... read today, it must be regarded as really rather more orthodox in its teaching than some of the lucubrations of the Dean of St Paul's and the Bishop of Durham".
598:, an extended essay on the neurological foundations of psychological life. Laycock was friendly with asylum reformer William A.F. Browne and was an important influence on Browne's son, Sir James Crichton-Browne.
512:. Chambers' wife, Anne Kirkwood, transcribed the manuscript for the publishers (dictated by her husband) so that they would not recognise its origins. In a strange parallel, Prince Albert read it aloud to
831:
The
Henderson Trust was wound up in 2012. Many of the society's phrenological artefacts survive today, having passed to the University of Edinburgh's Anatomical Museum under the guidance of Professor
502:: Although not formally admitted to the Society, Chambers occasionally acted as George Combe's publisher and became an enthusiast for phrenological thinking. In 1844, Chambers anonymously published
335:
In the mid-1820s, a split emerged between the
Christian phrenologists and Combe's closer associates. Matters came to a head when Combe and his supporters passed a motion banning the discussion of
1383:
New Haven and London: Yale
University Press, see especially pages 16 and 60. Ambitious and sweeping interpretation of western culture and civilization in terms of an asymmetric neurology of mind.
616:
was a classic of popular science. In the 1840s, Nichol became addicted to prescription opiates, and he recorded his successful hydropathic rehabilitation in his autobiographical correspondence
253:
inherent in phrenology. George Combe, a lawyer who had previously been skeptical, became a convert to phrenology after listening to
Spurzheim's commentary as he dissected a human brain.
1606:
406:
the phrenologists were permitted to examine his skull. Face masks of both men – a death-mask for Burke and a life-mask for Hare – form part of the
Edinburgh phrenology collection.
449:"One is tempted to believe phrenologists are right about habitual exercise of the mind altering form of head, & thus these qualities become hereditary." Charles Darwin (1838)
359:
of the brain. This attracted the opposition of almost all members of the Plinian Society and, again, Darwin observed the ensuing outrage. In his private notebooks, including the
227:, and that it was possible to determine character traits by examining the shape of a person's skull. This "craniological" aspect was greatly extended by his one-time disciple,
612:, but the impact of phrenological thinking pushed him into education. He became a famous lecturer and Regius Professor of Astronomy in Glasgow University, and his 1837 book
1520:
554:
some twenty years later, in 1859; the book was translated into many languages, and became a staple scientific text and a key fixture of modern scientific culture.
372:
in 1828. After a slow start, it became an international bestseller in the 19th century, with around 350,000 copies sold. Almost a century later, psychiatrist Sir
1601:
436:, which went on to become one of the best-selling books of the 19th century. However, despite the widespread interest in phrenology in the 1820s and 1830s, the
316:, while sympathetic to its materialist implications, rejected the unscientific nature of phrenology and did not embrace its speculative and reformist aspects.
568:
and later supported himself as a hired lecturer for literature, education, and phrenology. He became an educational reformer, a pioneering proponent of
1364:
Memoirs and Portraits of One Hundred Glasgow Men who have died during the last thirty years and in their lives did much to make the city what it now is
663:
17:
273:"Mental dispositions are determined by the size and constitution of the brain... and these are transmitted by hereditary descent..." George Combe
1281:
727:(1841–1931) invented a cephalometer which facilitated the measurement of cranial capacity and variation. In 1885, the German medical scientist
1621:
1468:
739:
being much in demand. Combe devoted his later years to international travel, lecturing on phrenology. He was preparing the ninth edition of
731:
launched a large scale craniometric investigation of the supposed racial stereotypes with decisively negative results for the proponents of
662:, published his research into the speech centres of the brain in 1861. In 1868, Broca presented his findings at the Norwich meeting of the
413:
made a living from phrenology travelling throughout Britain and Ireland. It was her son who left for Australia and published an account of
1566:
1136:
925:
867:
504:
179:
120:
808:
On 29 February 1924, Sir James Crichton-Browne (the son of William A.F. Browne) delivered the Ramsay Henderson Bequest Lecture entitled
281:
The Edinburgh Phrenological Society was founded on 22 February 1820, by the Combe brothers with the support of the Evangelical minister
1561:
572:
and – in 1871 – the first Professor of Political Economy (and Mercantile Law) at Edinburgh University. In later life, Hodgson lived at
1596:
1576:
127:. The Society's influence was greatest over its first two decades and declined in the 1840s; the final meeting was recorded in 1870.
