History of personal computers

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lowercase video terminal, printer, and high-level languages". The author reported that when he needed to purchase such a computer quickly he did so at a local store for $ 6000 in cash, and cited it as an example of "what the state of the art is at present ... as a mass-produced product". By early that year Radio Shack, Commodore, and Apple manufactured the vast majority of the one half-million microcomputers that existed. As component prices continued to fall, many companies entered the computer business. This led to an explosion of low-cost machines known as home computers that sold millions of units before the market imploded in a

1332:. Around this time, a Q1 MicroLite was also introduced, incorporating the Lite's plasma display and printer but only one of its two floppy drives into an identical case. There also seems to have been a Q1 model with an enclosure, printer, and display identical to that of the second-generation Lite/MicroLite, but lacking both floppy drives; and yet another, with a slightly modified case, which lacked both the integrated printer and floppy drives entirely. (The former of these two was incorrectly labeled as a first-generation 1972 Q1 when a unit of this model was found in early 2024.) 2897: 1013: 2482: 4435: 4235: 1811: 3362: 1968: 3853:

feel. The user would have to learn how to use each title separately as opposed to intuitively understanding it. There were also no standards or consistency in the types of pointing device supported and a particular brand of mouse may or may not work. The rise of GUI based operating systems would bring consistency to the user experience and also deliver a toolbox of useful library routines for software to draw upon. Each individual software title would no longer have to code the routines necessary to draw a window or fonts in varying sizes.

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individual use, as opposed to a mainframe computer where the end user's requests are filtered through operating staff, or a time sharing system in which one large processor is shared by many individuals. After the development of the microprocessor, individual personal computers were low enough in cost that they eventually became affordable consumer goods. Early personal computers – generally called microcomputers – were sold often in electronic kit form and in limited numbers, and were of interest mostly to hobbyists and technicians.

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business leading to a proliferation of tiny brands that came and went amongst the much larger names. IBM's pricing was undercut to the point where they were no longer the significant force in development, leaving only the PC standard they had established. Microsoft was however left in a strong commercial position, being a supplier to most of the clones and would begin offering OEM versions of MS-DOS aimed at small-scale system builders as opposed to larger companies in 1986.

1187: 1408: 2693: 382: 2147: 2099: 1675: 2804: 4139: 3509: 3324:, Digital Research co-founder and Kildall's wife, who handled much of the business side of the company and departed. In reality the barrier was overcome and Kildall did personally meet with IBM, notwithstanding a second myth that he was away flying his personal plane. He was actually at a pre-arranged meeting with a customer on the morning IBM arrived but was available later in the day. Kildall offered Digital Research's more advanced 1103: 608:, and others. By today's standards, they were very large (about the size of a refrigerator) and cost prohibitive (typically tens of thousands of US dollars). However, they were much smaller, less expensive, and generally simpler to operate than many of the mainframe computers of the time. Therefore, they were accessible for individual laboratories and research projects. Minicomputers largely freed these organizations from the 4310: 3129:, the practice of a company owning many of its suppliers. Particularly, the ownership of MOS Technology put Commodore in a dominating position as they were also a chip supplier to some of their competitors including Atari and Apple. Commodore's sharp and sudden price drops did not always please retailers who were left holding stock on which they would make a loss and Commodore was sometimes forced into compensating them. 814: 35: 4301:, which was produced until 2008. RISC OS continued beyond the end of the Risc PC in a limited form and was used in a small number of other machines and embedded devices. RISC OS is still available after ultimately becoming an open source product in 2018 and there is a version that can run the on the Raspberry Pi. The Acorn ARM CPU went on to substantial success in other markets with billions of chips manufactured. 2742: 3671: 2526:

and Expansion Interface (spontaneous reboots) and keyboard bounce (keystrokes would randomly repeat), and the earliest versions of TRSDOS similarly had technical troubles. Though these issues were quickly or eventually resolved, the computer suffered in some quarters from a reputation for poor build quality. Nevertheless, all the early microcomputer manufacturers experienced similar difficulties. Since the

4096: 3267: 1465: 1456:. When initially switched on, a computer needs to understand how to read its initial program (such as an operating system) from disk. The earliest machines did not contain the relevant software to do this and the machine would do nothing at all when initially powered on. A simple program informing the machine how to read a larger program from attached storage could be entered on the front panel. 2835:, a continuous loop tape system intended to have performance sitting somewhere between disk and cassette but at a lower price than a disk drive. The QL was not a commercial success, in part due to issues with reliability but also the ascent of the IBM PC in business with which it was not compatible. Production had been discontinued by 1985. The same technology was subsequently re-used in the 3718:, which was suggested by Nicholson, and would be central to the graphical performance of the Amiga. This was a chip for moving blocks of data at high speed and could also concurrently modify and combine blocks in various ways. This allowed regions of graphics to be copied very rapidly around the display without the involvement of the CPU. The concept wasn't new, it originally came from the 2307: 2592: 3349:. Digital Research accepted this deal believing the market would choose their version given the large existing base of software support. However, IBM offered PC-DOS at only $ 40 but CP/M-86 was marketed at $ 240, which made the latter uncompetitive and porting software to PC-DOS was not difficult. Digital Research would later return to compete with MS-DOS in form of the compatible 1626:(O/S) was an optional extra for personal computers. It was common to run software directly on the machine with no O/S loaded at all. An application would load from disk or tape and then when a different application was required, the machine would be reset and a different disk inserted. Particularly, games software would operate in this way to reclaim the memory that the O/S used. 2127:

internal architecture of the machines is not usually dissimilar and games consoles can almost always in theory be used as a general purpose personal computer with the addition of relevant software and peripherals. In fact a few later games consoles would be essentially identical to released models of personal computers but just presented in a different format. The 1990 Commodore

2244:, when storing multiple files on a cassette the user would need to manually fast-forward the tape to the relevant location of the file to avoid waiting for the device to read the entire length of the cassette (which might be 30 minutes or more). To assist in the process a tape counter would be provided such that the user could note down the position of the file on the tape. 1615: 2451:" due to the keys' resemblance to the popular gum candy. This was addressed in the upgraded "dash N" and "dash B" versions of the 2001, which put the cassette outside the case, and included a much larger keyboard with a full stroke non-click motion. Internally a newer and simpler motherboard was used, along with an upgrade in memory to 8, 16, or 32 KB, known as the 1718:

uptake to only the enthusiast market. Assembling a kit computer necessitated soldering skills, the ability to identify electronic components, access to test equipment and fault finding knowledge. The kit format though enabled small organisations with no manufacturing facility or experience to release a machine with little capital required and low commercial risk.

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peripherals to raise money for the new venture. By 1983 Amiga were running out of money and approached Atari for extra financing, which was agreed. By 1984 Atari was losing money and Amiga had a clause in their contract with Atari that they could buy-out control of the machine for half a million dollars. Commodore was looking for a new design to replace the

2039:, which had 25 commands and fit in 4 KB of memory. Allen flew to a meeting with MITS and amazingly the interpreter worked despite never having been tested on a real Altair. MITS then agreed to distribute BASIC and Microsoft would produce three different versions, adding an edition that required 8K of memory and an "expanded" edition with more features. 2402: 1630:

entirely different personal computers would emerge with incompatible hardware and it was helpful to have a unified platform where software could be written once and would run across all of them. As the cost of memory fell, demand would increase to have more than one program loaded simultaneously. An operating system would help solve these problems.

3320:, who was already providing a BASIC interpreter amongst other software for the PC. CP/M was a popular and widely supported operating system for personal computers at the time and would not have been an unexpected choice for the IBM machine. A long standing industry myth persists that IBM were unable to negotiate a non-disclosure agreement with 1241:, realised the design would be too expensive. He suggested combining the multiple CPU chips requested by Busicom into a single chip (a technique which generally reduces product cost because there are fixed costs associated with producing each individual device) and also reducing the complexity. This design was later improved by 4282:

business applications were not natively available and developer interest in the platform waned. The capability of RISC OS to run entirely from ROM and the use of a low power CPU made it suited for embedded applications. RISC OS was used in a number of products independently of the Risc PC hardware, such as in the Oracle

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business personal computer. Consequently, a workstation is usually more expensive and is marketed towards high-end professional use cases. Workstations are often aimed at very specific market niches such as scientific computing or graphics production that have requirements not fulfilled by mainstream business machines.

694:. This meant that they were still large and difficult to manufacture just like their mainframe predecessors. After the "computer-on-a-chip" was commercialized, the cost to manufacture a computer system dropped dramatically. The arithmetic, logic, and control functions that previously occupied several costly 1436:, consisting of LEDs and toggle switches, was a distinctive feature of many 1970s personal computers that is not usually seen on modern machines. The panel could be used to enter programs into the machine, but the process is particularly laborious. A memory address can be set on the toggle switches in 4025:

In subsequent years specialist workstation vendors declined as the performance of commodity PCs strengthened and became viable in the niches workstations would traditionally occupy. Personal computers described as workstations became more likely to be based around the standard PC architecture and use

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are a class of personal computer. The term workstation is a marketing moniker used to differentiate a personal computer from competing products. There is no strict technical definition as to what comprises a workstation other than it will usually be expected to have higher performance than an average

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emerged around June 1984 (derived from the earlier W windowing environment). At the time, Unix personal computers were not commonly encountered by the general public, being mostly in the form of very expensive workstations found in academia and specialist applications. X Window System continued to be

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A large number of other companies would release clones. Through the 1980s sources for every component of an IBM PC gradually became available at retail such that they could just be slotted together without any electronics production being needed. Any organisation of any size could now be in the clone

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The marketing might of IBM made the PC platform an attractive prospect for clone makers as it would likely have significant success and other manufacturers could potentially take a slice of the sales. The idea of cloning computers was not new and the IBM was not the only platform that was a target of

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Texas Instruments, at the time the world's largest chip manufacturer, decided to enter the home computer market with the TI-99/4. The first home computer designed around a 16-bit microprocessor, its specs on paper were far ahead of the competition, and Texas Instruments had enormous cash reserves and

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for printers. With the (later) LDOS operating system, double-sided 80-track floppy drives were supported, and features such as Disk Basic with support for overlays and suspended/background programs, device independent data redirection, Job Control Language (batch processing), flexible backup and file

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had approached Intel in 1969 for a set of several separate chips to implement a CPU for their calculator products. They had the idea of building the calculator from a standardised general purpose computer that they could re-program to implement different models for use in different markets. According

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to develop a single-chip solution with similar functionality. In the end, the chip did not meet CTC's requirements and was not used. A deal was made that in return for not charging CTC for the development work, Intel could instead sell the processor as their own product (along with the supporting ICs

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was amongst its first owners. Built without integrated circuits or microprocessors, it used only transistors, resistors and condensers for its processing, the Programma 101 had features found in modern personal computers, such as memory, keyboard, printing unit, magnetic card reader/recorder, control

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as the 610 Auto-Point in 1957. The machine consisted of a large cabinet but could fit in a conventional office and required no specialist arrangements for air conditioning or power. It was intended to be used by only one operator and was symbolically programmable using a keyboard. With a price tag of

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While these designs were being developed, the Trinity machines hit the market with considerable fanfare. Atari's management decided to change their work to a home computer system instead. Their knowledge of the home market through the VCS resulted in machines that were almost indestructible and just

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was available through most of the history of the widely available personal computer and some form of floppy disk interface could usually be found for most machines. However, the peripherals were initially expensive, often costing as much as or significantly more than the computer itself. The cost of

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released in 1976 and later rebranded as a Commodore product. These were not kits intended to be general purpose personal computers but instead would demonstrate the basics of computer programming and hardware to enthusiasts, hobbyists and commercial users. Educational kits would include only limited

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magazine in 1973. The device was not a computer but demonstrated how many techniques that would shortly become standard features of personal computers could be implemented at an affordable price. The device showed how characters could be typed on a keyboard, rendered on a domestic television set and

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with or without a selection of parts, to partially completed boards with some components soldered. Through kits, personal computers were now in theory easily available to the general public but in practice some considerable expertise was required to construct and use these products, which restricted

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Development of the single-chip microprocessor was the gateway to the popularization of cheap, easy to use, and truly personal computers. In the mid to late 1970s, interest was gaining momentum amongst hobbyists around the idea that it was now becoming economically feasible for an individual to own a

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The Micral N ran at 500 kHz, included 16 KB of memory and sold for 8500 Francs. A bus, called Pluribus, was introduced that allowed connection of up to 14 boards. Boards for digital I/O, analog I/O, memory, floppy disk were available from R2E. The Micral operating system was initially called Sysmic,

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With only 256 bytes of memory, an 8-bit word size, input and output restricted to lights and switches, and no apparent way to extend its power, the Kenbak-1 was most useful for learning the principles of programming but not capable of running application programs. Interestingly, 256 bytes of memory,

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Despite its size, the LINC had the nascent characteristics of a personal computer, being one of the first machines specifically intended to serve a single user as opposed to being a shared resource. Machines of the day were most usually extremely large fixed installations. The LINC was (just barely)

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first produced in 1962 at MIT's Lincoln Laboratory. The machine was intended for use in biomedical research applications. The LINC consisted of a large unit that could fit on a desk with keyboard input and a monitor screen constructed from an oscilloscope, although it required a second chassis about

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sold remarkably well even though initial memory size was limited to a few hundred bytes and there was no software available. However, the Altair kit was much less costly than an Intel development system of the time and so was purchased by companies interested in developing microprocessor control for

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Prior to around the year 2000, it was common for workstations to be based around a unique bespoke architecture and the machines would be quite distinctive relative to PCs typically seen in business or the home. It was not uncommon for workstation vendors to produce their own CPUs with architectures

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computer (1984), but was popularised by the Amiga. The blitter was used to effect in a 1984 Amiga industry demo featuring a pseudo-3D rotating checkered ball, later to be known as the "boing ball" and would become associated with the Amiga brand. The fluidity of motion of a graphic of that size had

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Although the PC and XT included a version of the BASIC language in read-only memory, most were purchased with disk drives and run with an operating system, the most popular of which was the Microsoft supplied PC-DOS. Microsoft had retained the rights to re-sell PC-DOS separately to the IBM PC. When

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Competitors also reduced prices in response to Commodore. The Atari 800's price in July was $ 165, and by the time Texas Instruments was ready in 1983 to introduce the 99/2 computer (designed to sell for $ 99) and the TI-99/4A sold for $ 99 in June. The 99/4A had sold for $ 400 in the fall of 1982,

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led Sinclair Research into financial difficulties in 1985. A year later Sinclair sold the rights to the computer products to Amstrad. Four further models in the Spectrum range would be released by Amstrad using the Sinclair brand name. The ZX Spectrum +2 included an integrated tape recorder and the

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in January 1980 announced in an editorial that "the era of off-the-shelf personal computers has arrived". The magazine stated that "a desirable contemporary personal computer has 64 K of memory, about 500 K bytes of mass storage on line, any old competently designed computer architecture, upper and

