214:(e) For purposes of this section, "personal information" means an individual's first name or first initial and last name in combination with any one or more of the following data elements, when either the name or the data elements are not encrypted: (1) Social security number. (2) Driver's license number or California Identification Card number. (3) Account number, credit or debit card number, in combination with any required security code, access code, or password that would permit access to an individual's financial account. (f) For purposes of this section, "personal information" does not include publicly available information that is lawfully made available to the general public from federal, state, or local government records.
241:, in the sense that a person may not wish for it to become publicly known, without being personally identifiable. Moreover, sometimes multiple pieces of information, none sufficient by itself to uniquely identify an individual, may uniquely identify a person when combined; this is one reason that multiple pieces of evidence are usually presented at criminal trials. It has been shown that, in 1990, 87% of the population of the United States could be uniquely identified by gender,
3241:
3215:
2312:
1323:
2304:
163:
name, in official standards like the NIST Guide, demonstrates a proactive approach to ensuring robust privacy safeguards amid the dynamic landscape of data security. This integration into established standards is a foundational framework for organizations to adopt and implement effective measures in safeguarding individuals' personal information.
139:(HIPAA), PII items have been specifically defined. In broader data protection regimes such as the GDPR, personal data is defined in a non-prescriptive principles-based way. Information that might not count as PII under HIPAA can be personal data for the purposes of GDPR. For this reason, "PII" is typically deprecated internationally.
227:(SSN) without a name or some other associated identity or context information is not SB1386 "personal information", but it is PII. For example, the SSN 078-05-1120 by itself is PII, but it is not SB1386 "personal information". However the combination of a valid name with the correct SSN is SB1386 "personal information".
876:
Personal information removal services work by identifying and requesting data brokers to delete the personal information of their clients. This process can be manual or fully automated, but it is nevertheless complex because it involves dealing with numerous data brokers, each with different policies
162:
Information that can be used to distinguish or trace an individual's identity, such as their name, social security number, biometric records, etc. alone, or when combined with other personal or recognizing linked or linkable information, such as date and place of birth, as well as the mother's maiden
541:
Additional U.S.-specific personally identifiable information includes, but is not limited to, I-94 records, Medicaid ID numbers, and
Internal Revenue Service (I.R.S.) documentation. Exclusivity of personally identifiable information affiliated with the U.S. highlights national data security concerns
396:
On 1 June 2023, the Hong Kong Office of the
Privacy Commissioner for Personal Data published an investigation report on a data breach involving the unauthorised access of a credit reference database platform. The Report highlights the need for organizations to take adequate steps to protect personal
277:
deals with the protection of individual privacy, using the OECD Privacy
Principles from the 1980s to set up a broad, principles-based regulatory model (unlike in the US, where coverage is generally not based on broad principles but on specific technologies, business practices or data items). Section
218:
The concept of information combination given in the SB1386 definition is key to correctly distinguishing PII, as defined by OMB, from "personal information", as defined by SB1386. Information, such as a name, that lacks context cannot be said to be SB1386 "personal information", but it must be said
194:
Any information relating to an identified or identifiable natural person ('data subject'); an identifiable natural person is one who can be identified, directly or indirectly, in particular by reference to an identifier such as a name, an identification number, location data, an online identifier or
180:
Article 2a: 'personal data' shall mean any information relating to an identified or identifiable natural person ('data subject'); an identifiable person is one who can be identified, directly or indirectly, in particular by reference to an identification number or to one or more factors specific to
88:
Special
Publication 800-122 defines personally identifiable information as "any information about an individual maintained by an agency, including (1) any information that can be used to distinguish or trace an individual's identity, such as name, social security number, date and place of birth,
230:
The combination of a name with a context may also be considered PII; for example, if a person's name is on a list of patients for an HIV clinic. However, it is not necessary for the name to be combined with a context in order for it to be PII. The reason for this distinction is that bits of
523:(PHI), which is similar to PII. The U.S. Senate proposed the Privacy Act of 2005, which attempted to strictly limit the display, purchase, or sale of PII without the person's consent. Similarly, the (proposed) Anti-Phishing Act of 2005 attempted to prevent the acquiring of PII through
282:"personal information" means information or an opinion about an identified individual, or an individual who is reasonably identifiable whether the information or opinion is true or not; and whether the information or opinion is recorded in a material form or not.
512:, a United States federal law, establishes a Code of Fair Information Practice that governs the collection, maintenance, use, and dissemination of personally identifiable information about individuals that is maintained in systems of records by federal agencies.
879:
Companies offering personal information removal also face some issues. They struggle to ensure comprehensive data removal as new data brokers emerge and existing ones don’t always comply with removal requests. Most of them are also limited to certain regions or
1949:
356:
692:
The following are less often used to distinguish individual identity, because they are traits shared by many people. However, they are potentially PII, because they may be combined with other personal information to identify an individual.
397:
data as the mere imposition of contractual obligations and policies is insufficient if such obligations and policies are not effective or are not enforced. The Report also clarifies that credit data is a form of "sensitive" personal data.
484:
of 19 June 1992 (in force since 1993) has set up a protection of privacy by prohibiting virtually any processing of personal data which is not expressly authorized by the data subjects. The protection is subject to the authority of the
1423:"Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data (General Data Protection Regulation)"
932:(Taylor, 2004), two-sided markets (Cornière, 2011) and marketing strategies (Anderson and de Palma, 2012). The theories became complex, and showed that the impact of privacy on the economy highly depended on the context.