1616:
773:, phrenology exerted an extraordinary influence on the Victorian literary imagination in the later 19th century, especially in the
699:
Interest in phrenology declined in Edinburgh in the 1840s. Some of the phrenologists' concerns drifted into the related fields of
650:
in 1840, and then much more extensively by the eccentric Brighton medical practitioner Arthur Ladbroke Wigan in his 1844 treatise
305:
516:
in the Summer of 1845. It became an international bestseller and a powerful public influence, situated midway between Combe's
174:
820:. Crichton-Browne did not remark, however, on his father's having joined the Society a century earlier, almost to the day.
428:
in 1834. The latter, especially, sold well in Great Britain and the United States, with numerous editions and reprintings.
1499:
1427:
1402:
1205:
1078:
836:
691:(second edition). Watson was unusual amongst phrenologists in explicitly disavowing phrenological ideas in later life.
1111:
1016:
843:
577:
289:
1161:
Kaufman, Matthew H. (October 1998). "The Edinburgh phrenological debate of 1823 held in the Royal Medical Society".
812:
in which he recorded a generous appreciation of the role of the Edinburgh phrenologists in the later development of
476:. Browne went on to a distinguished career as an asylum doctor and his internationally influential 1837 publication
1591:
1529:
485:
594:. In 1855, Laycock was appointed to the Chair of Medicine in Edinburgh University. In 1860, Laycock published his
142:
rather than philosophical or religious terms. Phrenologists discounted supernatural explanations and stressed the
531:
488:. In his later years, Browne returned to relationships of psychosis, brain injury and language in his 1872 paper
1586:
647:
235:
and saw it as a means of advancing society by social reform (improving the material conditions of human life).
355:
to listen. On 27 March 1827, Browne advanced phrenological theories concerning the human mind in terms of the
1581:
761:
587:
297:
308:, actually added to the glamour of phrenological concepts. Some anti-religionists, including the anatomist
268:, founder of the society, was a lawyer who devoted his later life to advancing phrenology around the world.
735:. Worldwide, interest in phrenology remained high throughout the nineteenth century, with George Combe's
45:
346:
In December 1826, the atheistic phrenologist William A.F. Browne caused a sensation at the university's
561:
184:
842:
The activities of the Edinburgh phrenologists have enjoyed an unusual afterlife in the history and
679:
394:
750:
The last recorded meeting of the Society took place in 1870. The Society's museum closed in 1886.
420:
Society co-founder and president Andrew Combe had two successful publications in the early 1830s:
1611:
1476:
1103:
659:
368:
301:
288:
Members published articles, gave lectures, and defended phrenology. Critics included philosopher
93:
The last recorded meeting of the Society took place in 1870. The Society's museum closed in 1886.
1008:
798:
778:
410:
402:
192:
1144:
933:
875:
1263:
373:
363:
written ten years later, Darwin commented sympathetically on the views of the phrenologists.
320:
170:
1044:
947:
981:
639:
565:
388:
151:
1295:
199:, a medical student in Edinburgh in 1825–7, took part in phrenological discussions at the
8:
1571:
712:
708:
605:
313:
188:
166:
147:
1342:
985:
550:
while on this Scottish trip, suggesting an element of mental distraction. He published
1178:
1096:
1001:
786:
744:
716:
643:
143:
139:
1174:
162:
as its formal procedures did not conform to the usual standards of scientific method.