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first instead of the Apple II. VisiCorp owned four Commodore PET machines but had decided to try the Apple II market and purchased a single machine. In a twist of fate that may have changed the course of personal computer history, at the exact moment Dan Bricklin arrived, there was no PET available

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processor clocked at 1.77 MHz (later specimens shipped with the Z80A). The basic model originally shipped with 4 KB of RAM and Level 1 BASIC produced in-house. RAM in the first 4 KB machines was upgradeable to 16 KB and Level 2 Microsoft BASIC, which became the standard basic configuration. An

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By the end of the 1980s the cost of a disk drive had fallen to prices that fell within the budget of even the most cost conscious buyer and computer memories had exceeded the entire capacity of audio cassettes. Tape use consequently declined as a primary storage medium. Tape technology continued to

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computer (released in 1976) would correct many of these deficiencies and assemble the required parts into a finished unit. The machine placed an entire S-100 system including QWERTY keyboard, CPU, display card, memory and ports into a convenient single box. The systems were packaged with a cassette

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magazine article in the January 1975 issue (published in late 1974). In keeping with MITS' earlier projects, the Altair was sold in kit form, although a relatively complex one consisting of four circuit boards and many parts. Priced at only $ 400, the Altair tapped into pent-up demand and surprised

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Disk drives were relatively complicated to control and it was helpful for cross-compatibility between business software for files to always be written in the same way by each piece of software. The user would also need a suite of tools to copy, rename and move files between disks. A large number of

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In May 2022, Chinese officials ordered government agencies and state-backed companies to remove personal computers produced by American corporations and replace them with equipment from domestic companies. The state-mandated order is expected to result in the removal of about 50 million computers,

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It was commonplace for individual software releases to feature elements of a GUI in the 1980s without requiring any specific GUI based operating system to be installed. Many programs used a mouse and had menus and icons but each program would have its own style and there was no consistent look and

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was a range of computers first released in 1985 by Commodore with high performance graphics and audio capabilities. The machines found particular success as gaming platforms and also in video production. The Amiga achieved popularity in several European countries in the late 1980s and early 1990s,

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operating system but IBM were uninterested. Kildall then offered CP/M-86 but negotiations encountered difficulties when IBM demanded a flat licensing fee of $ 250,000 without a royalty. Digital Research more conventionally offered a deal of $ 10 per copy. Kildall was concerned about alienating the

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The Model I could not meet FCC regulations on radio interference due to its plastic case and exterior cables. Apple resolved the issue with an interior metallic foil but the solution would not work for Tandy with the Model I. The Model I also suffered from problems with its cabling between its CPU

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were very expensive peripherals and the front panel represented a cheap way to interact with the computer that could be supplied with the machine as standard. A hobbyist could then immediately make some use of their new purchase out of the box. Additionally, the front panel would often be used for

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in the early 1970s, computers were generally large, costly systems owned by large corporations, universities, government agencies, and similar-sized institutions. End users generally did not directly interact with the machine, but instead would prepare tasks for the computer on off-line equipment,

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in March 2005, and completed in May 2005. IBM will have a 19% stake in Lenovo, which will move its headquarters to New York State and appoint an IBM executive as its chief executive officer. The company will retain the right to use certain IBM brand names for an initial period of five years. As a

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and other peripheral devices. By the early 21st century, all shipping computers for the consumer market included at least two USB ports. Also during the late 1990s DVD players started appearing on high-end, usually more expensive, desktop and laptop computers, and eventually on consumer computers

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range of PCs. OS/2 was released in 1987 and gained a GUI with version 1.1 in 1988. It would later become known as OS/2 Warp. Microsoft and IBM had ended their collaboration on the project by 1992 due to a commercial dispute and Microsoft had shifted focus to their own MS Windows platform. With MS

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who had also worked on the graphics chip for the same machines. They formed Hi-Toro corporation to develop the new console, later to be renamed Amiga. Kaplan and Neubauer would drop out and be replaced by Ron Nicholson from Apple and Joe Decuir who had worked for Atari. They first sold a range of

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microprocessor, the Macintosh included many of the Lisa's features at a price of US$ 2,495. The Macintosh was introduced with 128 KB of RAM and later that year a 512 KB RAM model became available. To reduce costs compared the Lisa, the year-younger Macintosh had a simplified motherboard

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While Tramiel's target was TI many competitors in the home computer market were subject to financial difficulties as a result of Commodore. Even Commodores own finances showed strain with the demands of financing the massive building expansion needed to deliver the machines. Price cutting was one

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executive stated, "I've been in retailing 30 years and I have never seen any category of goods get on a self-destruct pattern like this." Such low prices probably hurt home computers' reputation; one retail executive said of the 99/4A, '"When they went to $ 99, people started asking 'What's wrong

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With a trio of custom graphics and sound co-processors and a 6502 CPU clocked ~80% faster than most competitors, the Atari machines had capabilities that no other microcomputer could match. In spite of a promising start with about 600,000 sold by 1981, they were unable to compete effectively with

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With Microsoft Windows on the rise and IBM clones becoming the mainstream business choice, a different architecture would always face market challenges against considerably larger rivals. The Risc PC did find some niches in applications such as television production and education however popular

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car range and used to indicate market), the 300 series being the "budget", the 500 series "midrange" and the 700 series "high end". This designation continued until the late 1990s when IBM introduced the "T" series as 600/700 series replacements, and the 3, 5 and 7 series model designations were

3735:" it was possible to display all 4096 colors on screen simultaneously in some situations. This was an unprecedented feat on any machine in the same price bracket and enabled the novelty of displaying photo-realistic images on an affordable home computer. Another innovation was the inclusion of a 3461:

microprocessor. This chip was much faster, and could address up to 16MB of RAM but only in a mode that largely broke compatibility with the earlier 8086 and 8088. In particular, the MS-DOS operating system was not able to take advantage of this capability. The bus in the PC/AT was given the name

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sold at $ 379, and Commodore had reduced the price of the VIC-20 to $ 199 and the Commodore 64 to $ 499 shortly after C64 release. In the early 1970s, Texas Instruments had forced Commodore from the calculator market by dropping the price of its own-brand calculators to less than the cost of the

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which was more difficult to use. The distribution of games on ROM cartridge helped offset the small memory and RAM expansion cartridges were also released. The machine was sold at a cost competitive price and achieved strong sales, becoming the first personal computer to sell 1 million units and

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and was credited as being a key reason for the ultimate commercial success of the machine and by extension Apple corporation, as it was exclusively available on the platform for the first 12 months which gave the hardware a sales lead over competitors. VisiCalc was retroactively described as the

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Peripherals have been made available for several games consoles to convert the devices into a full personal computer. Even as far back as the Atari 2600, an adapter called the Atari Graduate was completed in 1983 that expanded the machine with a keyboard and I/O capabilities for use with storage

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The Programma 101 was presented at the 1965 New York World's Fair after two years work (1962- 1964) and was a commercial success with over 44,000 units sold worldwide; in the US its cost at launch was $ 3,200. It was targeted to offices and scientific entities for their daily work because of its

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The Risc PC had a novel stacking design where multiple "slices", that is complete additional chassis with a full plastic case, could be mounted on top of each other to add additional features such as drives and expansion cards. The machines had a multi-processor architecture, with one CPU being

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in place of one of the two floppy disks and increased the number of expansion slots from 5 to 8. While the original PC design could accommodate only up to 64 KB on the main board, the architecture was able to accommodate up to 640 KB of RAM, with the rest on cards. Later revisions of the design

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was a microcomputer released by Intel in 1973 intended as a platform to support software development for their newly released series of microprocessors from the 4004 to the 8080. The machines were not openly marketed to the public and were aimed mainly at developers. The Intellec featured a ZIF

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was released in 1985 but at this stage offered only very limited functionality (not even supporting overlapping windows) and had little market impact until version 3.0 released in 1990. Thereafter Windows started to gain ground and become the dominant windowing operating system for IBM clones.

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for data storage located on the front of the case, which left little room for the keyboard. The 2001 was announced in June 1977 and the first 100 units were shipped in mid October 1977. However they remained back-ordered for months, and to ease deliveries they eventually canceled the 4 KB

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About 200 of the machines sold before the company announced the Apple II as a complete computer. It had color graphics, a full QWERTY keyboard, and internal slots for expansion, which were mounted in a high quality streamlined plastic case. The monitor and I/O devices were sold separately. The

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Audio cassette recorders were already found in the majority of homes and these could be simply interfaced to a variety of home computers. Many low-end machines would feature audio jacks for a cassette recorder. Some manufacturers chose to provide their own branded cassette unit (or provision a

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Games consoles differ from personal computers in that they are not usually intended to be user programmable, do not include a keyboard input device (at least as standard) and are mainly intended for a single class of application and not general purposes software. However, in other respects the

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was designed in 1975 as a direct response to Microsoft and many more would follow. Several computer manufacturers chose to supply their own BASIC with varying degrees of compatibility between them. BASIC software listings were commonly supplied with changes required for different microcomputer

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The history of the personal computer as mass-market consumer electronic devices effectively began in 1977 with the introduction of microcomputers, although some mainframe and minicomputers had been applied as single-user systems much earlier. A personal computer is one intended for interactive

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was one of the largest computer companies in the world and it was widely expected that they would at some time enter the rapidly expanding personal computer market, which they did by releasing the IBM PC in August 1981. Like the Apple II and S-100 systems, it was based on an open, card-based

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was a popular choice, being commonly used with minicomputers of the era, but was both expensive and difficult for an individual to obtain. The teletype cost several times the price of the Altair and the manufacturer was not used to retail sales. Often the teletypes had to be acquired through

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which shipped with GEM as standard. A number of Amstrad PCs shipped with GEM for DOS. Despite not being the inventors of the WIMP interface style, Apple would sue Digital Research resulting in a settlement that reduced the capabilities of GEM in 1986. The final retail release was in 1988.

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When Digital Research became aware of the similarities between PC-DOS and CP/M they raised a dispute with IBM, who offered to resolve the matter by shipping the PC without bundling an operating system. Three operating system choices would be offered for separate purchase: PC-DOS, CP/M and

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The PET line ended earlier than the other 1977 Trinity machines because Commodore had moved onto other newer product lines that eventuated in the first computer model ever to sell 1 million units, the VIC-20, and the biggest selling single model of computer of all time, the Commodore 64.

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In many home computers BASIC was supplied on a ROM chip and it was commonplace for machines to start BASIC as standard as the first program the user saw on switching the machine on. While it was a popular implementation, Microsoft BASIC was not the only variation to be in use. The free

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was a desktop computer introduced in September 1975, six years before the IBM PC. It was the evolution of SCAMP (Special Computer APL Machine Portable) that IBM demonstrated in 1973. In January 1978 IBM announced the IBM 5110, its larger cousin. The 5100 was withdrawn in March 1982.

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in combination with general purpose software despite not being intended to do so. The line between dedicated games consoles and personal computers has also blurred with the devices gaining subsets of popular personal computer features such as video playback and internet browsing.

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to automate crop hygrometric measurements. The Micral N is credited as being the first commercially available microcomputer to feature a single chip CPU. It was possible to use the Micral as a personal computer but most were sold for use as controllers in automation applications.

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microprocessor and came equipped with 1 megabyte of RAM, a 12-inch (300 mm) black-and-white monitor, dual 5¼-inch floppy disk drives and a 5 megabyte Profile hard drive. The Lisa's slow operating speed and high price (US$ 10,000), however, led to its commercial failure.

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software embedded in ROM. Discovering how this worked was not difficult, a full copy of the BIOS source code with comments and annotations was helpfully printed in the IBM Technical Reference Manual for the 5150, the only problem for clone makers was that it was copyrighted.

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in 1975) but usually as custom devices that could only play a few games hardwired into the electronics. Increased levels of integration placed computer component prices within the affordable range for home entertainment devices and games consoles gained new capabilities. The

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GUI environment (first demonstrated at COMDEX in 1982) and released their version for the IBM PC in 1983. Neither the Lisa nor Visi On was a significant commercial success as both required expensive hardware. The Apple Lisa was followed by the first of the more successful

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By 1983 the VIC-20 could be purchased for as little as $ 90. With a decreasing price and strong production, the VIC-20 continued to dominate Commodore sales through 1983 as interest in the C64 built. Commodore lowered the retail price of the C64 to $ 300 at the June 1983

1645:. While this term now most commonly refers to display hardware, it referred at the time to a small program specific to each computer that was capable of starting other software, some debugging, and maybe saving memory contents at specified locations to a storage device. 1253:(CTC) had approached Intel also in 1969 with a request to reduce the chip count in one of their Datapoint terminal range, resulting in a similar single-chip CPU design. CTC ultimately declined the device leaving Intel with the intellectual property. This resulted in the 1248:

Busicom was in financial trouble and Intel arranged a deal that enabled them to sell the CPU as a product in exchange for lowering costs to Busicom. This was then marketed as the Intel 4004 in 1971 and was the first commercial single chip microprocessor. Coincidentally,

921:) and the kit was intended only as an educational machine for hobbyists to learn about the operation and design of a digital computer. The value in Simon was that the digital principles learnt could be scaled up to the task of building a larger and more useful machine. 2000:

as a language intended for students not in scientific fields of study, in order to widen the appeal of computers. Previous languages were often quite difficult to learn and only those with a particular interest in computer science would do so. BASIC was well suited to

2386:

Despite slow initial sales, the Apple II's lifetime was about eight years longer than other machines, and so accumulated the highest total sales. By 1985, 2.1 million had sold and more than 4 million Apple II's were shipped by the end of its production in 1993.

3996:

appearing. Workstations often had custom-built graphics processors to achieve higher resolutions and colour depth than was typical on IBM PC machines of the era. Vendors would usually offer a proprietary operating system as standard, this was most often a variant of

1665:

in 1977. By that year the number of computer vendors was increasing and demand for a standardised operating system grew. CP/M 2.0 was developed in 1978. By 1981, over 250,000 copies had been sold and the O/S had a large library of compatible software written for it.

3018:

based and was originally sold as a choice of the model A with 16KB of memory or the more popular model B with 32KB. The machine achieved widespread success in the UK education sector and the system sold more than 1.5 million units. A cost-reduced version called the

1796:(1980) was available in both formats as either an assembled product or as an electronics kit at a lower price. By the early 1980s many choices of professionally manufactured personal computer were available at affordable prices and kit machines largely disappeared. 1392:

in 1978. Although Groupe Bull continued the production of Micral computers, it was not interested in the personal computer market, and Micral computers were mostly confined to highway toll gates (where they remained in service until 1992) and similar niche markets.

3820:

as a commercial product which featured a full graphical user interface with a bitmapped display. The Star was developed from the Xerox Alto developed in 1972. With a release price of over $ 16,000 the Star was not within the range of most personal computer buyers.