189:
rules, there has been a more specific notion that the data subject can potentially be identified through additional processing of other attributes—quasi- or pseudo-identifiers. In the GDPR, personal data is defined as:
260:". It is sometimes used to deter collaboration with law enforcement. On occasion, the doxing can trigger an arrest, particularly if law enforcement agencies suspect that the "doxed" individual may panic and disappear.
653:
The following data, often used for the express purpose of distinguishing individual identity, clearly classify as personally identifiable information under the definition used by the NIST (described in detail below):
151:. government used the term "personally identifiable" in 2007 in a memorandum from the Executive Office of the President, Office of Management and Budget (OMB), and that usage now appears in US standards such as the
89:
mother's maiden name, or biometric records; and (2) any other information that is linked or linkable to an individual, such as medical, educational, financial, and employment information." For instance, a user's
286:
It appears that this definition is significantly broader than the
Californian example given above, and thus that Australian privacy law may cover a broader category of data and information than in some US law.
130:
Important confusion arises around whether PII means information which is identifiable (that is, can be associated with a person) or identifying (that is, associated uniquely with a person, such that the PII
903:, though the costs of doing so can be unclear. In relation to companies, consumers often have "imperfect information regarding when their data is collected, with what purposes, and with what consequences".
1491:"Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 1995 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data"
808:
and can be exploited by individuals. For instance, data can be altered and used to create fake documents, hijack mail boxes and phone calls or harass people, as occurred in 2019 to a customer of the
96:
Personal data is defined under the GDPR as "any information which related to an identified or identifiable natural person". The IP address of an
Internet subscriber may be classed as personal data.
538:. The (proposed) Social Security Number Protection Act of 2005 and (proposed) Identity Theft Prevention Act of 2005 each sought to limit the distribution of an individual's social security number.
2733:
1713:
1327:
231:
information such as names, although they may not be sufficient by themselves to make an identification, may later be combined with other information to identify persons and expose them to harm.
914:
school claimed that protection of privacy could have a negative impact on the market because it could lead to incorrect and non-optimal decisions. Other researchers like Andrew F. Daughety and
921:
In the mid-1990s, Varian retook the
Chicago Boys approach and added a new externality, stating that the consumer would not always have perfect information on how their own data would be used.
302:
of a particular person using the rubric of 'we don't collect personal information' may find that this does not make sense under a broader definition like that in the
Australian Privacy Act.
448:
347:
European Union data protection law does not use the concept of personally identifiable information, and its scope is instead determined by non-synonymous, wider concept of "personal data".
992:
vary. In the United States there is no federal regulation protection for the consumer from data brokers, although some states have begun enacting laws individually. In the
European Union,
2077:
2842:
566:
requires organizations to notify individuals when PII (in combination with one or more additional, specific data elements) is known or believed to be acquired by an unauthorized person.
237:
When a person wishes to remain anonymous, descriptions of them will often employ several of the above, such as "a 34-year-old white male who works at Target". Information can still be
1116:
1988 (Cth) "personal information" also includes information from which the person's identity is "reasonably ascertainable", potentially covering some information not covered by PII.
925:
developed a model in which individuals own their data and have the ability to sell it as a product. He believed that such a system should not be regulated, to create a free market.
1622:
2290:
650:
is a physical sciences laboratory, and a non-regulatory agency of the United States
Department of Commerce. Its mission is to promote innovation and industrial competitiveness.
322:
2251:
815:
Another category can be referred to as financial identity theft, which usually entails bank account and credit card information being stolen, and then being used or sold.
329:
2837:
492:
Additionally, any person may ask in writing a company (managing data files) the correction or deletion of any personal data. The company must respond within thirty days.
2216:
Krombholz, Katharina; Merkl, Dieter; Weippl, Edgar (26 July 2012). "Fake Identities in Social Media: A Case Study on the Sustainability of the Facebook Business Model".
1566:
278:
6 has the relevant definition. The critical detail is that the definition of 'personal information' also applies to where the individual can be indirectly identified:
234:
According to the OMB, it is not always the case that PII is "sensitive", and context may be taken into account in deciding whether certain PII is or is not sensitive.
70:. Not all are equivalent, and for legal purposes the effective definitions vary depending on the jurisdiction and the purposes for which the term is being used. Under
2387:
2887:
2126:
1453:
822:) for celebrities to gather data from other users more easily. Even individuals can be concerned, especially for personal purposes (this is more widely known as
829:
The most critical information, such as one's password, date of birth, ID documents or social security number, can be used to log in to different websites (e.g.
899:
introduced "privacy economics", or the trade of personal data. The value of data can change over time and over different contexts. Disclosing data can reverse
2014:
2902:
2783:
486:
430:
351:
1377:
516:
136:
3114:
1653:
374:
2822:
818:
Personal data can also be used to create fake online identities, including fake accounts and profiles (which can be referred as identity cloning or
3079:
3018:
2907:
120:
17:
2068:
1257:
647:
85:
2773:
195:
to one or more factors specific to the physical, physiological, genetic, mental, economic, cultural or social identity of that natural person
107:
have made it easier to collect PII leading to a profitable market in collecting and reselling PII. PII can also be exploited by criminals to
1547:
746:, particularly the identification and prosecution of criminals, personally identifiable information is critical in establishing evidence in
2852:
2630:
869:
457:
436:
1630:
1597:
335:
1136:
996:
serves to regulate data brokers' operations. Some data brokers report to have large numbers of population data or "data attributes".