1495:
1423:
1398:
1275:
1201:
1107:
1074:
1012:
897:
790:
591:
542:. At this time, Darwin was preparing for marriage with his religiously minded cousin
539:
382:
216:
204:
165:
Edinburgh phrenologists included George and Andrew Combe; asylum doctor and reformer
1359:
1182:
1545:
1376:
1243:
1170:
569:
240:
228:
774:
215:
Phrenology emerged from the views of the medical doctor and scientific researcher
847:
832:
817:
720:
469:
347:
200:
155:
678:. Like Robert Chambers, Watson later turned his energies to the question of the
480:
was dedicated to Andrew Combe. In 1866, after his twenty years of leadership at
1524:
782:
732:
728:
667:
513:
196:
534:
and his undergraduate haunts, recording his psychological speculations in the
1555:
1514:
724:
700:
627:
543:
466:
On Morbid Manifestations of the Organ of Language, as connected with Insanity
159:
124:
116:
1395:
Medicine, Mind, and the Double Brain: a study in nineteenth century thought
481:
351:
265:
203:
and returned to Edinburgh in 1838 when formulating his concepts concerning
112:
104:
83:
79:
39:
48:, Edinburgh bears sculpted portraits of prominent figures in the field of
1248:
1231:
1073:. Science, Technology and Culture 1700-1945. Ashgate Publishing Limited.
802:
794:
704:
340:
309:
282:
250:
123:; more than forty phrenological societies followed in other parts of the
1475:. School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh. Archived from
1143:. School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh. Archived from
932:. School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh. Archived from
638:
in which he speculated on the differential development of the two human
785:. Examples of phrenology's literary legacy feature in the works of Sir
655:
590:
was one of George Combe's "influential disciples". He was a pioneering
509:
356:
131:
49:
1366:. Vol. 2. Glasgow: James MacLehose & Sons. pp. 249–252.
813:
770:
414:
245:
135:
108:
1513: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
609:
547:
473:
336:
1198:
Hewett Cottrell Watson: Victorian Plant Ecologist and Evolutionist
898:"Records of the Phrenological Society of Edinburgh – Archives Hub"
646:
was picked up rather casually by the London society physician Sir
339:
in the Society, effectively silencing their critics. In response,
508:, written as he recovered from depression at his holiday home in
261:
1533:. Vol. 11. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 425–426.
573:
158:. Phrenology claimed to be scientific but is now regarded as a
777:
aesthetic, and comparable to the later cultural influences of
1420:
Faces of Degeneration: a European disorder, c. 1848 – c. 1918
1071:
Phrenology and the Origins of Victorian Scientific Naturalism
224:
401:
Phrenologists from the Society applied their methods to the
220:
380:
on its first appearance was received in Edinburgh with an
219:
in 18th-century Vienna. Gall suggested that facets of the
134:
is that the brain is the organ of the mind and that human
187:, economist and pioneer of women's education; astronomer
1607:
Former mental health organisations in the United Kingdom
1023:
Cultural Boundaries of Science: Credibility on the Line.
484:
asylum in Dumfries, Browne was elected President of the
146:. The Edinburgh phrenologists also acted as midwives to
1003:
Cultural Boundaries of Science: Credibility on the Line
972:
Van Wyhe, John (2004). "2004HisSc..42..313V Page 313".
743:
when he died while receiving hydrotherapy treatment at
350:
with an attack on the recently republished theories of
275:
The Constitution of Man in relation to External Objects
490:
Impairment of Language, The Result of Cerebral Disease
1397:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
850:), as an example of a discarded cultural production.
472:
to a disturbance in the neurological organization of
670:
published a searching review of this topic entitled
576:
outside Edinburgh, and was elected President of the
1242:(12). The Royal College of Psychiatrists: 748–751.
330:
Phrenological Journal and Magazine of Moral Science
115:. The Edinburgh Society was the first and foremost
1095:
1000:
664:British Association for the Advancement of Science
658:, encouraged by the French phrenologist/physician
1156:
1154:
386:, analogous to that afterwards stirred up by the
1553:
1455:Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
1422:. Ideas in Context. Cambridge University Press.
723:. In the 1870s, the eminent social psychologist
343:and other evangelical members left the Society.