4989:

and Japan accounted for 58 percent of the worldwide installed PCs. About 180 million PCs (16 percent of the existing installed base) were expected to be replaced and 35 million to be dumped into landfill in 2008. The whole installed base grew 12 percent annually.

2492:(Radio Shack) introduced the TRS-80, retroactively known as the Model I as the company expanded the line with more powerful models. The Model I combined motherboard and keyboard into one unit with a separate black-and-white monitor and power supply. Tandy's 3000+ 3005:

became interested in running a series of educational computer literacy TV programmes in the early 1980s and issued an invitation to tender for a personal computer to accompany the project. After examining several entrants, what was then known as the Proton from

1272:

The single-chip CPU went on to significantly reduce the costs (and size) of computers and place the devices within the purchasing power of individuals. In only a few years, a number of other manufacturers were producing competing single-chip CPUs including the

1115:

Released in June 1970, the programmable terminal called the Datapoint 2200 is among the earliest known devices that bears significant resemblance to the modern personal computer, with a CRT screen, keyboard, programmability, and program storage. It was made by

3960:. Apple ultimately purchased NeXT in 1996 and the OS then formed the foundation of future Apple operating systems. This deal is also notable as the point at which Steve Jobs returned to Apple and the company found significant new success under his leadership. 2877:

Sinclair Radionics would also independently design a personal computer, unrelated to Sinclair Research but with the involvement of Clive Sinclair. Following sale of the assets of Sinclair Radionics this design would eventually see production in 1982 as the

2800:. It would be followed by enhanced models in the form of the ZX Spectrum+ and 128. The ZX Spectrum series would sell more than 5 million units. The machine was widely used as a home gaming platform with more than 3,500 games titles eventually released. 2508:

with numeric keypad (lacking in the very first units but upgradeable), small size, well written Microsoft floating-point BASIC and inclusion of a 64-column monitor and tape deck—all for approximately half the cost of the Apple II. Eventually, 5.25-inch

3477:

featuring the CPU in 1986. IBM would not sit idle and see the PC market disappear to the cloners. They would regularly take legal action (often successfully) against clone makers using their large portfolio of patents. In addition IBM launched the

943:

company of Glendale, California. The LGP-30 was first manufactured in 1956, at a retail price of $ 47,000. The LGP-30 was commonly referred to as a desk computer, as it was the size of a desk. It weighed about 800 pounds (360 kg). It was a binary,

2186:

feature, although the capability was controversially removed in later models. Hardware hackers have routinely prided themselves in demonstrating that dedicated games consoles can be persuaded to run personal computer operating systems such as

2732:

in 1982, and only about 2 million machines were produced by the end of their production run. The 400 and 800 were tweaked into superficially improved models—the 1200XL, 600XL, 800XL, 65XE—as well as the 130XE with 128K of bank-switched RAM.

2579:(announced 1979–05, shipped 1979–09). Each of these was the first of a series of machines from each manufacturer; NEC and Sharp continued these 8-bit lines into the late 1980s but Hitachi ended the series in 1984 as it was replaced in the 3486:

bus in an attempt to recapture control of the market through charging licenses for a key component, but this was not successful. It received only tepid support from 3rd parties and PC cloners largely stuck with ISA until the short-lived

2788:

in the United States). The ZX81 was one of the first computers in the UK to be aimed at the general public and was offered for sale via major high street retail channels. It would become a significant success, selling 1.5 million units.

2716:. Realizing that the VCS would have a limited lifetime in the market before a technically advanced competitor came along, Atari decided they would be that competitor, and started work on a new console design that was much more advanced. 2247:

To reliably make use of audio tape, data was stored within the range of conventional audio bandwidth, this meant the same signal could be stored on any other audio storage medium. Audio tape data was occasionally found as a novelty on

1738:

edited interactively. Expensive commercial terminals could do this but the TV Typewriter held the promise of considerably lower cost and was an instant hit with electronics enthusiasts. Several thousand copies of the plans were sold.

4981:

had a personal computer and a computer could be found in 40 percent of homes in United Kingdom, compared with only 13 percent in 1985. The third quarter of 2008 marked the first time laptops outsold desktop PCs in the United States.

3287:

CPU running at 4.77 MHz, containing 29,000 transistors. The first model used an audio cassette for external storage, though there was an expensive floppy disk option. The cassette option was never popular and was removed in the

1879:

program to be entered by hand via front-panel switches, one location at a time. The program was typically a small driver for an attached cassette tape reader, which would then be used to read in a larger program. Later systems added

4968:

personal computers had been sold worldwide since mid-1970s till this time. Of the latter figure, 75 percent were professional or work related, while the rest sold for personal or home use. About 81.5 percent of PCs shipped had been

2370:

BASIC, along with limited retail distribution, caused it to lag in sales behind the other Trinity machines. However, in 1979 it surpassed the Commodore PET, receiving a sales boost attributed to the release of the extremely popular

1210:) which improved the reliability of MOS transistors and assisted with the commercial viability of the process. He also developed important technologies that improved circuit density of chips such as the "buried contact" technique. 3832:

product in 1981 which became a staple of the television industry through the 1980s. This was an extremely expensive personal computer intended for a very specific market segment (graphics design) and not for the general public.

1850:

The Altair was relatively difficult to use. No peripherals were supplied with the machine. It did not include a keyboard or display or even any circuitry that might control such devices. One possible mode of operation was via a

4977:. United States had received 38.8 percent (394 million) of the computers shipped, Europe 25 percent and 11.7 percent had gone to Asia-Pacific region, the fastest-growing market as of 2002. Almost half of all the households in 4499:

in 1998. Following this strategy HP became a major player in desktops, laptops, and servers for many different markets. The buyout made HP the world's largest manufacturer of personal computers, until Dell later surpassed HP.

3727:

not been seen on any other cost competitive machines of the era. Competitors allowed only comparatively tiny sprites to be drawn with any speed. Hardware blitter would become a standard feature in the industry going forwards.

2229:

built-in device) but these were little different to any other audio tape recorder other that being pre-configured and sometimes transferring part of the necessary electronic interface from the computer into the cassette unit.

2427:

with a simple TTL-based CRT driver circuit driving a small built-in monochrome monitor with 40×25 character graphics. The processor card, keyboard, monitor and cassette drive were all mounted in a single metal case. In 1982,

4333:

operating system in 1995. The Macintosh was sent into a period of decline by these developments coupled with Apple's own inability to come up with a successor to the Macintosh operating system, and by 1996 Apple was almost

3730:

A typical IBM PC clone of the era displayed 16 colors at best and more usually only 4 from a fixed palette. The Amiga offered 4096 colours with up to 64 colors on screen at once, but through a clever hardware trick called

3341:. IBM rebranded the Microsoft version as PC-DOS. Critically, IBM did not prevent Microsoft from reselling the DOS product to other vendors which would be key to Microsoft's future dominance in the operating system market. 3152:. Due to a combination of other disagreements with Gould about management style, Tramiel surprised many by leaving Commodore in early 1984 despite his business strategy with the C64 ultimately being a substantial success. 2603:

Through the 1970s, personal computers had proven popular with electronics enthusiasts and hobbyists, however it was unclear why the general public might want to own one. This perception changed in 1979 with the release of

3739:

capability which allowed Amiga graphics to be mixed with a television video signal. This allowed the Amiga to be competitive in video production against more expensive rivals. The Amiga also included a complete graphical

2005:

due to very low memory requirements and became a widely known language. The ease of use combined with low memory demands and widespread adoption made BASIC an attractive language for the microcomputers that would follow.

2976:

or "SID") and competent graphics performance in a low cost package, which made it an ideal platform for games releases. At least 5,600 titles were ultimately released. Commodore's then ownership of the chip manufacturer

1165:

to be the world's first personal computer. It was designed and invented by John Blankenbaker of Kenbak Corporation in 1970, and was first sold in early 1971. Unlike a modern personal computer, the Kenbak-1 was built of

3088:

The current personal computer market is about the same size as the total potato-chip market. Next year it will be about half the size of the pet-food market, and is fast approaching the total worldwide sales of panty

1704:

A hobbyist produced Newbear 77-68 kit computer (right) shown next to an oscilloscope (left) used in construction with a domestic television on top used as a computer display. A keyboard is just visible on top of the

1041:

portable to another location by a single person. It was possible to disassemble and fit all of the apparatus into a car and assemble it in a reasonable time for use elsewhere without the support of a computer lab.

2916:

in 1981. A total of 2.8 million units were shipped between the two models, many at bargain basement prices resulting from a price war with Commodore in 1982–83, before the TI-99/4A was discontinued in March 1984.

4001:

which afforded some degree of compatibility between competing workstation vendors but less so with software for DOS or Windows based IBM PCs. Vendors that were noted for the production of workstations included

5444:"2008/107/1 Computer, Programma 101, and documents (3), plastic / metal / paper / electronic components, hardware architect Pier Giorgio Perotto, designed by Mario Bellini, made by Olivetti, Italy, 1965–1971" 3112:

in 1976 to ensure a supply of chips. With his supply guaranteed, and good control over the component pricing, Tramiel launched a war against Texas Instruments soon after the introduction of the Commodore 64.

3329:

large number of other CP/M licensees and also with IBM's intent to re-brand CP/M as PC-DOS. Kildall ultimately believed he had reached a deal but IBM returned to negotiate with Gates who offered to provide

2811:

The ZX Spectrum was extensively cloned in many countries, some machines with the involvement of Sinclair Research but large numbers with no official approval at all. The clones were particularly popular in

2619:

Spreadsheets were a common business tool prior to the personal computer but up until this time were created by hand. Updating a cell necessitated the manual re-calculation of all of the referencing cells.

4759:-based PCs to take on many of the tasks of larger SGI servers, ate into SGI's core markets. The rise of cheap 3D accelerators displaced low-end products of Silicon Graphics, which went bankrupt in 2009. 3413:

amongst others used their copyrighted version. With the commercial availability of MS-DOS and acquisition of a BIOS possible, there were no further barriers to competitors producing IBM PC imitations.

1818:

It was only a matter of time before one personal computer design was able to hit a sweet spot in terms of pricing and performance, and that machine is generally considered to be the Altair 8800, from

1746:

or no features at all for connection of peripherals but instead might include LED displays and calculator style keyboards for interaction with the machine. Kits then moved on to more capable designs.

4046:

systems became cheaper and started to sell for under $ 1000, particularly via mail order rather than a traditional dealer network. These prices were achieved by using older generation PC technology.

3386:

compatible makers. The Apple II was also copied, as were many successful preceding platforms back to the Altair. Larger and more expensive minicomputers were also regularly cloned by competitors.

7151:...its venerable PC 9800 series, which has sold more than 18 million units over the years, and is the reason why NEC has been the number one PC vendor in Japan for as long as anyone can remember. 1170:, and did not use a microprocessor. The system first sold for US$ 750. Only around 40 machines were ever built and sold. In 1973, production of the Kenbak-1 stopped as Kenbak Corporation folded. 558:

A different model of computer use was foreshadowed by the way in which early, pre-commercial, experimental computers were used, where one user had exclusive use of a processor. In places such as

2513:

and megabyte-capacity hard disks were made available by Tandy and third parties. The Expansion Interface provided for up to four floppy drives and hard drives to be daisy-chained, a slot for an

1440:, then this is followed by the data to be stored at that memory location, also set in binary via the switches. The rows of LEDs can be used to display the contents of a specific memory address. 1147:

CPU and the Intel 8008 were technically very different, they were largely software-compatible. From a software perspective, the Datapoint 2200 therefore functioned as if it were using an 8008.

3405:

was used to overcome the copyright issue and produce a functionally identical BIOS version that could be legally sold. Not all PC cloners would take this approach though with IBM alleging

3774:

version in 1987, which was not discontinued until 1992. The series would be joined by several other models including versions aimed at the high-end graphics and video markets such as the

2252:

and audio CDs (as audio, not as digital data and unrelated to CD-ROM). In modern times retro enthusiasts replay audio data into vintage systems using more reliable digital audio players.

4111:, and by the mid-1990s one was built into almost all desktop computers, and toward the end of the 1990s, in laptops as well. Although introduced in 1982, the CD ROM was mostly used for 3442:, which was a (just about) portable version of the IBM PC specifically designed to fit within the requirements of airline carry-on luggage. The machine resembled the earlier CP/M based 2764:, but by 1976 was beginning to lose control over the company and started a new independent venture to pursue projects under his own direction. The new company was originally staffed by 917:

was only 2 bits wide meaning that it was not capable of operating on any number greater than 3. There were far more sophisticated and practical computers available at the time (such as

3714:

The Amiga machines introduced a sophisticated set of custom chips that allowed the relatively slow CPUs of the time to accelerate graphics operations. One of the key functions was the

2534:

were already in production by 1981, Tandy decided to stop manufacturing the Model I. Radio Shack sold some 1.5 million Model I's. The line continued until late 1991 when the

2049:

were produced with greater sophistication and BASIC was ported to several CPUs and architectures. Microsoft BASIC was widely used in many machines of the 1970s and 1980s including the

1975:

The Altair 8800 was not an easy machine to use and did not ship as standard with peripherals or interfaces to enable interactive use as would be expected from a personal computer. The

1692:

When the PC was introduced in 1981, it was originally designated as the IBM 5150, putting it in the "5100" series, though its architecture wasn't directly descended from the IBM 5100.

2225:

model, aimed at the relatively well financed business market, originally included a cassette interface out of concern that purchasers might be dissuaded by the price of a disk drive.

4601:

began to become increasingly popular as many consumers started installing their own wireless home networks. Many of today's laptops and desktop computers are sold pre-installed with

2264: 548:. After the job had completed, users could collect the results. In some cases, it could take hours or days between submitting a job to the computing center and receiving the output. 800:

emulated those used by early mainframe and minicomputers, after a very short time I/O through a terminal was the preferred human/machine interface, and front panels became extinct.

1661:, in the same year. CP/M originally stood for "Control Program/Monitor" but later became "Control Program for Microcomputers". It was first licensed to a small manufacturer called 1178:, whose fate was diametrically opposed to that of the Kenbak. The differentiating factor might have been the extensibility of the Altair, without which it was practically useless. 4278:) concurrently with RISC OS in a window and could seamlessly merge applications from other operating systems into the RISC OS GUI environment as if they were native applications. 4266:

provided as standard and at least one additional CPU could be added. The additional CPUs did not need to be ARM and entirely alien CPU architectures could run in parallel such as

1317:

microprocessor. The first generation 8008-based Q1 and Q1/c had a QWERTY keyboard, one-line 80-character display, built-in printer, and capability to interface with an under-desk

3930:

Windows usually being bundled with PCs, OS/2 failed to gain significant market traction with the exception of specific market niches where IBM had dominance, such as in finance.