840:
Also, several agencies ask for discretion on subjects related to their work, for the safety of their employees. For this reason, the
210:
Another term similar to PII, "personal information", is defined in a section of the California data breach notification law, SB1386:
966:
but sometimes sourced privately, and selling or licensing such information to third parties for a variety of uses. Sources, usually
2862:
2778:
2768:
2258:
2619:
2606:
765:, which themselves are PII. However, gloves can also leave prints that are just as unique as human fingerprints. After collecting
1533:
2175:
1768:
1737:
1574:
848:
have similar policies, sometimes to the point where employees do not disclose to their friends that they work for the agency.
3094:
1896:
1233:
1206:
294:
businesses based in the US but surreptitiously collecting information from people in other countries in the form of cookies,
906:
Writing in 2015, Alessandro Acquisti, Curtis Taylor and Liad Wagman identified three "waves" in the trade of personal data:
2917:
2723:
2379:
3074:
2882:
2872:
2832:
841:
2539:
2814:
2788:
2748:
2410:
2134:
2036:
1814:
1028:
993:
604:
563:
362:
79:
1450:
1112:
privacy principles, the term used is more often "personal information", which may be somewhat broader: in Australia's
2991:
2912:
2897:
2793:
2657:
2200:
2159:
1271:
Schwartz, Paul M; Solove, Daniel (2014). "Reconciling Personal Information in the United States and European Union".
1068:
615:
505:
2326:
1877:"US-Centric vs. International Personally Identifiable Information: A Comparison Using the UT CID Identity Ecosystem"
2680:
2625:
2429:
Daughety, A.; Reinganum, J. (2010). "Public goods, social pressure, and the choice between privacy and publicity".
625:
1490:
2867:
2798:
2763:
469:
207:
personal data; it is the connection to the person that makes it personal data, not (as in PII) the value itself.
1473:
176:
A term similar to PII, "personal data", is defined in EU directive 95/46/EC, for the purposes of the directive:
3089:
3069:
3023:
2986:
2892:
2847:
1309:
658:
481:
82:(GDPR), the term "personal data" is significantly broader, and determines the scope of the regulatory regime.
2996:
2827:
2802:
2283:
557:
223:" has no meaning in the current context and is therefore not SB1386 "personal information", but it is PII. A
1548:"Comments of Latanya Sweeney, PhD on 'Standards of Privacy of Individually Identifiable Health Information'"
844:(DoD) has strict policies controlling release of personally identifiable information of DoD personnel. Many
2857:
1053:
959:
520:
1782:
1714:"Less Is (Not) More: The Need for Adequate Data Protection Practices When Monetizing Personal Information"
758:, skin, and hair colour, facial features, and personal marks such as tattoos, birthmarks, moles and scars.
127:
have enacted a series of legislation such as the GDPR to limit the distribution and accessibility of PII.
3261:
2877:
1810:
1422:
2612:
1451:
M-07-16 SUBJECT:Safeguarding Against and Responding to the Breach of Personally Identifiable Information
3231:
1678:
1144:
1048:
298:, trackers and the like may find that their preference to avoid the implications of wanting to build a
249:
1986:"201 CMR 17.00: Standards for The Protection of Personal Information of Residents of the Commonwealth"
988:
There are varying regulations around the world limiting the collection of information on individuals;
754:
Wearing masks, sunglasses, or clothing to obscure or completely hide distinguishing features, such as
115:
of a person, or to aid in the planning of criminal acts. As a response to these threats, many website
3109:
3053:
3033:
2758:
2718:
1759:"The Telecommunications (Lawful Business Practice) (Interception of Communications) Regulations 2000"
979:
2443:
2115:
John J. Harris, Disguised Handwriting, 43 J. Crim. L. Criminology & Police Sci. 685 (1952-1953)
632:
453:
The Telecommunications (Lawful Business Practice) (Interception of Communications) Regulations 2000
414:
407:
381:
2569:
Anderson, S.; de Palma, A. (2012). "Competition for attention in the information (overload) age".
1921:"HIGH-RISK SERIES Urgent Actions Are Needed to Address Cybersecurity Challenges Facing the Nation"
542:
and the influence of personally identifiable information in U.S. federal data management systems.
3104:
3099:
2971:
2753:
1551:
1083:
1017:
890:
357:
Convention for the Protection of Individuals with Regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data
203:
personal data, but that same value stored as part of a person's record as their "favorite color"
554:
The California state constitution declares privacy an inalienable right in Article 1, Section 1.
3276:
3271:
3145:
2743:
2738:
2685:
2438:
958:
that specializes in collecting personal data (such as income, ethnicity, political beliefs, or
662:
531:
291:
224:
100:
1196:
769:, law enforcement can then match them to gloves that they have collected as evidence. In many
472:
apply. New Zealand enacted the Privacy Act in 2020 to promote and protect individual privacy.
3124:
2695:
2650:
2482:
1699:
915:
900:
299:
2353:
2190:
2149:
1222:
Skiera, Bernd; Miller, Klaus; Jin, Yuxi; Kraft, Lennart; Laub, René; Schmitt, Julia (2022).
2943:
2728:
1985:
929:
834:
315:
918:
suggested that the opposite was true, and that absence of privacy would also lead to this.