1453:Mesmerized: Powers of Mind in Victorian Britain
1262:
1232:"Psychiatry in descent: Darwin and the Brownes"
564:joined the phrenology movement as a student at
1602:History of mental health in the United Kingdom
1151:
1102:. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. p.
652:A New View of Insanity: On the Duality of Mind
443:
1494:. Edinburgh: William Ramsay Henderson Trust.
654:. It did not achieve scientific status until
538:and teasing out the details of his theory of
460:: In 1832–1834, Browne published a paper in
300:. The hostility of other critics, including
1463:
1461:
505:Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation
496:, edited by his son James Crichton-Browne.
180:Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation
1492:Edinburgh Phrenological Society: A History
1392:
1318:
1316:
1280:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1131:
1129:
1127:
1125:
1123:
608:was originally educated and licensed as a
494:West Riding Lunatic Asylum Medical Reports
426:Physiology applied to Health and Education
177:, author of the 1844 proto-Darwinian book
38:
1357:
1270:, The Ramsay Henderson Lecture, Edinburgh
1256:
1247:
948:"The History of Phrenology: A Chronology"
920:
918:
1458:
1229:
1068:
1028:
1007:. University of Chicago Press. pp.
971:
753:
326:The Phrenological Journal and Miscellany
260:
256:
191:; and botanist and evolutionary thinker
1518:
1489:
1351:
1313:
1195:
1160:
1120:
14:
1554:
1093:
998:
915:
478:What Asylums Were, Are and Ought To Be
306:University of Edinburgh Medical School
138:can be usefully understood in broadly
1137:"The Rise of Phrenology in Edinburgh"
926:"The Fall of Phrenology in Edinburgh"
868:"The Rise of Phrenology in Edinburgh"
835:, and they are now on display at the
1622:Organizations disestablished in 1870
1417:
1360:"71. John Pringle Nichol, 1804–1859"
636:What Is The Use of the Double Brain?
319:In 1823, Andrew Combe addressed the
440:always struggled to make a profit.
150:and inspired a renewed interest in
111:lawyer, with his physician brother
24:
1567:1870 disestablishments in Scotland
837:Scottish National Portrait Gallery
422:Observations on Mental Derangement
25:
18:Phrenological Society of Edinburgh
1633:
1562:Organizations established in 1820
1539:
844:sociology of scientific knowledge
578:Educational Institute of Scotland
1597:Clubs and societies in Edinburgh
1577:Organisations based in Edinburgh
1530:Dictionary of National Biography
1519:Bettany, George Thomas (1887). "
1508:
486:Medico-Psychological Association
1617:1820 establishments in Scotland
1445:
1436:
1411:
1386:
1370:
1334:
1325:
1288:
1223:
1214:
1189:
1098:Encyclopedia of Medical History
1087:
614:The Architecture of the Heavens
244:published a hostile article by
223:corresponded to regions of the
101:Edinburgh Phrenological Society
44:The Society's former museum in
33:Edinburgh Phrenological Society
1548:at the University of Edinburgh
1200:. London: Ashgate Publishing.
1062:
1037:
992:
965:
940:
890:
860:
249:troubled by the philosophical
27:Learned society for phrenology
13:
1:
1347:(9th and 10th ed.), 1902
1175:10.1016/S0911-6044(98)00025-6
1045:"George Combe – Encyclopedia"
853:
762:The Hound of the Baskervilles
674:in the philosophical journal
464:in three serialised episodes
298:Francis Jeffrey, Lord Jeffrey
210:
1490:Kaufman, Matthew H. (2005).
1094:McGrew, Roderick E. (1985).
63:; 204 years ago
7:
1381:The Master and his Emissary
1163:Journal of Neurolinguistics
618:Memorials from Ben Rhydding
444:Influences from the society
304:, anatomy professor at the
10:
1638:
1196:Egerton, Frank N. (2003).
999:Gieryn, Thomas F. (1999).
694:
558:William Ballantyne Hodgson
532:Darwin revisited Edinburgh
185:William Ballantyne Hodgson
1393:Harrington, Anne (1987).