460:

There are several competing claims as to the origins of the term "personal computer". Yale Law School librarian Fred Shapiro notes an early published use of the phrase in a 1968

2968:, the name advertising the inclusion of 64 KB of memory, which was more comparable and in many cases exceeded contemporary home computers. The machine was based around the 2213:

disk drives remained prohibitive to many potential buyers, particularly individual customers in the home computer market. Without a storage device a computer was of little use.

4075:

workstation went on sale, for "interpersonal" computing as Steve Jobs described it. The NeXTstation was meant to be a new computer for the 1990s, and cheaper than the previous

2106:

Programmable games consoles emerged around the same era as personal computers started to become widely available. Games consoles had been on the market previously (such as the

1917:

The club was relatively influential in the development of early personal computers with several attendees subsequently having an impact on the industry. Noted members included

3061:

processor (which then stood for Acorn RISC Machine) to power future projects and released an ARM development system for the BBC Micro. The CPU saw first commercial use in the

551:

A more interactive form of computer use developed commercially by the middle 1960s. In a time-sharing system, multiple computer terminals let many people share the use of one

2981:

was a factor in enabling the C64 to undercut competition on price as Commodore were able to be their own supplier of several key components. The machine was estimated by the

4621:

production being slowed down. LCD monitors are typically sharper, brighter, and more economical than CRT monitors. The first decade of the 21st century also saw the rise of

4321:

Due to the sales growth of IBM clones in the '90s, they became the industry standard for business and home use. This growth was augmented by the introduction of Microsoft's

3121:, and stores sold it for as little as $ 199. At one point the company was selling as many computers as the rest of the industry combined. Commodore, which even discontinued 2985:

to be the highest selling desktop personal computer model of all time with somewhere between 12.5 million and 17 million units sold, with the record still standing in 2023.

2236:

were typical and filling a tiny computer memory of only a few dozen kilobytes was a process lasting many minutes. Computer tape protocols often lacked the sophistication of

1713:

The designs were sometimes available assembled but were less commonly finished products and ranged from purely circuit diagrams supplied on paper, through to provision of a

2827:

was released in 1984. This machine was aimed at the serious home user and professional markets. It was a departure from the architecture of the ZX Spectrum series, using a

2624:

was watching a lecture at Harvard Business School where a spreadsheet was being tediously redrawn by hand and realised that the process could be automated with a computer.

1339:

CPU and 16 KB of memory. At some point, a Q1 "Basic Office Machine" was also introduced, bearing resemblance to the third-generation Q1/Lite, but re-integrating a printer.

2831:

processor and was not compatible with its predecessor. The QL was particularly distinctive due to an unusual choice of storage device. It was shipped with two integrated

1202:(MOS) integrated circuits which had higher switching speeds and lower power consumption than alternatives. He was later sent to a California division. There he developed 5033: 505:

defined the personal computer as a "non-(time)shared system containing sufficient processing power and storage capabilities to satisfy the needs of an individual user."

1499:

while at International. It was the first example of what would today be recognized as a complete personal computer. The first machines were introduced on 1 March 1973.

5540: 871:

The "brain" may one day come down to our level and help with our income-tax and book-keeping calculations. But this is speculation and there is no sign of it so far.

7799: 1245:. Faggin brought the silicon design expertise to the team and using his latest techniques that improved device density, managed to squeeze it all into a single chip. 3393:

The IBM PC was based on easily available integrated circuits and the basic card-slot design was not patented. The only IBM proprietary portion of the design was the

7002: 2772:) who had interested Clive Sinclair in the computer market. Following the commercial success of a kit computer in 1977 aimed at electronics enthusiasts called the 2496:

storefronts ensured the computer would have widespread distribution and support (repair, upgrade, training services) that neither Apple nor Commodore could touch.

1544:

While its use was limited to the engineers at Xerox PARC, the Alto had features years ahead of its time. Both the Xerox Alto and the Xerox Star would inspire the

4034:

Towards the end of the 1980s, IBM PC XT clones started to encroach on the home computer market segment, previously the preserve of low cost manufacturers such as

6789: 1832:

its creators when it generated thousands of orders in the first month. Unable to keep up with demand, MITS sold the design after about 10,000 kits had shipped.

1420:

socket on the front panel for programming EPROM chips. The intent was the EPROM chips would be used in embedded devices. The Intellec bore a resemblance to the

792:

product was a 4 kilobyte paper tape BASIC interpreter, which allowed users to develop programs in a higher-level language. The alternative was to hand-assemble

281: 3030:

The BBC Micro included a number of innovative features less commonly seen on other contemporary home computers including local area networking in the form of

5857: 4747:(SGI) was a major 3D business that had grown annual revenues of $ 5.4 million to $ 3.7 billion from 1984 to 1997. The addition of 3D graphic capabilities to 4171:, Commodore and Atari systems were no longer on the market, pushed out by strong IBM PC clone competition and low prices. Other previous competition such as 736:

were working on computers that a single person could use and that could be connected by fast, versatile networks: not home computers, but personal ones. At

4573: 444:, individual personal computers were low enough in cost that they eventually became affordable consumer goods. Early personal computers – generally called 6766: 3634:

While not a success upon its release, the Macintosh was a successful personal computer for years to come. This is particularly due to the introduction of

3473:, which first appeared in a Compaq machine and not an IBM which made Compaq now seem to be leading the direction of the architecture. Compaq released the 5664: 2636:

as it was in itself such useful software in business that it justified the purchase of personal computer hardware regardless of all other applications.

2952:

in 1980 to address the home market. The machine offered only 5 KB of memory, which was small even for the time, however the use of more expensive

1310: 796:

that could be directly loaded into the microcomputer's memory using a front panel of toggle switches, pushbuttons and LED displays. While the hardware

5620:(3,495,222, Perotto et al.) and this gave to Olivetti over $ 900.000 in royalties by HP alone, for the re-use of this technology in the HP9100 series. 566:, students with access to some of the first computers experimented with applications that would today be typical of a personal computer; for example, 5014: 4843:) SDRAM, the DDR SDRAM interface makes higher transfer rates possible by more strict control of the timing of the electrical data and clock signals. 4572:, which is partially owned by the Chinese government, for US$ 650 million in cash and $ 600 million US in Lenovo stock. The deal was approved by the 4183:

rose to high profits and success, introducing low cost systems targeted at consumers and business markets using a direct-sales model. Dell surpassed

3252:

were released outside of the country. The most successful Japanese personal computer was NEC's PC-98, which sold more than 18 million units by 1999.

514: 128: 4882:), which the kernel parses. ACPI then executes the desired operations (such as the initialization of hardware components) using an embedded minimal 1710:

personal computer. To serve this demand a number of publications and organisations began producing computer designs that hobbyists could construct.

104: 7908: 4359: 3190: 2627:

VisiCalc proved exceptionally popular with the business community and ultimately 700,000 copies were sold. VisiCalc was initially released for the

2566: 1306: 7948: 4297:

independently continued production of Acorn designs under license until 2003. Castle Technology released their own Risc PC compatible design, the

2256:

advance though and high-density digital tape units remain in use in specialist data backup applications but less usually with personal computers.

2167:

was released in 1983 that included a keyboard and storage capabilities (it was also available as a dedicated personal computer). A product called

6461:

Commodore press release. "The PET computer made its debut recently as the first 100 units were shipped to waiting customers in mid October 1977."

4824: 3948:(intended to be MacOS System 8) encountered difficulties. Commercial negotiations between Apple and Be Inc. ultimately failed. Apple co-founder 2908:

When it was released in late 1979, Texas Instruments initially focused on schools. Despite the 16-bit processor and custom video processor with

1233:

of Busicom, the concept for what would be the 4004 architecture came from a woman he could not recall the name of who was a graduate of Japan's

4790:. The RAM and graphics processors operated at 50 MHz. It provided only 3D acceleration and as such the computer also needed a traditional 3751:. Competing GUI operating systems were only beginning to gain momentum at the time and often did not allow several programs to be run at once. 3530: 3185: 2561: 2272:

magazine referred to as the "1977 Trinity" – from left to right: the Commodore PET 2001, the Apple II, and the Tandy/Radio Shack TRS-80 Model 1

411: 8580: 8475:

Naitoh, Y.; et al. (2007). "New Nonvolatile Memory Effect Showing Reproducible Large Resistance Ratio Employing Nano-gap Gold Junction".

698:

were now available in one integrated circuit, making it possible to produce them in high volume. Concurrently, advances in the development of

8503: 6975: 5088: 1377: 4964:

In 2001, 125 million personal computers were shipped in comparison to 48,000 in 1977. More than 500 million PCs were in use in 2002 and one

3790:(1993). The Amiga range ended with the bankruptcy of Commodore in 1994, but the series continues to have a cult following from enthusiasts. 2447:

Although the machine was fairly successful, there were frequent complaints about the tiny calculator-like keyboard, often referred to as a "

1789:(1976), was partially a kit computer, requiring some additional components to be supplied, although the main board was available assembled. 8398: 5747: 5257: 3662:, were released to a great degree of success. The entire Macintosh line of computers was IBM's major competition up until the early 1990s. 151: 17: 6258: 5247:

Rheingold, H. (2000). Tools for thought: the history and future of mind-expanding technology (New ed.). Cambridge, MA etc.: The MIT Press.

5570:

There were neither microprocessor (not yet invented) nor integrated circuits in the P101, but only transistors, resistors and condensers.

4629:. Once limited to high-end industrial use due to expense, these technologies are now mainstream and available to consumers. In 2008, the 2013: 1819: 481: 7883: 4402:

drives were included instead of standard CD ROM drives. This gave the personal computer user the capability to copy and "burn" standard

3770:

processor and 256KB of RAM in combination with the custom chips. The series would reach its height with the release of the cost reduced

7082: 5316: 1424:

which would be released about two years later. While it could be used as a general purpose microcomputer, this was not Intel's intent.

1321:. (From this point on, the names "Q1" and "Q1/Lite" seem to be used interchangeably on the computer's enclosure and in its marketing.) 744:

designed and built a true home computer known as FRED, but this saw mixed interest from management. The CPU design was released as the

324: 306: 123: 8835: 7056: 5284: 3944:, a former Apple executive. It was strongly considered as a replacement for the ailing Mac OS System 7 after Apple's internal project 913:

magazine from October 1950. The Simon was in some sense a personal computer although was not of much practical use, the four-function

6885: 6232: 748:

in 1974 and several experimental machines using it were built in 1975, but RCA declined to market any of these until introducing the

6716: 4386:, the long-awaited "next generation" Mac OS based on the NeXT technologies was finally introduced by Apple, cementing its comeback. 2276:

By 1976, there were several firms racing to introduce the first truly successful commercial personal computers. Three machines, the

1910:

to gather together hobbyists interested in computing such that they could trade information. The first meeting was in March 1975 in

5938: 4833: 3369: 2240:

and loading errors were commonplace, resulting in the already frustratingly slow process needing to be repeated. Audio tape is not

755:

After the introduction of the Intel 4004 in 1972, microprocessor costs declined rapidly. In 1974 the American electronics magazine

301: 276: 161: 8310: 8219: 7029: 4771: 4123:, as many desktop computers started to come with built-in stereo speakers capable of playing CD quality music and sounds with the 8103: 3799: 2780:

at £99.95. At the time the ZX80 was the cheapest personal computer for sale in the UK. This was succeeded by the more well-known

230: 6108: 1335:

The third generation Q1/Lite system removed the integrated printer and floppy drives, kept the plasma display, and introduced a

646:" in which he outlined a possible solution to the growing problem of information storage and retrieval. In 1968, SRI researcher 8855: 8450: 8191: 5882: 4889:

First-generation ACPI hardware had issues. Windows 98 first edition disabled ACPI by default except on a whitelist of systems.

1257:, released in 1972, that would eventually become the foundation of Intel's personal computer CPU range. It was followed by the 354: 6717:"Commodore VIC-20: Worlds First Computer to Sell 1 Million Units – Commodore Computers: C64 VIC20 PET C128 Plus4 – 8 Bit PC's" 6053: 6025: 3683:

selling around 4.8 million units. Sales were comparatively muted in North America but it did find some niches in this region.

2182:

was originally specifically intended to have the option of being converted into a general purpose personal computer using the

8779: 8760: 8741: 8722: 8688: 8661: 8375: 8174: 6480: 6268: 6145: 4875: 4342:

returned to Apple in 1997. The NeXT purchase and Jobs' return brought Apple back to profitability, first with the release of

296: 1835:

The introduction of the Altair spawned an entire industry based on the basic layout and internal design. New companies like

5800: 5114: 5062: 4985:

As of June 2008, the number of personal computers worldwide in use hit one billion. Mature markets like the United States,

204: 8596: 4819:

In 1993, Samsung introduced its KM48SL2000 synchronous DRAM, and by 2000, SDRAM had replaced virtually all other types of

6327: 6292: 4426:

arose to be used almost exclusively for sharing music files and became a primary computer activity for many individuals.

2335:

computer and first demonstrated it there. With specifications in hand and an order for 100 machines at US$ 500 each from

784:

their own products. Expansion memory boards and peripherals were soon listed by the original manufacturer, and later by

349: 344: 339: 334: 329: 7973: 7186: 6423: 4637:

were released, laptops that dispense with an optical drive and hard drive entirely relying on flash memory for storage.

3619:

design, no internal hard drive, and a single 3.5-inch floppy drive. Applications that came with the Macintosh included

2504:

Expansion Interface provided sockets for further RAM expansion to 48 KB. Its other strong features were its full stroke

8865: 8798: 7546: 6527: 5910: 5719: 2547: 404: 179: 6392: 4226:, but as the primary choice for creative professionals, particularly those in the graphics and publishing industries. 3045:

The BBC Micro was architected to be multi-processor as standard. Additional CPUs could be connected via the included "

1602:

in 1983 designated SCAMP a "revolutionary concept" and "the world's first personal computer". The prototype is in the

8702: 6793: 5775: 5391: 5232: 3868:

operating systems and is still widely deployed as the underlying windowing system in many Linux distributions today.

3556: 3492: 857: 78: 7470: 7394: 7271:"Columbia Data Products Introduces the MPC 1600, the First IBM PC Compatible Computer : History of Information" 3808:(Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointers) graphical user interface style was developed from research ideas (pioneered by 3538: 2066:

versions. In particular, methods of producing graphics and sound were rarely standard across BASIC implementations.

839: 60: 7857: 4112: 2720:

as easy to use as a games machine—simply plug in a cartridge and go. The new machines were first introduced as the

2217:

filled the void for computer users on a budget whilst providing a storage density and convenience improvement over

979: 654:", in which he offered a preview of things that have become the staples of daily working life in the 21st century: 199: 184: 2045:

was co-founded by Allen and Gates in 1976 to sell BASIC products to the personal computer market. New versions of

7774: 6911: 6692:"Linus Torvalds (LBT-Soft) Sinclair QL activities- Sinclair QL Preservation Project (SQPP) - sinclairql.net site" 2836: 2765: 2178:

The concept of conversion of consoles into personal computers has not disappeared in more recent times. The 2006

1778: 1167: 291: 225: 209: 7672: 1174:

8 bit word size, and I/O limited to switches and lights on the front panel are also characteristics of the 1975

6774: 6109:"MOS / CSG Commodore KIM-1 History & Pictures – Commodore Computers: C64 VIC20 PET C128 Plus4 – 8 Bit PC's" 5828: 4756: 4410:

format became pervasive, "ripping" CDs into small, compressed files on a computer's hard drive became popular.