424:, retained EU law, substantially the same as the EU GDPR with necessary amendments due to
8:
3160:
3028:
3013:
2963:
2700:
1038:
982:, court reports and purchase histories. The information from data brokers may be used in
845:
823:
680:
501:
124:
1512:
3286:
3281:
3200:
2586:
2520:
2233:
1902:
1763:
1732:
1288:
1251:
896:
856:
852:
747:
686:
588:: Standards for the Protection of Personal Information of Residents of the Commonwealth
1474:"Guide to Protecting the Confidentiality of Personally Identifiable Information (PII)"
1188:
608:
3170:
2953:
2582:
2196:
2155:
1950:"California Supreme Court Holds that Zip Code is Personal Identification Information"
1892:
1292:
1239:
1229:
1202:
1043:
1033:
1023:
922:
2590:
1906:
3266:
3218:
3084:
3043:
2981:
2933:
2690:
2643:
2578:
2551:
2510:
2448:
2237:
2225:
1884:
1598:"Anonymous's Operation Hiroshima: Inside the Doxing Coup the Media Ignored (VIDEO)"
1280:
983:
774:
274:
220:
2501:
Taylor, C. R. (2004). "Consumer privacy and the market for customer information".
773:
the act of wearing gloves itself while committing a crime can be prosecuted as an
569:
In 2011, the California State Supreme Court ruled that a person's ZIP code is PII.
2948:
2938:
2484:
Extensions to the theory of markets and privacy: Mechanics of pricing information
1457:
805:
619:
509:
1967:
1849:
1143:. Washington, DC: Department of Veterans Affairs. 6 January 2012. Archived from
3185:
3165:
3038:
1876:
1832:
975:
963:
819:
535:
332:
governs private corporations, unless there is equivalent provincial legislation
253:
186:
116:
112:
75:
71:
2229:
1888:
1758:
1243:
1167:
1159:
156:
Guide to Protecting the Confidentiality of Personally Identifiable Information
3255:
3155:
3150:
3048:
3003:
1403:
Nokhbeh, Razieh (2017). "A study of web privacy policies across industries".
1352:
770:
585:
148:
51:
2609:
A legal analysis of the new European regulatory framework about data privacy
2044:
1920:
1811:
Federal Act on Data Protection of 19 June 1992 (status as of 1 January 2014)
1727:
1137:"Management of Data Breaches Involving Sensitive Personal Information (SPI)"
3195:
2976:
1223:
1088:
1073:
989:
911:
788:
766:
755:
668:
181:
his physical, physiological, mental, economic, cultural or social identity;
750:. Criminals may go to great trouble to avoid leaving any PII, such as by:
3190:
2710:
2555:
1534:"Text of California Senate Bill SB 1386 ref paragraph SEC. 2 1798.29.(e)"
1078:
1063:
951:
943:
781:
762:
325:
and similar provincial legislation governs provincial government agencies
169:
2452:
2192:
Is It Safe? Protecting Your Computer, Your Business, and Yourself Online
2151:
Is It Safe? Protecting Your Computer, Your Business, and Yourself Online
199:
A simple example of this distinction: the color name "red" by itself is
3245:
3175:
2524:
809:
792:
731:
90:
2515:
591:
In 2013, the Massachusetts Supreme Court ruled that ZIP codes are PII.
3140:
1881:
2018 International Carnahan Conference on Security Technology (ICCST)
1284:
1011:
743:
717:
449:
Privacy and Electronic Communications (EC Directive) Regulations 2003
93:
is not classed as PII on its own, but is classified as a linked PII.
3240:
2620:
Power to the People! Giving Citizens their Personal Data Rights Back
256:, the practice of finding and releasing such information is called "
2354:"The best services for deleting yourself from the internet in 2024"
2176:"Card data of 20,000 Pakistani bank users sold on dark web: report"
1460:
FROM: Clay Johnson III, Deputy Director for Management (2007/05/22)
967:
830:
709:
674:
524:
338:
and other similar provincial legislation governs health information
242:
135:
them). In prescriptive data privacy regimes such as the US federal
108:
104:
1968:"NRS: CHAPTER 603A - SECURITY AND PRIVACY OF PERSONAL INFORMATION"
1654:"Doxed: how Sabu was outed by former Anons long before his arrest"
635:, which was ruled invalid by the European Court of Justice in 2020
54:, but the phrase it abbreviates has four common variants based on
2666:
1108:
In other countries with privacy protection laws derived from the
1058:
955:
421:
295:
2380:"What Are Data Removal Services, and What Data Can They Remove?"
2100:
Criminal Law and Procedure for the paralegal: a systems approach
1378:"European Court of Justice rules IP addresses are personal data"
2626:
Rethinking Personal Data New Lens Report – World Economic Forum
2291:
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
1201:. Indianapolis, IN, US: Pearson IT Certification. p. 349.
997:
971:
725:
577:
Nevada Revised Statutes 603A – Security of Personal Information
425:
257:
2607:
Six things you need to know about the new EU privacy framework
2466:
Varian, H. R. (1997). "Economic aspects of personal privacy".
3180:
787:
Masking their internet presence with methods such as using a
330:
Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act
323:
Ontario Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act
3119:
2631:
Why Consent is Different to Marketing Preferences – K Dewar
2409:
Acquisti, Alessandro; Taylor, Curtis; Wagman, Liad (2015).