1358:MacLehose, James (1886).
682:, and, having bought the
632:The Phrenological Journal
462:The Phrenological Journal
89:
75:
57:
37:
689:On The Origin of Species
680:transmutation of species
552:On the Origin of Species
522:On the Origin of Species
395:On The Origin of Species
1592:History of neuroscience
1344:Encyclopædia Britannica
1069:Van Whye, John (2004).
872:phrenology.mvm.ed.ac.uk
826:The Story of The Brain.
741:The Constitution of Man
737:The Constitution of Man
660:Jean-Baptiste Bouillaud
518:The Constitution of Man
434:The Constitution of Man
378:The Constitution of Man
369:The Constitution of Man
366:George Combe published
302:Alexander Monro tertius
130:The central concept of
103:was founded in 1820 by
1451:Winter, Alison (1998)
1442:Kaufman (2005), p. 86.
1268:The Story of the Brain
1264:Crichton-Browne, James
1230:Walmsley, Tom (1993).
1220:Kaufman (2005), p. 93.
902:archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk
829:
810:The Story of the Brain
799:Robert Louis Stevenson
767:
624:Hewett Cottrell Watson
455:
411:Agnes Sillars Hamilton
403:Burke and Hare murders
292:and the editor of the
279:
269:
231:, who coined the term
193:Hewett Cottrell Watson
1587:History of psychology
1418:Pick, Daniel (1989).
1034:Kaufman (2005), p. 2.
822:
757:
754:Legacy of the Society
684:Phrenological Journal
630:published a paper in
447:
438:Phrenological Journal
374:James Crichton-Browne
321:Royal Medical Society
312:and the evolutionist
271:
264:
257:Founding and function
171:James Crichton-Browne
1582:History of Edinburgh
1266:(29 February 1924),
1249:10.1192/pb.17.12.748
1236:Psychiatric Bulletin
640:cerebral hemispheres
566:Edinburgh University
520:(1828) and Darwin's
389:Vestiges of Creation
357:Lamarckist evolution
290:Sir William Hamilton
152:psychiatric disorder
986:2004HisSc..42..313V
709:degeneration theory
602:John Pringle Nichol
492:, published in the
376:said of the book: "
314:Robert Edmond Grant
189:John Pringle Nichol
167:William A.F. Browne
148:evolutionary theory
34:
974:History of Science
787:Arthur Conan Doyle
745:Moor Park, Farnham
717:Arthur de Gobineau
644:cerebral asymmetry
270:
144:modularity of mind
140:neuropsychological
32:
1546:Anatomical Museum
1473:Anatomical Museum
1469:"The Death Masks"
1377:McGilchrist, Iain
1300:Portrait magazine
1141:Anatomical Museum
930:Anatomical Museum
791:George du Maurier
703:, psychiatry and
592:neurophysiologist
570:women's education
540:natural selection
383:odium theologicum
217:Franz Joseph Gall
205:natural selection
97:
96:
16:(Redirected from
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1534:
1512:
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1480:
1479:on 2 April 2015.
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1296:"Getting a head"
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1147:on 2 April 2015.
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952:victorianweb.org
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938:
937:
936:on 2 April 2015.
922:
913:
912:
910:
908:
894:
888:
887:
885:
883:
874:. Archived from
864:
707:, and also into
672:The Double Brain
642:. This theme of
328:, later renamed
294:Edinburgh Review
241:Edinburgh Review
229:Johann Spurzheim
71:
69:
64:
42:
35:
31:
21:
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1371:
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1335:
1331:Kaufman (2005).
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906:
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895:
891:
881:
879:
878:on 4 March 2016
866:
865:
861:
856:
848:science studies
833:Matthew Kaufman
818:neuropsychiatry
756:
721:Cesare Lombroso
697:
500:Robert Chambers
470:mental disorder
446:
348:Plinian Society
259:
213:
201:Plinian Society
175:Robert Chambers
156:moral treatment
67:
65:
62:
53:
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666:. In 1889,
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854:References
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