3840:, released in 1983. Concurrently to the Lisa, VisiCorp (noted for the VisiCalc spreadsheet) was working on the 3534: 3463: 3238: 824: 485: 286: 45: 6868: 5668: 8350: 6808: 6012: 4496: 4007: 3907: 3695: 3424: 2776:, Sinclair Research (then trading as Science of Cambridge) entered the home computer market in 1980 with the 2172: 2119:

was released in 1976, which was CPU based and used interchangeable ROM cartridges, then the more widely sold

1055: 597: 397: 385: 255: 8077: 4660:

As the microcomputer revolution continued, more robust versions of the same technology were used to produce

1328:, integrated two floppy drives into the computer's enclosure, and included an updated multi-line flat-panel 6945: 5420:

The Programma P101 may be considered as the first programmable electronic desk top calculator in the world.

4856: 4403: 3890:(Graphics Environment Manager) is a capable WIMP GUI released in 1985 for multiple platforms including the 2957: 2796:

was released, later becoming Britain's best selling computer, competing aggressively against Commodore and

1286: 675: 371: 359: 194: 7496: 4159:

phased out for A (3&7) & X (5) series. The A series was later partially replaced by the R series.

3836:

A number of Apple employees were shown the work of Xerox and this heavily influenced the GUI driven Apple

2023:. The duo had experience with computers and had previously formed an enterprise that built a computer for 8860: 5641: 5617: 4775: 4770:

extension card relied on PCI to provide cheap 3D graphics for PC's. Towards the end of 1996, the cost of

4725:

extension card is released with 57 x86 cores, at a price of $ 1695, equalling circa 30 dollars per core.

4560:, and then gradually replaced 32-bit processors in consumer desktop and laptop systems since about 2005. 4080: 2953: 189: 7647: 7238: 6257:

Chandler, Alfred Dupont; Hikino, Takashi; Nordenflycht, Andrew Von; Chandler, Alfred D. (30 June 2009).

5171: 2546:

Similarly to the American trinity, Japan has a term for their own most important machines of that era: "

8622: 7521: 5966: 4907: 4459: 3945: 3483: 3446:

portable PC. The Compaq Portable sold well and became strongly associated with the IBM clone industry.

2912:

support, architectural restrictions prevented it from living up to expectations. It was updated to the

2909: 2817: 1588:

was generally available only on mainframe computers, and most desktop sized microcomputers such as the

1585: 1234: 831: 559: 260: 52: 7347: 7212: 7101: 6851: 4544:, in 2004, reacted to AMD's success with 64-bit based processors, releasing updated versions of their 5092: 5028: 4852: 4712: 3887: 3338: 3118: 2128: 1297:

in 1976. Some of these CPUs would be widely used in early personal computers and other applications.

1230: 678:

laboratory, which concentrated on applying computer technology to facilitate creative human thought.

428:

as a mass-market consumer electronic device began with the microcomputer revolution of the 1970s. A

8577: 7597: 6544: 4270:. With the addition of a second CPU, the Risc PC could run alternative operating systems (including 2846:

crediting it with being the machine on which he became practiced at programming prior to developing

1839:

started up to supply add-on kits. Soon after, a number of complete "clone" designs, typified by the

8817: 7747: 7420: 7321: 6666: 6206: 5997: 5991:

Koved, Larry; Selker, Ted (1999). "Room with a view (RWAV): A metaphor for interactive computing".

5682: 5603: 5557: 5407: 5023: 5004: 3611: 3519: 3454: 3289: 3082: 2375:

spreadsheet which was initially exclusive to the platform. It was again pushed into 4th place when

2312: 2301: 2277: 1514: 1492: 1121: 624: 8245: 6834: 6066: 5443: 3702:

who had worked on the sound chip for the Atari 8-bit home computer range and then later recruited

3057:

CPUs would be released for the machine. Acorn subsequently used the Tube interface to develop the

1120:(now known as Datapoint) and was a complete system in a case with the approximate footprint of an 721:, who later used silicon-gate MOS technology to develop the first single-chip microprocessor, the 8421: 8196: 8155:"PCI express and advanced switching: evolutionary path to building next generation interconnects" 5262: 4867: 4255: 4039: 3523: 3231: 2945: 2867: 2032: 1946: 1847:

introduced with the Altair, machines of generally improved performance, quality and ease-of-use.

1603: 1213: 1162: 835: 651: 235: 56: 8714: 8707: 7622: 1984:. Complete with a copy of BASIC, the system was priced at US$ 2,100 and up to 12,000 were sold. 1596:. Because it was the first to emulate APL\1130 performance on a portable, single-user computer, 440:

system in which one large processor is shared by many individuals. After the development of the

5992: 4965: 4736:

is released in 2003. It becomes the most commonly used bus in PC-compatible desktop computers.

3741: 3416: 3321: 2982: 2328: 2074:

Other 1977 machines that were important within the hobbyist community at the time included the

1911: 1901: 1560:

In 1972–1973, a team led by Dr. Paul Friedl at the IBM Los Gatos Scientific Center developed a

1220:. There he joined a team developing the first commercially available microprocessor, the 4-bit 250: 7697: 6640: 4222:

architecture used for the Macintosh line. During the 1990s, the Macintosh remained with a low

2866:+3 model incorporated a 3-inch CF2 disk drive. Production continued under Amstrad until 1992. 2861:

The combination of the market failure of the Sinclair QL and a portable TV product called the

8597:"Gartner Says More than 1 Billion PCs In Use Worldwide and Headed to 2 Billion Units by 2014" 8128: 7254: 6360: 6092: 5346: 4929: 4680: 4338:. In December 1996 Apple bought NeXT and in what has been described as a "reverse takeover", 3744: 3420: 3261: 3100: 2941: 2687: 2424: 2237: 2222: 1714: 1085: 914: 567: 465: 315: 6563: 3921:

IBM developed their own windowing operating system, in collaboration with Microsoft, called

3849:

range in 1984 which had cut the hardware costs for running a GUI to a more palatable level.

2155:

devices. The Graduate was never sold but a similar 1983 adapter from a 3rd party called the

1131:

components, which are groups of gates, latches, counters, etc. The company had commissioned

8000: 7722: 7295: 5291: 4783: 4708: 4622: 4411: 4379: 4378:

connectivity. The iMac sold several million units and a subsequent model using a different

3603: 3126: 3023:

would be released in 1983 and several other models would appear in the range including the

2436: 1856: 1642: 1443:

In some respects the front panel was simply a continuation of a common feature supplied on

975: 936: 703: 699: 96: 8680: 8673: 7832: 5489: 5468: 4354:

computers for the professional and home markets. The iMac was notable for its transparent

3941: 3469:

IBM's weakening position in the PC market was made clear with Intel's introduction of the

1012: 8: 5432:

Computer History Museum, Timeline of Computer History, Olivetti Programma 101 is released

5198: 5009: 4925: 4434: 4346:, a major new version of the operating system for Macintosh computers, and then with the 4187:

as the world's largest computer manufacturer, and held that position until October 2006.

3903: 3748: 3406: 3144:

stated in 1986 that "our market dropped from 300 percent growth per year to 20 percent".

3134: 3015: 2973: 2969: 2785: 2481: 2116: 1950: 1827: 1766: 1741:

A further evolution of kit computers was in the form of educational machines such as the

1282: 992: 983: 771: 571: 473: 146: 7923: 6691: 4254:. The machines were at the time an entirely unique architecture, based around the Acorn 3698:

in 1982 and wanted to produce a more capable machine. He first contacted Atari employee

2816:

countries, which at the time had only limited access to western markets, with dozens of

2703:

was a well-known brand in the late 1970s, both due to their hit arcade video games like

1810: 1792:

By the end of the 1970s more machines were becoming available as finished products. The

1700: 8321: 6361:"Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures; The new era (2001– )" 6297: 6207:"ColecoVision Expansion Module #3 - ColecoVision ADAM - Peripheral - Computing History" 5368: 4999: 4974: 4860: 4669: 4665: 4646: 4553: 4200: 4108: 3723: 3635: 3474: 3361: 3235: 3227: 2896: 2761: 2633: 1981: 1967: 1634: 1565: 687: 667: 552: 501: 452:

form and in limited numbers, and were of interest mostly to hobbyists and technicians.

433: 240: 8823: 7270: 6928: 4568:

In 2004, IBM announced the proposed sale of its PC business to Chinese computer maker

4406:

which were playable in any CD player. As computer hardware grew more powerful and the

4293:

Acorn ceased Risc PC production in 1998 following a reorganisation of the company but

3586:

introduced the first mass-marketed microcomputer with a graphical user interface, the

752:

in 1976, in kit form. By this time a number of other machines had entered the market.

8775: 8756: 8737: 8718: 8684: 8657: 8270: 8170: 7902: 7807: 6523: 6476: 6302: 6264: 6141: 6029: 5431: 5387: 5310: 5228: 4944: 4748: 4688: 4294: 4172: 4043: 3985: 3871: 3809: 3758:

was launched as a desktop personal computer in 1985 at an event featuring the artist

3607: 3402: 2749: 2665: 2489: 2485:

November 1977: TRS-80 Model I (with optional Expansion Interface beneath the monitor)

2249: 2079: 1997: 1860: 1734: 1561: 1496: 1484: 1448: 1203: 960:. The standard output was the Flexowriter typewriter. Up to 493 units were produced. 909: 757: 741: 729: 647: 632: 528: 429: 114: 5143:

Shapiro, F.R.; Shapiro, F.R. (December 2000). "Annals of the History of Computing".

3226:

A key difference between early Western and Japanese systems was the latter's higher

3148:

factor in Tramiel developing a rocky relationship with the main Commodore investor,

574:, a program written in 1961, and an ancestor of today's computer games was found in 555:

processor. This was common in business applications and in science and engineering.

8670: 8484: 8429: 8162: 6971: 6181: 5152: 5056: 4970: 4830: 4791: 4744: 4673: 4618: 4614: 4492: 4463: 4283: 4251: 4204: 4116: 4015: 4011: 3911: 3829: 3805: 3301: 3244:

which produce higher quality sound. Japanese computers were widely used to produce

3062: 3058: 3046: 2531: 2448: 2356: 2316: 2107: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1658: 1623: 1573: 1518: 1488: 1376:, beginning with the Micral N in 1973. The system was originally developed for the 945: 895: 671: 623:(1973) was a landmark step in the development of personal computers because of its 616: 609: 545: 170: 8675:

Fumbling the Future: How Xerox Invented, then Ignored, the First Personal Computer

8556: 8383: 6615: 5748:"Q1/Original Documentation/First Q1 system brochure.pdf at main · TheByteAttic/Q1" 4823:

in modern computers, because of its greater performance. For more information see

4442:

Since the late 1990s, many more personal computers started shipping that included

3125:, could make a profit when selling the C64 for a retail price of $ 200 because of 8802: 8698: 8584: 7648:"Apple Power Mac G3 Specs (All Power Macintosh G3 Technical Specs): EveryMac.com" 7164: 7134: 6332: 5019: 4883: 4767: 4699:

In May 2005, Intel and AMD released their first dual-core 64-bit processors, the

4606: 4484: 4471: 4243: 4196: 4119:

and applications into the 1990s. Another popular use of CD ROMs in the 1990s was

4063: 4003: 3856: 3732: 3647: 3439: 3164:'s personal computer market was largely dominated by domestic computer products. 3070: 3007: 2879: 2769: 2724:

in 1979, but production problems prevented widespread sales until the next year.

2527: 2505: 2046: 1930: 1549: 1195: 1072: 904: 785: 718: 663: 643: 544:. A number of assignments for the computer would be gathered up and processed in 489: 461: 156: 8166: 8154: 4866:

Internally, ACPI advertises the available components and their functions to the

2200: 580:

in 1962. Some of the first computers that might be called "personal" were early

8600: 8508: 6589: 6400: 5858:"Cleaning Crew Discovers One of the World's Oldest Surviving Desktop Computers" 5693: 4986: 4978: 4661: 4517: 4451: 4179:

were no longer in the computer market. With less competition than ever before,

4154:

1992 using the series designators 300, 500 and 700 (allegedly analogous to the

3846: 3783: 3767: 3711:

and agreed to finance this. Amiga development subsequently moved to Commodore.

3655: 3654:'s hiatus from Apple, a number of different models of Macintosh, including the 3615: 3599: 3591: 3583: 3575: 3488: 3410: 3169: 3109: 3038:

chip was standard and when combined with an adapter enabled software (known as

3020: 2978: 2843: 2828: 2753: 2576: 2535: 2367: 2363:

was added to support the diskette drive; the last version was "Apple DOS 3.3".

2348: 2075: 2028: 1774: 1662: 1522: 1369: 1329: 1108: 1097: 691: 605: 536: 449: 445: 441: 8829: 7372: 6337: 6026:"1970-1975 (Josh + Julli): Technology Xerox Alto(The First Personal Computer)" 5633: 4050:

began as one of these manufacturers, under its original name of PC's Limited.

3569: 2853: 2292:

magazine later referred to Commodore, Apple, and Tandy as the "1977 Trinity".

1641:

but in the nascent personal computer space, little was available other than a

615:

In addition, minicomputers were relatively interactive and soon had their own

8849: 8530: 8488: 7811: 6306: 5514: 5156: 4956:

with HP and Dell expected to lose the most future business from the mandate.

4808: 4602: 4467: 4447: 4124: 4076: 4019: 3906:

as standard in 1985. A GUI was also available for the Commodore 64, known as

3699: 3639: 3333:(originally known as QDOS), an operating system similar to CP/M developed by 2937: 2832: 2661: 2644: 2518: 2510: 2406: 2396: 2324: 2241: 2214: 2179: 1918: 1907: 1881: 1843:, appeared on the market. This led to a wide variety of systems based on the 1770: 1730: 1453: 1437: 1274: 1242: 1064: 1050: 695: 639: 477: 8795: 7550: 6165: 3390:

they sold the product it was branded as MS-DOS but was otherwise identical.