2327:"How to remove your personal information from the Internet"
2305:"How to Remove Personal Information From Data Broker Sites"
2284:"Protection of victims of sexual violence: Lessons learned"
1109:
545:
152:
2635:
2168:
504:(Pub.L. 93–579, 88 Stat. 1896, enacted 31 December 1974,
388:
Further examples can be found on the EU privacy website.
158:(SP 800-122). The OMB memorandum defines PII as follows:
47:), is any information related to an identifiable person.
1623:"Did LulzSec Trick Police into Arresting the Wrong Guy?"
1567:"The FBI's warning about doxing was too little too late"
1000:
purports to have data from 2.5 billion different people.
1331:
1225:
The impact of the GDPR on the online advertising market
1198:
Security Program and Policies: Principles and Practices
78:
data protection regimes, which centre primarily on the
1875:
Rana, R.; Zaeem, R. N.; Barber, K. S. (October 2018).
859:, and victims of domestic violence and other threats.
837:) to gather more information and access more content.
305:
The term "PII" is not used in Australian privacy law.
3229:
2257:. United States Department of Defense. Archived from
648:
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
2408:
2215:
1221:
870:
Personal information removal service § Functionality
487:
Federal Data Protection and Information Commissioner
431:
Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights
352:
Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights
219:
to be PII as defined by OMB. For example, the name "
517:
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act
137:
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act
3115:International Association of Privacy Professionals
2468:Privacy and Self-regulation in the Information Age
2127:"EE failures show how data breaches damages lives"
2067:
530:U.S. lawmakers have paid special attention to the
375:Directive on Privacy and Electronic Communications
368:supersedes the Data Protection Directive, 95/46/EC
336:Ontario Personal Health Information Protection Act
2428:
1446:
1444:
468:The twelve Information Privacy Principles of the
3253:
3080:Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility
2614:Personal and professional information management
2568:
895:During the second half of the 20th century, the
1954:Bullivant Houser Bailey Business Matters eAlert
1874:
862:
851:Similar identity protection concerns exist for
1928:United States Government Accountability Office
1441:
1332:National Institute of Standards and Technology
1270:
722:Age, date of birth, especially if non-specific
86:National Institute of Standards and Technology
2651:
1528:
1526:
1405:Journal of Information Privacy & Security
365:adopted in April 2016; effective 25 May 2018
2069:"Police use glove prints to catch criminals"
1550:. Carnegie Mellon University. Archived from
628:, EU harmonisation, adopted on 10 July 2023
1825:
1823:
458:Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001
441:Employers' Data Protection Code of Practice
437:Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000
99:The concept of PII has become prevalent as
50:The abbreviation PII is widely used in the
2658:
2644:
2377:
1523:
1256:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2544:American Economic Journal: Microeconomics
2514:
2442:
2431:American Economic Journal: Microeconomics
1357:General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)
884:
2537:
2098:James W.H. McCord and Sandra L. McCord,
1820:
1783:"New Zealand - Data Protection Overview"
1168:"Data Security Breach Notification Laws"
546:State laws and significant court rulings
534:because it can be easily used to commit
2351:
1806:
1804:
1596:Sheets, Connor Adams (4 January 2012).
1468:
1466:
1402:
1165:
780:Avoiding writing anything in their own
318:governs the federal government agencies
14:
3254:
2500:
2480:
2465:
2315:from the original on 27 February 2024.
2188:
2147:
2124:
2092:
1839:, Éditions Loisirs et pédagogie, 2008.
1651:
1595:
1370:
1194:
377:, 2002/58/EC (the E-Privacy Directive)
170:https://www.nist.gov/privacy-framework
3095:Electronic Privacy Information Center
2639:
2378:Fadilpašić, Sead (16 November 2023).
2065:
1702:. European Commission. 11 April 2017.
1564:
614:The Privacy Act of 1974, codified at
263:
2390:from the original on 17 January 2024
2352:Osborne, Charlie (8 December 2023).
2080:from the original on 11 January 2022
2029:
1817:(page visited on 18 September 2016).
1801:
1479:. NIST. Special Publication 800-122.
1463:
1304:
1302:
970:-based since the 1990s, may include
962:) or data about people, mostly from
928:In the 2000s, researchers worked on
804:Personal data is a key component of
410:, which in part implements the GDPR
27:Information that identifies a person
3075:Center for Democracy and Technology
2218:Journal of Service Science Research
2066:Sawer, Patrick (13 December 2008).
2017:. European Commission. 10 July 2023
842:United States Department of Defense
791:to appear to be connecting from an
41:personally identifiable information
24:
1815:Federal Chancellery of Switzerland
1310:"NIST Special Publication 800-122"
1029:General Data Protection Regulation
799:
641:
519:(HIPAA) is to protect a patient's
515:One of the primary focuses of the
363:General Data Protection Regulation
80:General Data Protection Regulation
25:
3298:
2600:
2252:"Memorandum for DoD FOIA Offices"
1716:. Mayer Brown. 28 September 2023.
1565:Ragan, Steve (19 December 2011).
1299:
1264:
1069:Privacy laws of the United States
877:and procedures for data removal.
812:mobile phone operator in the UK.
400:
342:
3239:
3214:
3213:
2681:Right of access to personal data
2583:10.1111/j.1756-2171.2011.00155.x
1991:. Commonwealth of Massachusetts.
1326: This article incorporates
1321:
942:This section is an excerpt from
868:This section is an excerpt from
495:
444:Model Contracts for Data Exports
18:Personal identifying information
2562:
2531:
2494:
2474:
2459:
2422:
2402:
2371:
2345:
2319:
2297:
2276:
2244:
2209:
2182:
2141:
2125:Davies, Tom (8 February 2019).
2118:
2109:
2059:
2007:
1995:
1978:
1960:
1942:
1913:
1868:
1842:
1775:
1751:
1720:
1706:
1692:
1671:
1645:
1615:
1589:
1558:
1540:
1505:
1483:
1415:
1396:
1342:Section 3.3.3 "Identifiability"
1166:Stevens, Gina (10 April 2012).
986:used by employers and housing.
936:
3090:Electronic Frontier Foundation
3070:American Civil Liberties Union
3024:Privacy-enhancing technologies
2178:. Dunya News. 6 November 2018.
2002:Tyler v. Michaels Stores, Inc.
1652:Bright, Peter (7 March 2012).
1629:. 28 July 2011. Archived from
1345:
1336:
1215:
1129:
1102:
659:National identification number
597:
482:Federal Act on Data Protection
475:
463:
168:NIST, NIST Privacy Framework,
142:
13:
1:
2571:The RAND Journal of Economics
2503:The RAND Journal of Economics
1123:
558:Online Privacy Protection Act
1602:International Business Times
1054:Protected health information
863:Personal information removal
737:
626:EU–US Data Privacy Framework
521:Protected Health Information
391:
268:
123:, and lawmakers such as the
7:
2815:Data protection authorities
2665:
2004:, 984N.E.2d 737, 739 (2013)
1195:Greene, Sari Stern (2014).
1004:
10:
3303:
3019:Social networking services
1728:"Data Protection Act 2018"
1049:Personal Information Agent
941:
888:
867:
795:unassociated with oneself.
761:Wearing gloves to conceal
245:, and full date of birth.
3209:
3133:
3110:Global Network Initiative
3062:
3054:Virtual assistant privacy
3034:Privacy-invasive software
2962:
2926:
2813:
2709:
2673:
2230:10.1007/s12927-012-0008-z
2035:
1889:10.1109/CCST.2018.8585479
687:Debit/credit card numbers
308:
119:specifically address the
2538:Cornière, A. D. (2011).
2412:The Economics of Privacy
2189:Miller, Michael (2008).
2148:Miller, Michael (2008).
1513:"What is personal data?"
1095:
415:Data Protection Act 1998
408:Data Protection Act 2018
382:Data Retention Directive
3105:Future of Privacy Forum
3100:European Digital Rights
1456:8 February 2020 at the
1427:European Data Consilium
1084:Self-sovereign identity
1018:Bundesdatenschutzgesetz
980:social networking sites
891:Surveillance capitalism
384:, 2006/24/EC, Article 5
3146:Cellphone surveillance
3063:Advocacy organizations
2686:Expectation of privacy
2015:"EU-US data transfers"
1328:public domain material
885:Trade of personal data
663:Social Security number
532:social security number
292:behavioral advertising
290:In particular, online
284:
225:Social Security Number
216:
197:
183:
174:
101:information technology
3125:Privacy International
2696:Right to be forgotten
1850:"Privacy Act of 1974"
1769:The National Archives
1738:The National Archives
1273:California Law Review
1228:. Frankfurt am Main.
916:Jennifer F. Reinganum
901:information asymmetry
846:intelligence agencies
300:psychographic profile
280:
212:
192:
178:
160:
2556:10.1257/mic.20130138
2540:"Search advertising"
954:is an individual or
930:price discrimination
835:account verification
633:EU–US Privacy Shield
37:personal information
3161:Global surveillance
3029:Privacy engineering
3014:Personal identifier
2964:Information privacy
2701:Post-mortem privacy
2481:Laudon, K. (1997).
2453:10.1257/mic.2.2.191
2137:on 5 February 2021.
2037:"Anonymity and PII"
1972:www.leg.state.nv.us
1493:. Eur-lex.europa.eu
1039:Personal identifier
502:Privacy Act of 1974
125:European Parliament
3262:Identity documents
3201:Personality rights
2333:. 27 December 2023
2311:. 24 August 2022.
2195:. Que. p. 6.
2154:. Que. p. 4.
2041:cookieresearch.com
1764:legislation.gov.uk
1733:legislation.gov.uk
1679:"Privacy Act 1988"
1633:on 29 October 2013
1577:on 31 October 2012
910:In the 1970s, the
897:digital revolution
853:witness protection
748:criminal procedure
273:In Australia, the
264:Laws and standards
113:steal the identity
3227:
3226:
3171:Mass surveillance
1898:978-1-5386-7931-9
1789:. 5 December 2023
1700:"Data protection"
1627:The Atlantic Wire
1554:on 28 March 2009.