3104:

chipsets it sold to third parties to make the same design. Commodore's CEO,

3042:) and other information to be downloaded from broadcast television signals. 2964:

Commodore would address the memory limitations with the 1982 release of the

1564:

prototype called SCAMP (Special Computer APL Machine Portable) based on the

1084:

and arithmetic unit. HP later copied the Programma 101 architecture for its

1079:

capable computing capabilities in a small space with a relatively low cost;

4940: 4779: 4704: 4654: 4626: 4589: 4569: 4537: 4455: 4363: 4223: 4219: 4215: 3879: 3763: 3708: 3691: 3659: 3377: 3334: 3305: 3216: 3149: 3133:

causing a loss for Texas Instruments of hundreds of millions of dollars. A

3105: 3039: 2993: 2965: 2930: 2925: 2839: 2813: 2729: 2713: 2640: 2621: 2412: 2344: 2336: 2218: 2168: 2164: 2132: 2083: 2054: 2036: 2019:

microcomputer kit in late 1974 from a magazine and showed it to his friend

2002: 1942: 1646: 1638: 1534: 1444: 1360: 1318: 1278: 1238: 1033: 991:$ 55,000, only 180 units were produced and it was quickly displaced by the 793: 714: 690:(microchip) technology, which reduced size and cost, but they contained no 601: 581: 532: 437: 8434: 6741: 6500: 5582: 4577:

result of the purchase, Lenovo inherited a product line that featured the

4026:

components not dissimilar to those found in mainstream business machines.

2871: 2652:

suggested that he should try the Apple machine as it had a similar BASIC.

1447:

of the time, but it did have some practical uses. Keyboards, displays and

1407: 1216:

were not using Faggin's work and in 1970 he moved to the recently founded

8399:"Intel Announces first 22nm 3D Tri-Gate Transistors, Shipping in 2H 2011" 7398: 7116: 5498:

It appears that the Mathatronics Mathatron calculator preceeded [

4919: 4915: 4733: 4634: 4630: 4581:, a line of laptops that had been one of IBM's most successful products. 4557: 4533: 4367: 4347: 4326: 4322: 4099:

The CD-ROM and CD-RW drives became standards for most personal computers.

4072: 4035: 3976: 3759: 3643: 3458: 3428: 3346: 3283:

architecture, which allowed third parties to develop for it. It used the

3177: 3173: 2972:

and was particularly praised for the relatively advanced audio chip (the

2824: 2793: 2700: 2649: 2613: 2493: 2376: 2209: 2160: 2087: 2024: 2016: 1889: 1852: 1805: 1754: 1598: 1530: 1510: 1433: 1421: 1389: 1175: 953: 949: 797: 780: 436:

where the end user's requests are filtered through operating staff, or a

8808: 8220:"Silicon Graphics Declares Bankruptcy and Sells Itself For $ 25 Million" 5939:"Q1/History/Q1 NASA NTRS 15 November 1979.pdf at main · TheByteAttic/Q1" 5329: 4715:(SMP) techniques known since the 60s (see the SMP article for details). 2692: 2232:

Loading software from audio tape was a slow process. Speeds of 300–1200

464:

advertisement for a programmable calculator, which they called "The new

8326: 7445: 5477:

technically, the machine was a programmable calculator, not a computer.

4840: 4718:

Apple switched to Intel in 2006, also thereby gaining multiprocessing.

4355: 4339: 4330: 4271: 4127: 4120: 3949: 3837: 3817: 3813: 3787: 3775: 3755: 3719: 3687: 3651: 3587: 3419:

released the MPC 1600 in 1982, which was a close clone of the original

3313: 3293: 3284: 3245: 3241: 3122: 3066: 3024: 2842:

integrated telephone/computer device. The QL achieved some note due to

2710: 2596: 2440: 2340: 2146: 2140: 2136: 2120: 2062: 2020: 2009: 1840: 1782: 1762: 1758: 1545: 1507: 1480: 1476: 1469: 1373: 1325: 1314: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1221: 1144: 1137: 957: 940: 776: 766: 749: 733: 722: 620: 8052: 8026: 7572: 5883:"Q1/History/Q1 Sales Brochure post 1974.pdf at main · TheByteAttic/Q1" 2439:, and the 2001–8 with 8 KB. The machine also included a built-in 2098: 1674: 709:

The single-chip microprocessor was made possible by an improvement in

686:

The minicomputer ancestors of the modern personal computer used early

8809:

BlinkenLights Archaeological Institute – Personal Computer Milestones

8285: 8244:

IV-FP, SGI flat panel bundled with the Revolution (4 December 2020).

6496: 4933: 4700: 4549: 4525: 4298: 3993: 3914:

range was supplied with the Arthur GUI in 1987, later to be known as

3865: 3771: 3703: 3443: 3317: 3050: 3011: 2757: 2721: 2675: 2500: 2432:

referred to the PET design as "the world's first personal computer".

2380: 2360: 2156: 2042: 1938: 1844: 1589: 1336: 1294: 1250: 1207: 1128: 1117: 1075:

who would later design the first commercial microprocessor at Intel.

789: 659: 576: 541: 8053:"AMD's Athlon 64 X2 4800+ & 4200+ Dual Core Performance Preview" 7348:"Computer History: From The Antikythera Mechanism To The Modern Era" 5801:"Q1/History/Q1 Lite 8080 illustration.pdf at main · TheByteAttic/Q1" 4234: 4138: 3508: 2259: 1914:

in California and would include a demonstration of the Altair 8800.

1721: 842:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. 631:

high resolution screen, large internal and external memory storage,

63:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. 7949:"Lenovo Completes Acquisition of IBM's Personal Computing Division" 6451:

What's New (February 1978). "Commodore Ships First PET Computers".

4871: 4787: 4722: 4650: 4578: 4423: 4383: 4371: 4343: 4335: 4147: 3957: 3926: 3891: 3875: 3624: 3620: 3479: 3272: 3230:(640x200 from 1979, and 640x400 from 1985) in order to accommodate 3212: 3200: 3181: 3140: 3099:

In 1982, the TI 99/4A and Atari 400 were both $ 349, Radio Shack's

3035: 3010:

was selected. A number of minor changes were made resulting in the

2940:

could not easily compete with color machines like the Apple II and

2913: 2891: 2628: 2609: 2605: 2572: 2420: 2372: 2288:

were all released in 1977, becoming the most popular by late 1978.

2281: 2050: 1836: 1685: 1679: 1654: 1581: 1577: 1526: 1416: 1402: 1156: 1102: 1068: 995: 803: 745: 469: 137: 6256: 5911:"Q1/History/Q1-Basic Office Machine.pdf at main · TheByteAttic/Q1" 5515:"Federico Faggin's Career Leading to the Design of the Intel 4004" 4309: 3686:

The Amiga computers were originally conceived as a games console.

3049:" interface which was designed for this purpose. Adapters for the 2150:

A German version of the CompuMate attached to an Atari 2600 Junior

1186: 8836:"Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures" 8734:

A History of the Personal Computer: The People and the Technology

7374:

The World Premiere of the Amiga (1985, Andy Warhol, Debbie Harry)

5258:"1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip" 4521: 4415: 4394:

The ROM in CD-ROM stands for Read Only Memory. In the late 1990s

4314: 4259: 4247: 4211: 4176: 4083:

concepts, the NeXTstation was somewhat a commercial failure, and

3937: 3915: 3841: 3825: 3736: 3715: 3628: 3249: 3054: 2797: 2556: 2332: 2183: 1922: 1786: 1569: 1368:

The French company R2E was formed by two former engineers of the

1225: 1127:

The system's CPU was constructed from roughly a hundred (mostly)

969: 628: 8772:

Digital Retro: The Evolution and Design of the Personal Computer

8671:

Douglas K. Smith; Douglas K. Smith; Robert C. Alexander (1999).

5720:"Q1/History/Q1 Daniel Alroy Story.pdf at main · TheByteAttic/Q1" 4870:

using instruction lists ("methods") provided through the system

4552:

lines. 64-bit processors were first common in high end systems,

2741: 1822:, a small company that produced electronics kits for hobbyists. 612:

and bureaucracy of a commercial or university computing center.

523: 432:

is one intended for interactive individual use, as opposed to a

8840: 8078:"Intel Pentium D 820 2.8 GHz Dual Core Review - PC Perspective" 5616:

The P101, and particularly the magnetic card, was covered by a

5050: 5044: 5038: 4911: 4804: 4797: 4513: 4488: 4184: 4151: 4104: 4095: 3779: 3670: 3435: 3350: 3330: 3219:

series. Several of these systems were also released in Europe,

3031: 2949: 2803: 2514: 2476: 2285: 1976: 1962: 1934: 1925:

at the club and Ron Nicholson who was one the designers of the

1750: 1538: 1355: 1199: 930: 762: 710: 655: 8557:"BBC NEWS - Science/Nature - Computers reach one billion mark" 6667:"Sinclair's 1984 big shot at business: The QL is 30 years old" 5776:"Q1/History/Q1 Photo Original 1.jpg at main · TheByteAttic/Q1" 3614:

or 'WIMP' (Windows, Icons, Menus, and Pointers). Based on the

3598:

Drawing upon its experience with the Lisa, Apple launched the

3266: 3094:

James Finke, President, Commodore International, February 1982

2870:

attempted to release a successor to the Spectrum known as the

4903: 4752: 4677: 4598: 4541: 4419: 4399: 4168: 3989: 3899: 3782:

era, a home appliance version was produce in the form of the

3679: 3161: 2847: 2204:

Sinclair ZX Spectrum +2 featuring an integrated tape recorder

2188: 1993: 1926: 1742: 1593: 1503: 1464: 1372:

company to sell their microcomputer designs based around the

1290: 1217: 1132: 918: 903:

was a small electro-mechanical computer project developed by

881: 589: 6163: 4947:(especially through gaps) becomes a significant phenomenon. 4839:

Compared to its predecessor in PC-clones, single data Rate (

4304: 3968: 3956:

and as a result had developed a GUI operating system called

3431:

which could run several operating systems including MS-DOS.

3423:, but with more RAM and more expansion slots. Also in 1982, 2057:, although it was sometimes branded under a different name. 1921:, who attended the first meeting and later demonstrated the 1729:

A precursor to the kit computer appeared in the form of the

779:, a somewhat more powerful and easier to use processor. The 775:

magazine published an article describing a kit based on the

535:

access to central computers. Before the introduction of the

8451:"SK Hynix Mulls 'Differentiated' HBM Memory Amid AI Frenzy" 6884:

Williams, Gregg; Welch, Mark; Avis, Paul (September 1985).

5034:

MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory

4879: 4820: 4763: 4684: 4545: 4395: 4358:

casing in an ergonomic shape, as well as its discarding of

4351: 4287: 4180: 4084: 4047: 3998: 3953: 3933: 3922: 3860: 3793: 3470: 3394: 3325: 3309: 3208: 3196: 2862: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2705: 2591: 2306: 2233: 2111: 2093: 1885: 1855:

terminal with the addition of a serial interface card. The

1793: 1749:

Dozens of kit computer designs were produced including the

1650: 1343: 1161:

The Kenbak-1, released in early 1971, is considered by the

1080: 1007: 585: 8504:"China Orders Government, State Firms to Dump Foreign PCs" 5829:"Q1/History/Q1 MicroLite Ad.pdf at main · TheByteAttic/Q1" 4939:

In 2016 and 2017, Intel, TSMC and Samsung begin releasing

4286:

thin client and a variety of set-top boxes under the name

3786:(1991) and a dedicated games console version known as the 3766:(known professionally as Blondie). The machine featured a 2401: 2359:

was only the built-in BASIC interpreter contained in ROM.

1037:

the size of a wardrobe that contained the CPU and memory.

674:. The demo was the culmination of research in Engelbart's 468:

personal computer." Other claims include computer pioneer

8813: 6545:"The Era of Off-the-Shelf Personal Computers Has Arrived" 4610: 4529: 4509: 4495:

in 1997 (which had been started by ex-HP employees), and

4443: 4407: 4375: 4275: 4267: 4208: 4155: 3279: 3220: 3204: 3165: 3002: 1614: 987: 737: 593: 563: 7165:"The Old Computer Hut - Intel family microcomputers (1)" 4800:

bought 3dfx in 2000. In 2000, NVIDIA grew revenues 96%.

3234:. Japanese computers also from the early 1980s employed 3180:

series in the 1980s, but had early competition from the

3108:, vowed that this would not happen again, and purchased 884:

computer, long before the era of the personal computers.

8709:

Fire in the Valley: The Making of The Personal Computer

7547:"Castle bids farewell to RiscPC | Drobe.co.uk archives" 6473:

On the Edge: The Spectacular Rise and Fall of Commodore

6233:"Sony sued for dropping Linux support on PlayStation 3" 5632:

Perotto, Pier Giorgio; et al. (10 February 1970).

3874:

released a primitive GUI for their range of PCs called

2435:

The PET shipped in two models; the 2001–4 with 4 KB of

1814:

MITS Altair 8800 (left) with an ASR 33 teletype (right)

8104:"Apple to Use Intel Microprocessors Beginning in 2006" 6489: 4825:

Synchronous dynamic random-access memory#SDRAM history

4389: 4199:

series of high-end professional desktop computers for

3168:

became the market leader following the release of the

3065:. ARM CPUs are now widely deployed in the majority of 2752:

was a British consumer electronics company founded by

2419:(short for Personal Electronic Transactor) around his 1143:

Although the design of the Datapoint 2200's TTL based

907:

and presented in a thirteen articles series issued in

8474: 8376:"Cover Story: Win98 Bugs & Fixes - December 1998" 4115:

during the 1980s, and then for computer data such as

3606:. The Macintosh was the first successful mass-market 3457:(more often called the PC/AT or AT) built around the 2655: 7884:"IBM planning 64-bit PowerPC 970 processor for 2003" 7748:"The Merger That Worked: Compaq and Hewlett-Packard" 6590:"ZX Spectrum's chief designers reunited 30 years on" 5665:"AmericanHeritage.com / The Man Who Invented the PC" 4672:. This was facilitated by the development of server 4574:

Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States

2956:

reduced the complexity of the design versus cheaper

2612:(originally Personal Software), which was the first 1753:(1974) published in Radio-Electronics magazine, the 681: 8027:"Affordable Dual Core from AMD: Athlon 64 X2 3800+" 7974:"All Apple MacBook Versions In Chronological Order" 7213:"The many derivatives of the CP/M operating system" 7102:"Retro Japanese Computers: Gaming's Final Frontier" 4914:3D structure. FinFET was developed in the 1990s by 4584: 4250:range of desktop computers as the successor to the 2643:, VisiCalc could have easily been released for the 8706: 8672: 8246:"History of the Modern Graphics Processor, Part 2" 7882:Service, Joris Evers, IDG News (14 October 2002). 7497:"Power Macintosh 6100/60 (PC) Specs: EveryMac.com" 7421:"NeXTstation N1100 - Computer - Computing History" 7345: 6943: 6853:BBC Micro Cambridge Coprocessor User Guide NS32016 5634:"3,495,222 PROGRAM CONTROLLED ELECTRONIC COMPUTER" 5250: 4382:remains in production as of August 2017. In 2001, 7187:"The true story behind the IBM Personal Computer" 6970: 6883: 6641:"Planet Sinclair: Computers: Clones and variants" 6424:"Chuck Peddle: Chief Designer of the Victor 9000" 5015:Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering 4807:. Control of the specification was passed to the 3297:increased the limit to 256 KB on the main board. 1996:programming language had been created in 1963 at 1198:joined SGS-Fairchild of Italy where he worked on 8847: 8697: 6937: 6870:Acorn ARM Evaluation System User Guide BBC Micro 6097:. InfoWorld Media Group, Inc. 14 September 1981. 6049: 6047: 4613:monitors became the most popular technology for 3816:in the early 1970s. In 1981, Xerox released the 3482:range of computers in 1987 with the proprietary 3076: 2874:in 1989, but this was not a commercial success. 2850:, in part due to the limited software support. 1725:The original prototype of the 1973 TV Typewriter 1289:(1976). Federico Faggin would go on to co-found 804:The beginnings of the personal computer industry 8623:"Computers in use pass 1 billion mark: Gartner" 8578:Notebook sales surpass PCs for first time in US 7259:. InfoWorld Media Group, Inc. 27 February 1984. 7093: 7054: 7048: 6064: 4325:operating environment in 1990, and followed by 2648:for use and so one of the founders of VisiCorp 1884:code to improve this process and would run the 1584:minicomputer in order to run APL\1130. In 1973 702:eliminated the bulky, costly, and power-hungry 8152: 6964: 6450: 6182:"AGH Museum -- Atari "Graduate" 2600 Computer" 5490:"Olivetti Programma 101 Electronic Calculator" 5469:"Olivetti Programma 101 Electronic Calculator" 5142: 5059:, a 1949 demonstration of computing principles 4653:, allowed PCs to communicate with each other ( 3353:product in 1988, which achieved some success. 2586: 2221:that had been used previously. Even the first 472:'s purported use of the term in a 1972 paper, 8183: 6555: 6536: 6044: 5855: 4774:dropped significantly. A card consisted of a 3952:had started a new workstation venture called 3936:is a windowing operating system developed by 3902:range of machines included a WIMP GUI called 3312:for its upcoming IBM PC at the suggestion of 3223:in particular gaining some popularity there. 3195:series, and later competition from the 8-bit 1933:moderated club meetings and would design the 1378:Institut national de la recherche agronomique 1324:The second generation 1974 Q1/Lite ran on an 769:processor. In January of the following year, 524:Mainframes, minicomputers, and microcomputers 515:History of computing hardware (1960s–present) 405: 8654:Stan Veit's History of the Personal Computer 8192:"McCracken leaves SGI; 700 to 1000 laid off" 7907:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 7027: 7000: 6994: 6284: 6230: 6058: 5225:Encyclopedia of Computer Science 3rd Edition 4897: 3073:amongst a vast collection of other devices. 3034:, which was widely deployed in education. A 2522:maintenance, typeahead and keyboard macros. 2069: 1342:Several Q1s were ordered for use in various 7319: 6561: 6393:"Personal Computer Market Share: 1975–2004" 6067:"SCAMP: The Missing Link In The PC's Past?" 5990: 5583:"---+ 1000 BiT +--- Computer's description" 5196: 5047:, a 1974 microprocessor-based microcomputer 4711:can be programmed and reasoned about using 4475:into the first decade of the 21st century. 4190: 3537:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 3498: 8419: 7184: 7074: 7021: 6877: 6164:Rom Publications Corporation (July 1977). 5223:Anthony Ralston and Edwin D. Reilly (ed), 5041:a 1974 pre-microprocessor "micro-computer" 4910:. The Tri-Gate design is a variant of the 3650:to users of the personal computer. During 3248:, though only a small portion of Japanese 2920: 2807:The Soviet Sonet Baltica ZX Spectrum Clone 2319:(released in 1983) and two diskette drives 2102:The 1976 Fairchild Channel F Games Console 1067:, released in 1965 by the Italian company 412: 398: 8433: 8217: 7858:"AMD paints Opteron chips by the numbers" 7775:"Compaq to buy Digital for $ 9.6 billion" 6386: 6384: 6382: 5996: 5967:"What Was The First PC? - CHM Revolution" 5856:Magazine, Smithsonian; Boorstein, Aaron. 4851:Released in December 1996, ACPI replaced 4305:IBM clones, Apple back into profitability 4029: 3864:the dominant windowing implementation on 3638:in 1985 through Apple's partnership with 3557:Learn how and when to remove this message 2961:ultimately selling at least 2.5 million. 2159:was released. An expansion module called 1941:computer released by another club member 1906:The Homebrew Computer Club was formed by 1895: 1483:in 1973, was the first computer to use a 1044: 858:Learn how and when to remove this message 79:Learn how and when to remove this message 8832:– a chronology of computers from 1947 on 8826:– Displaying over 100 historic machines. 8189: 7921: 7772: 6293:"Technology; The Computer Entering Home" 6290: 4834:synchronous dynamic random-access memory 4588: 4433: 4308: 4233: 4137: 4094: 4062: 3967: 3925:to coincide with the release of the IBM 3794:The Rise of the Graphical User Interface 3669: 3568: 3376: 3368: 3360: 3265: 3160:From the late 1970s to the early 1990s, 2992: 2924: 2895: 2852: 2802: 2760:. Clive Sinclair had originally founded 2740: 2691: 2681: 2590: 2480: 2400: 2366:The high price of the Apple II, lack of 2305: 2263: 2199: 2195: 2145: 2097: 2094:Games Consoles and the Personal Computer 1966: 1809: 1720: 1699: 1673: 1613: 1463: 1406: 1359: 1185: 1101: 1054: 1011: 706:used in prior generations of computers. 8750: 7881: 7240:IBM PC 5150 Technical Reference 6361453 7099: 6944:Mitchell, Peter W. (6 September 1983). 6787: 6542: 6517: 6470: 6421: 6135: 6015:Xerox, Palo Alto Research Center, 1979. 5631: 5538: 5381: 5169: 5145:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 4973:, 16.4 percent laptops and 2.1 percent 4762:Three former SGI employees had founded 4087:shut down hardware operations in 1993. 3800:History of the graphical user interface 2541: 2327:(known as "Woz"), a regular visitor to 2260:1977 and the emergence of the "Trinity" 14: 8848: 8396: 7673:"Apple's Mac OS X to Ship on March 24" 7162: 6912:The first decade of personal computing 6564:"From Zero to a Billion in Five Years" 6390: 6379: 6358: 6291:Schuyten, Peter J. (6 December 1978). 5334:Blinkenlights Archaeological Institute 5315:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 4640: 4446:(Universal Serial Bus) ports for easy 4207:. These new computers made use of new 2595:The VisiCalc spreadsheet is the first 1987: 1459: 1181: 880:in a June 1949 news article about the 499:field" in its first edition. In 1975, 162:Free software and open-source software 8769: 8731: 8523: 8502:Li, Yanping; Gao, Yuan (6 May 2022). 8501: 8286:"VIA Apollo Pro 266: The P3 gets DDR" 8243: 7833:"AMD Athlon 64 microprocessor family" 7773:Kanellos, Michael (26 January 1998). 7057:"The Coming Crisis in Home Computers" 6866: 6849: 6832: 6159: 6157: 6131: 6129: 5330:What was the first personal computer? 5089:"Wired 8.12: Must Read: The First PC" 5086: 4876:Unified Extensible Firmware Interface 4683:, including several versions of both 3972:A Silicon Graphics Octane workstation 3812:) into a fully functional product by 3623:, a bit-mapped graphics program, and 3155: 1980:tape interface for storage and a 12" 1269:in 1979 used in the original IBM PC. 1206:technology (from an original idea by 1136:they had developed). This became the 8753:The History of the Personal Computer 8651: 7998: 7800:"COMPAQ TO ACQUIRE TANDEM COMPUTERS" 7080: 6836:BBC Micro Teletext System User Guide 6790:"BBC Computer Literacy Project Memo" 5082: 5080: 5078: 5063:List of pioneers in computer science 4739: 3722:and had been used previously in the 3535:adding citations to reliable sources 3502: 2331:meetings, designed the single-board 1825:The Altair 8800 was introduced in a 1495:(GUI), concepts first introduced by 807: 728:A few researchers at places such as 28: 8841:Obsolete Technology – Old Computers 8805:the people and the technology (PDF) 8796:A history of the personal computer: 8190:Einstein, David (29 October 1997). 7526:chrisacorns.computinghistory.org.uk 7522:"Chris's Acorns: Acorn Risc PC 600" 7322:"A comprehensive history of the PC" 7236: 6904: 6359:Reimer, Jeremy (14 December 2005). 5347:"Origins of: The Personal Computer" 4906:announced the commercialisation of 4836:(DDR SDRAM) is introduced in 2000. 4645:The invention in the late 1970s of 4390:Writable CDs, MP3, P2P file sharing 4258:CPU and used the proprietary Acorn 3604:advertisement during the Super Bowl 3172:in 1979, continuing with the 8-bit 2900:1979: the Texas Instruments TI-99/4 2784:in the following year (sold as the 2709:, as well as the hugely successful 24: 8713:. McGraw-Hill Companies. pp. 8645: 8448: 8422:"Intel enters the third dimension" 8283: 8050: 8024: 7999:Team, Editorial (16 August 2019). 7471:"HP gaining on Dell in PC battles" 7346:Aris Mpitziopoulos (3 July 2016). 7210: 6154: 6126: 5502:] the Programma 101 to market. 5197:Horn, B.; Winston, P. (May 1975). 4694: 4609:. Also in the early 21st century, 4478: 4429: 3642:. This partnership introduced the 2656:The early 1980s and home computers 1576:and full function keyboard. SCAMP 1427: 568:computer-aided design and drafting 103: 25: 8877: 8789: 8736:. Allan Publishing. p. 528. 8679:. Authors Choice Press. pp. 8531:"PCs: More than 1 billion served" 8218:Schonfeld, Erick (1 April 2009). 8153:Mayhew, D.; Krishnan, V. (2003). 8001:"Networking History in the 1970s" 6806: 6788:Salkeld, Roberts (16 June 1981). 6664: 6065:Friedl, Paul J. (November 1983). 5541:"Oral History of Federico Faggin" 5369:"The IBM 610 Auto-Point Computer" 5075: 4943:chips. At the ≈10 nm scale, 4751:, and the ability of clusters of 4668:that could also be linked to the 4238:Acorn Risc PC 600 with two slices 3493:Peripheral Component Interconnect 3014:(released 1981). The machine was 2268:The three computers whose makers 1633:Operating systems were common on 1396: 1091: 682:Microprocessor and cost reduction 152:Software configuration management 8830:Chronology of Personal Computers 8615: 8589: 8571: 8549: 8495: 8468: 8442: 8413: 8397:Shimpi, Anand Lal (4 May 2011). 8390: 8368: 8343: 8303: 8277: 8263: 8237: 8211: 8146: 8121: 8096: 8070: 8044: 8018: 7992: 7966: 7941: 7922:Bangeman, Eric (2 August 2004). 7915: 7875: 7850: 7825: 7792: 7766: 7740: 7723:"History Of The USB Flash Drive" 7715: 7690: 7665: 7640: 7615: 7590: 7565: 7549:. 29 August 2016. Archived from 7539: 7514: 7081:Lock, Robert C. (January 1986). 7055:Pollack, Andrew (19 June 1983). 6742:"List of all Commodore 64 games" 6520:Commodore: A Company on the Edge 6495: 6391:Reimer, Jeremy (December 2005). 6336:. September 1995. Archived from 6260:Inventing the Electronic Century 5115:"9100A desktop calculator, 1968" 4585:Wi-Fi, LCD monitor, flash memory 4450:connectivity to devices such as 4229: 4079:. Despite its pioneering use of 3507: 3356: 2728:Commodore's introduction of the 2423:processor. It was essentially a 2031:they were able to write a BASIC 1695: 1385:and was later renamed Prologue. 1190:Intel 4004 with the chip exposed 935:The LGP-30 was an off-the-shelf 812: 426:history of the personal computer 381: 380: 33: 7924:"64-bit Xeon systems announced" 7489: 7463: 7438: 7413: 7387: 7365: 7339: 7320:John Knight (10 January 2021). 7313: 7288: 7263: 7247: 7230: 7204: 7178: 7156: 7127: 6921: 6910:Ahl, David H. (1984 November). 6860: 6843: 6826: 6800: 6781: 6767:"Best-selling desktop computer" 6759: 6734: 6709: 6684: 6658: 6633: 6616:"List of all ZX Spectrum games" 6608: 6582: 6511: 6464: 6444: 6422:Lemmons, Phil (November 1982). 6415: 6352: 6320: 6250: 6224: 6199: 6174: 6101: 6085: 6018: 6005: 5984: 5959: 5931: 5903: 5875: 5849: 5821: 5793: 5768: 5740: 5712: 5686: 5657: 5625: 5596: 5575: 5550: 5532: 5507: 5482: 5461: 5436: 5425: 5400: 5375: 5361: 5349:. Caltech Magazine. 15 May 2023 5339: 5323: 3963: 3365:Columbia Data Products MPC 1600 1875:, so starting it up required a 1781:magazine. The first product of 1779:Electronics Today International 1224:. Japanese electronics company 1168:small-scale integrated circuits 948:word computer with a 4096-word 717:MOS chip, developed in 1968 by 8755:. Franklin Watts. p. 64. 7185:Tim Danton (3 December 2021). 6562:Hogan, Thom (31 August 1981). 6543:Helmers, Carl (January 1980). 