1384:. 19 October 2016
1235:978-3-9824173-0-1
1208:978-0-7897-5167-6
1044:Personal identity
1034:Non-personal Data
1024:De-identification
984:background checks
923:Kenneth C. Laudon
609:§ 1028(d)(7)
16:(Redirected from
3294:
3244:
3243:
3235:
3217:
3216:
3085:Data Privacy Lab
3044:Privacy software
2691:Right to privacy
2660:
2653:
2646:
2637:
2636:
2595:
2594:
2566:
2560:
2559:
2535:
2529:
2528:
2518:
2498:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2478:
2472:
2471:
2463:
2457:
2456:
2446:
2426:
2420:
2419:
2417:
2406:
2400:
2399:
2397:
2395:
2375:
2369:
2368:
2366:
2364:
2349:
2343:
2342:
2340:
2338:
2323:
2317:
2316:
2301:
2295:
2294:
2288:
2280:
2274:
2273:
2271:
2269:
2264:on 6 August 2020
2263:
2256:
2248:
2242:
2241:
2213:
2207:
2206:
2186:
2180:
2179:
2172:
2166:
2165:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2133:. Archived from
2122:
2116:
2113:
2107:
2096:
2090:
2089:
2087:
2085:
2071:
2063:
2057:
2056:
2054:
2052:
2043:. Archived from
2033:
2027:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2011:
2005:
1999:
1993:
1992:
1990:
1982:
1976:
1975:
1964:
1958:
1957:
1946:
1940:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1930:. September 2018
1925:
1917:
1911:
1910:
1883:. pp. 1–5.
1872:
1866:
1865:
1863:
1861:
1846:
1840:
1831:
1827:
1818:
1808:
1799:
1798:
1796:
1794:
1779:
1773:
1772:
1755:
1749:
1748:
1747:
1745:
1724:
1718:
1717:
1710:
1704:
1703:
1696:
1690:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1675:
1669:
1668:
1666:
1664:
1649:
1643:
1642:
1640:
1638:
1619:
1613:
1612:
1610:
1608:
1593:
1587:
1586:
1584:
1582:
1573:. Archived from
1562:
1556:
1555:
1544:
1538:
1537:
1530:
1521:
1520:
1509:
1503:
1502:
1500:
1498:
1487:
1481:
1480:
1478:
1470:
1461:
1448:
1439:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1419:
1413:
1412:
1400:
1394:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1374:
1368:
1367:
1365:
1363:
1349:
1343:
1340:
1334:
1325:
1324:
1320:
1314:
1306:
1297:
1296:
1285:10.15779/Z38Z814
1268:
1262:
1261:
1255:
1247:
1219:
1213:
1212:
1192:
1186:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1172:
1163:
1157:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1133:
1117:
1106:
960:geolocation data
857:women's shelters
775:inchoate offense
681:Driver's license
611:
470:Privacy Act 1993
275:Privacy Act 1988
172:
121:gathering of PII
117:privacy policies
35:, also known as
21:
3302:
3301:
3297:
3296:
3295:
3293:
3292:
3291:
3252:
3251:
3250:
3238:
3230:
3228:
3223:
3205:
3129:
3058:
2958:
2922:
2809:
2803:amended in 2020
2705:
2669:
2664:
2603:
2598:
2567:
2563:
2536:
2532:
2499:
2495:
2487:
2479:
2475:
2464:
2460:
2444:10.1.1.544.9031
2427:
2423:
2415:
2407:
2403:
2393:
2391:
2376:
2372:
2362:
2360:
2350:
2346:
2336:
2334:
2325:
2324:
2320:
2303:
2302:
2298:
2286:
2282:
2281:
2277:
2267:
2265:
2261:
2254:
2250:
2249:
2245:
2214:
2210:
2203:
2187:
2183:
2174:
2173:
2169:
2162:
2146:
2142:
2123:
2119:
2114:
2110:
2097:
2093:
2083:
2081:
2064:
2060:
2050:
2048:
2047:on 17 June 2011
2034:
2030:
2020:
2018:
2013:
2012:
2008:
2000:
1996:
1988:
1984:
1983:
1979:
1966:
1965:
1961:
1948:
1947:
1943:
1933:
1931:
1923:
1919:
1918:
1914:
1899:
1873:
1869:
1859:
1857:
1854:www.justice.gov
1848:
1847:
1843:
1829:
1828:
1821:
1809:
1802:
1792:
1790:
1781:
1780:
1776:
1757:
1756:
1752:
1743:
1741:
1726:
1725:
1721:
1712:
1711:
1707:
1698:
1697:
1693:
1683:
1681:
1677:
1676:
1672:
1662:
1660:
1650:
1646:
1636:
1634:
1621:
1620:
1616:
1606:
1604:
1594:
1590:
1580:
1578:
1571:The Tech Herald
1563:
1559:
1546:
1545:
1541:
1532:
1531:
1524:
1511:
1510:
1506:
1496:
1494:
1489:
1488:
1484:
1476:
1472:
1471:
1464:
1458:Wayback Machine
1449:
1442:
1432:
1430:
1421:
1420:
1416:
1401:
1397:
1387:
1385:
1382:The Irish Times
1376:
1375:
1371:
1361:
1359:
1353:"Personal Data"
1351:
1350:
1346:
1341:
1337:
1322:
1312:
1308:
1307:
1300:
1269:
1265:
1249:
1248:
1236:
1220:
1216:
1209:
1193:
1189:
1179:
1177:
1170:
1164:
1160:
1150:
1148:
1135:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1121:
1120:
1107:
1103:
1098:
1093:
1007:
1002:
1001:
947:
939:
893:
887:
882:
881:
873:
865:
806:online identity
802:
800:Personal safety
740:
644:
642:NIST definition
631:supersedes the
603:
600:
548:
498:
478:
466:
413:supersedes the
403:
394:
345:
311:
271:
266:
173:
167:
145:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3300:
3290:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3249:
3248:
3225:
3224:
3222:
3221:
3210:
3207:
3206:
3204:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3186:Search warrant
3183:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3166:Identity theft
3163:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3137:
3135:
3131:
3130:
3128:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3072:
3066:
3064:
3060:
3059:
3057:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3039:Privacy policy
3036:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
3000:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2979:
2974:
2968:
2966:
2960:
2959:
2957:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2930:
2928:
2924:
2923:
2921:
2920:
2918:United Kingdom
2915:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2833:European Union
2830:
2825:
2819:
2817:
2811:
2810:
2808:
2807:
2806:
2805:
2791:
2789:United Kingdom
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2749:European Union
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2715:
2713:
2707:
2706:
2704:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2677:
2675:
2671:
2670:
2663:
2662:
2655:
2648:
2640:
2634:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2617:
2610:
2602:
2601:External links
2599:
2597:
2596:
2561:
2550:(3): 156–188.
2530:
2509:(4): 631–650.
2493:
2473:
2458:
2437:(2): 191–221.
2421:
2401:
2370:
2344:
2318:
2296:
2275:
2243:
2224:(2): 175–212.
2208:
2201:
2181:
2167:
2160:
2140:
2131:PrivSec Report
2117:
2108:
2091:
2058:
2028:
2006:
1994:
1977:
1959:
1941:
1912:
1897:
1867:
1856:. 16 June 2014
1841:
1833:Cesla Amarelle
1819:
1800:
1774:
1750:
1719:
1705:
1691:
1670:
1644:
1614:
1588:
1557:
1539:
1522:
1504:
1482:
1462:
1440:
1429:. 11 June 2015
1414:
1395:
1369:
1344:
1335:
1298:
1263:
1234:
1214:
1207:
1187:
1158:
1147:on 26 May 2015
1127:
1125:
1122:
1119:
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1100:
1099:
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1092:
1091:
1086:
1081:
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1056:
1051:
1046:
1041:
1036:
1031:
1026:
1021:
1014:
1008:
1006:
1003:
976:electoral roll
964:public records
948:
940:
938:
935:
934:
933:
926:
919:
886:
883:
874:
866:
864:
861:
820:identity fraud
801:
798:
797:
796:
785:
778:
759:
739:
736:
735:
734:
729:
723:
720:
715:
712:
707:
704:
701:
698:
690:
689:
684:
678:
672:
666:
643:
640:
639:
638:
637:
636:
623:
612:
599:
596:
595:
594:
593:
592:
589:
582:Massachusetts
580:
579:
578:
572:
571:
570:
567:
561:
560:(OPPA) of 2003
555:
547:
544:
536:identity theft
497:
494:
477:
474:
465:
462:
461:
460:
454:
451:
445:
442:
439:
433:
428:
419:
418:
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402:
401:United Kingdom
399:
393:
390:
386:
385:
378:
371:
370:
369:
359:
354:
344:
343:European Union
341:
340:
339:
333:
326:
319:
310:
307:
270:
267:
265:
262:
254:Internet slang
165:
144:
141:
76:United Kingdom
72:European Union
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3299:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3277:Data security
3275:
3273:
3272:Personal life
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3259:
3257:
3247:
3242:
3237:
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3233:
3220:
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3208:
3202:
3199:
3197:
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3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3156:Eavesdropping
3154:
3152:
3151:Data security
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3138:
3136:
3132:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
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3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3067:
3065:
3061:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3049:Secret ballot
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3009:Personal data
3007:
3005:
3002:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
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2983:
2980:
2978:
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2901:
2899:
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2821:
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2888:South Korea
2878:Philippines
2868:Netherlands
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2784:Switzerland
2764:New Zealand
2622:– J Cromack
2394:29 November
2363:20 February
1934:16 November
1830:(in French)
1771:, SI 2000/1
1079:Obfuscation
1064:Privacy law
952:data broker
944:Data broker
782:handwriting
620:§ 552a
598:Federal law
551:California
510:§ 552a
476:Switzerland
464:New Zealand
316:Privacy Act
143:Definitions
68:identifying
3256:Categories
3176:Panopticon
2799:California
2674:Principles
2516:10161/2627
1860:6 December
1663:23 October
1637:23 October
1581:23 October
1411:: 169–185.
1362:23 October
1244:1303894344
1124:References
889:See also:
880:countries.
855:programs,
833:reuse and
793:IP address
732:Web cookie
221:John Smith
133:identifies
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3287:Anonymity
3282:Data laws
3141:Anonymity
2977:Financial
2954:Workplace
2944:Education
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2823:Australia
2779:Sri Lanka
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2084:20 August
2074:Telegraph
2021:12 August
1744:14 August
1607:12 August
1517:TrueVault
1497:20 August
1293:141313154
1252:cite book
1012:Anonymity
978:records,
744:forensics
738:Forensics
718:Telephone
697:Full name
605:18 U.S.C.
392:Hong Kong
269:Australia
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2577:: 1–25.
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1793:14 March
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2997:Twitter
2949:Medical
2939:Digital
2858:Ireland
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2828:Denmark
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2667:Privacy
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2293:. 2019.
2268:1 April
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1433:3 April
1175:fas.org
1059:Privacy
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728:or race
714:Country
671:numbers
661:(e.g.,
622:et seq.
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564:SB 1386
422:UK GDPR
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250:hacker
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2734:China
2587:S2CID
2521:JSTOR
2488:(PDF)
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3120:NOYB
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