6231:Adam Hartley (29 April 2010). 5604:"Olivetti Programma P101/P102" 5558:"Olivetti Programma P101/P102" 5408:"Olivetti Programma P101/P102" 5277: 5241: 5227:, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1993 5217: 5190: 5170:Helmers, Carl (October 1975). 5163: 5136: 5107: 5087:Aaron, Clark (December 2000). 4959: 4794:for conventional 2D software. 4195:In 1994, Apple introduced the 4146:IBM introduced its successful 3464:Industry Standard Architecture 3292:of 1983. The XT added a 10 MB 2983:Guinness book of World Records 2936:Realizing that the monochrome 1799: 1572:compact cassette drive, small 978:designed by John Lentz at the 788:manufacturers. The very first 596:and larger minicomputers from 13: 1: 8856:History of computing hardware 8820:in Brantford, Ontario, Canada 7397:. 27 May 2023. Archived from 7141:. 54–59. LINC Japan: 18. 1999 5694:"Oral-History:Tadashi Sasaki" 5494:The Old Calculator Web Museum 5473:The Old Calculator Web Museum 5068: 4497:Digital Equipment Corporation 3824:The British graphics company 3255: 3077:Commodore price war and crash 2444:version early the next year. 1888:operating system loaded from 1657:and established his company, 1265:in 1978 and the cost-reduced 1251:Computer Terminal Corporation 598:Digital Equipment Corporation 6459:(2). Byte Publications: 190. 6263:. Harvard University Press. 6011:Thacker, Charles P., et al. 5053:, another 1974 microcomputer 4936:. HBM was released in 2013. 4857:MultiProcessor Specification 4657:) and with shared printers. 4625:(see following section) and 4520:line for desktop computers, 4262:graphical operating system. 3828:had released the GUI driven 3495:(PCI) was released in 1992. 3453:In 1984, IBM introduced the 3300:In 1980, IBM had approached 2988: 2639:In an anecdote recounted by 2175:in 1984 with a similar aim. 2025:processing city traffic data 1555: 1287:National Semiconductor SC/MP 676:Augmentation Research Center 650:gave what was later called " 455: 372:Glossary of computer science 18:Personal computer revolution 7: 8167:10.1109/CONECT.2003.1231473 8161:. IEEE Comput. Soc: 21–29. 7598:"Apple acquires Next, Jobs" 7425:www.computinghistory.org.uk 6930:Compute! Magazine Issue 037 6886:"A Microcomputing Timeline" 6475:. Winnipeg: Variant Press. 6211:www.computinghistory.org.uk 5642:United States Patent Office 5178:. pp. 4, col 3, para 2 4993: 4597:In the early 21st century, 4491:. Compaq itself had bought 4460:personal digital assistants 4133: 4081:object-oriented programming 2885: 2736: 2711:Atari Video Computer System 2587:VisiCalc and the killer app 2295: 1669: 1506:Corporation introduced the 1349: 1150: 952:. Standard inputs were the 838:the claims made and adding 765:computer kit, based on the 642:published an essay called " 508: 495:'s May 1976 usage of " the 59:the claims made and adding 10: 8882: 8656:. WorldComm. p. 304. 7028:Lock, Robert (June 1983). 6328:"Most Important Companies" 6295:. Business & Finance. 6138:Commodore: The Amiga Years 6013:Alto: A personal computer. 5336:. Accessed: 15 March 2008. 5151:(4). IEEE Journal: 70–71. 4532:released the 64-bit based 4503: 4218:, to replace the previous 4214:processors as part of the 3797: 3694:had seen a preview of the 3259: 3138:with it?'" The founder of 3080: 2889: 2685: 2659: 2474: 2394: 2299: 1960: 1899: 1803: 1653:in 1974 as an O/S for the 1400: 1353: 1194:In 1967, Italian engineer 1154: 1095: 1048: 1005: 967: 963: 928: 893: 560:Carnegie Mellon University 512: 8866:History of Silicon Valley 8751:Sherman, Josepha (2003). 7001:Bisson, Gigi (May 1986). 6918:, vol. 10, no. 11: p. 30. 5539:Hendrie, Gardner (2004). 5382:Hiltzik, Michael (2000). 5237:Digital Computers History 5029:Expensive Desk Calculator 4898:Semiconductor fabrication 4853:Advanced Power Management 4713:symmetric multiprocessing 4563: 4090: 3339:Seattle Computer Products 3119:Consumer Electronics Show 2470: 2070:Other machines of the era 2012:heard about the upcoming 1956: 1733:, which was published in 1204:self-aligned silicon gate 1200:Metal Oxide Semiconductor 1016:The LINC in use in a home 924: 480:'s usage in a 1974 book, 129:Hardware 1960s to present 8818:publicly viewable museum 8814:Personal Computer Museum 8489:10.1557/PROC-0997-I04-08 8420:Cartwright, Jon (2011). 7698:"The History of the DVD" 7275:historyofinformation.com 6809:"The BBC Micro turns 30" 5448:www.powerhousemuseum.com 5386:. Orion Business Books. 5157:10.1109/MAHC.2000.887997 5024:Personal Computer Museum 5005:History of mobile phones 4950: 4892: 4814: 4728: 4191:Power Macintosh, PowerPC 4103:In the early 1990s, the 4053: 3747:operating system called 3665: 3612:graphical user interface 3610:-driven computer with a 3499:Apple Lisa and Macintosh 3455:IBM Personal Computer/AT 3083:Video game crash of 1983 2905:development capability. 2583:by Fujitsu (see below). 2302:Apple II (1977 computer) 2238:forward error correction 1867:The Altair contained no 1622:Into the late 1970s, an 1592:or HP 9800 offered only 1515:graphical user interface 1493:graphical user interface 1305:On December 11th, 1972, 1293:which would produce the 1122:IBM Selectric typewriter 889: 635:, and special software. 625:graphical user interface 231:Graphical user interface 8583:4 December 2008 at the 8197:San Francisco Chronicle 7573:"RISC OS Open: Welcome" 6551:. pp. 6–10, 93–98. 6518:Bagnall, Brian (2010). 6501:"TRS-80 the "Trash-80"" 6471:Bagnall, Brian (2007). 6136:Bagnall, Brian (2017). 5971:www.computerhistory.org 5263:Computer History Museum 4868:operating system kernel 4846: 4162: 4058: 2921:VIC-20 and Commodore 64 2868:Miles Gordon Technology 2381:Atari 400 and Atari 800 1609: 1604:Smithsonian Institution 1411:Intel Intellec 4 Mod 40 1235:Nara Women's University 1163:Computer History Museum 1001: 652:The Mother of All Demos 180:Artificial intelligence 8774:. Sybex. p. 192. 8770:Laing, Gordon (2004). 8732:Allan, Roy A. (2001). 8129:"Intel Xeon Phi 3120P" 7623:"Mac OS 8 has arrived" 7395:"Talisman: Debut of X" 7243:. pp. 5-29–5-114. 7003:"Antic Then & Now" 6867:Acorn (22 July 1986). 6773:. 2023. Archived from 6771:Guinness World Records 5371:. Columbia University. 4932:(HBM), a successor of 4918:and his colleagues at 4594: 4439: 4398:and later, rewritable 4318: 4239: 4143: 4100: 4068: 4030:IBM PC clones dominate 4016:Silicon Graphics (SGI) 3973: 3675: 3579: 3417:Columbia Data Products 3382: 3374: 3366: 3276: 3097: 2998: 2933: 2901: 2858: 2808: 2746: 2697: 2600: 2560:). It consists of the 2486: 2409: 2390: 2329:Homebrew Computer Club 2321: 2273: 2205: 2151: 2123:was released in 1977. 2103: 1972: 1902:Homebrew Computer Club 1896:Homebrew Computer Club 1815: 1726: 1706: 1682: 1619: 1472: 1412: 1365: 1191: 1112: 1060: 1059:Olivetti Programma 101 1045:Olivetti Programma 101 1032:omputer) was an early 1017: 986:. It was announced by 887: 190:Early computer science 108: 8435:10.1038/news.2011.274 7296:"The DEC Rainbow 100" 7104:. Hardcore Gaming 101 6946:"A summer-CES report" 4930:High Bandwidth Memory 4863:(PnP) Specification. 4786:, along with 4 MB of 4709:Multi-core processors 4623:multi-core processors 4592: 4536:for Apple's high-end 4437: 4412:peer-to-peer networks 4312: 4237: 4141: 4098: 4066: 3971: 3940:which was founded by 3673: 3627:, which demonstrated 3572: 3380: 3372: 3364: 3269: 3262:IBM Personal Computer 3086: 2996: 2948:introduced the color 2942:Atari 8-bit computers 2928: 2899: 2856: 2806: 2750:Sinclair Research Ltd 2744: 2695: 2688:Atari 8-bit computers 2682:Atari 8-bit computers 2594: 2538:was at last retired. 2484: 2425:single-board computer 2404: 2309: 2267: 2203: 2196:Cassette Tape Storage 2171:was released for the 2149: 2110:released in 1972 and 2101: 1970: 1871:or other software in 1813: 1724: 1703: 1677: 1618:Screenshot of CP/M-86 1617: 1467: 1410: 1363: 1300: 1189: 1105: 1058: 1015: 869: 488:' usage in 1975, and 466:Hewlett-Packard 9100A 448:– were sold often in 316:Timeline of computing 200:Programming languages 185:Compiler construction 107: 8824:Old Computers Museum 8005:NETWORK ENCYCLOPEDIA 5862:Smithsonian Magazine 5384:Dealers of Lightning 5199:"Personal Computers" 4784:texture mapping unit 3590:. The Lisa ran on a 3531:improve this section 3186:Hitachi Basic Master 3127:vertical integration 2745:Sinclair ZX Spectrum 2678:in the early 1980s. 2562:Hitachi Basic Master 2542:The Japanese Trinity 1857:Teletype Corporation 1388:R2E was absorbed by 976:vacuum-tube computer 939:manufactured by the 937:vacuum-tube computer 704:magnetic-core memory 570:was foreshadowed by 226:General-purpose CPUs 210:Software engineering 124:Hardware before 1960 97:History of computing 8801:2 July 2006 at the 8652:Veit, Stan (1993). 8386:on 13 October 1999. 8284:Shimpi, Anand Lal. 8051:Shimpi, Anand Lal. 8025:Shimpi, Anand Lal. 7217:www.theregister.com 7100:Szczepaniak, John. 6813:www.theregister.com 6671:www.theregister.com 6167:197707 ROM V 1 I 01 6032:on 13 November 2013 5606:. old-computers.com 5560:. old-computers.com 5410:. old-computers.com 5297:on 22 December 2015 5010:History of software 4926:Through-silicon via 4908:Tri-gate transistor 4647:local area networks 4641:Local area networks 3878:in 1984. Microsoft 3804:The now ubiquitous 3407:Corona Data Systems 3308:) for a version of 3228:display resolutions 3135:Service Merchandise 2786:Timex Sinclair 1000 2768:(later to co-found 2499:The Model I used a 2215:Audio cassette tape 2135:and the 1993 Amiga 2117:Fairchild Channel F 1988:BASIC and Microsoft 1951:Fairchild Channel F 1937:and early portable 1864:secondary markets. 1828:Popular Electronics 1767:Popular Electronics 1460:Xerox Alto and Star 1283:MOS Technology 6502 1182:The single-chip CPU 984:Columbia University 772:Popular Electronics 619:. The minicomputer 474:Whole Earth Catalog 8861:Personal computers 8603:on 4 December 2008 7978:AugustMan Malaysia 7806:. 8 January 2024. 7577:www.riscosopen.org 7061:The New York Times 6980:Creative Computing 6916:Creative Computing 6298:The New York Times 6073:. pp. 190–197 5000:History of laptops 4861:Plug and Play BIOS 4595: 4440: 4319: 4240: 4201:desktop publishing 4167:By the mid-1990s, 4144: 4101: 4069: 3974: 3676: 3636:desktop publishing 3580: 3383: 3375: 3367: 3277: 3211:series and 16-bit 3156:Japanese computers 2999: 2934: 2902: 2859: 2809: 2762:Sinclair Radionics 2754:Sir Clive Sinclair 2747: 2698: 2601: 2575:(1978-12) and the 2517:serial port and a 2487: 2410: 2355:original Apple II 2322: 2274: 2219:punched paper tape 2206: 2180:Sony PlayStation 3 2152: 2139:was similar to an 2104: 1982:monochrome monitor 1973: 1816: 1727: 1707: 1683: 1620: 1566:IBM PALM processor 1473: 1413: 1366: 1237:. Intel employee, 1192: 1113: 1061: 1018: 974:The IBM 610 was a 876:British newspaper 823:possibly contains 700:solid-state memory 688:integrated circuit 668:video conferencing 553:mainframe computer 529:Computer terminals 502:Creative Computing 497:personal computing 434:mainframe computer 246:Personal computers 205:Prominent pioneers 109: 44:possibly contains 8781:978-0-7821-4330-0 8762:978-0-531-16213-2 8743:978-0-9689108-0-1 8724:978-0-07-135892-7 8690:978-1-58348-266-7 8663:978-1-56664-030-5 8537:. CBS Interactive 8455:www.anandtech.com 8290:www.anandtech.com 8176:978-0-7695-2012-4 8057:www.anandtech.com 8031:www.anandtech.com 7837:www.cpu-world.com 7553:on 29 August 2016 7135:"Computing Japan" 7087:Compute's Gazette 6972:Anderson, John J. 6777:on 26 March 2023. 6482:978-0-9738649-0-8 6270:978-0-674-02939-2 6147:978-0-9940310-2-0 6140:. Variant Press. 5700:. 26 January 2021 5519:www.intel4004.com 5095:on 4 October 2015 4971:desktop computers 4945:quantum tunneling 4740:Cheap 3D graphics 4689:Microsoft Windows 4674:operating systems 4615:computer monitors 4295:Castle Technology 4205:graphic designers 4117:operating systems 4109:industry standard 4067:1990: NeXTstation 4044:IBM PC compatible 3942:Jean-Louis Gassée 3886:Digital Research 3810:Douglas Englebart 3778:(1990). Into the 3690:games co-founder 3631:word processing. 3602:in 1984, with an 3567: 3566: 3559: 3421:IBM PC model 5150 3403:clean room design 2997:BBC Micro Model B 2818:Spectrum variants 2722:Atari 400 and 800 2666:Keyboard computer 2490:Tandy Corporation 2210:floppy disk drive 2131:was similar to a 2080:NorthStar Horizon 1998:Dartmouth College 1949:would design the 1735:Radio-Electronics 1562:portable computer 1497:Douglas Engelbart 910:Radio-Electronics 868: 867: 860: 825:original research 758:Radio-Electronics 742:Joseph Weisbecker 648:Douglas Engelbart 617:operating systems 430:personal computer 422: 421: 195:Operating systems 89: 88: 81: 46:original research 16:(Redirected from 8873: 8785: 8766: 8747: 8728: 8712: 8699:Freiberger, Paul 8694: 8678: 8667: 8639: 8638: 8636: 8634: 8619: 8613: 8612: 8610: 8608: 8599:. Archived from 8593: 8587: 8575: 8569: 8568: 8566: 8564: 8553: 8547: 8546: 8544: 8542: 8527: 8521: 8520: 8518: 8516: 8499: 8493: 8492: 8472: 8466: 8465: 8463: 8461: 8446: 8440: 8439: 8437: 8417: 8411: 8410: 8408: 8406: 8394: 8388: 8387: 8382:. Archived from 8372: 8366: 8365: 8363: 8361: 8355:learning.lpi.org 8351:"101.2 Lesson 1" 8347: 8341: 8340: 8338: 8336: 8330: 8320:. Archived from 8315: 8307: 8301: 8300: 8298: 8296: 8281: 8275: 8274: 8267: 8261: 8260: 8258: 8256: 8241: 8235: 8234: 8232: 8230: 8215: 8209: 8208: 8206: 8204: 8187: 8181: 8180: 8159:IEEE Comput. Soc 8150: 8144: 8143: 8141: 8139: 8125: 8119: 8118: 8116: 8114: 8100: 8094: 8093: 8091: 8089: 8074: 8068: 8067: 8065: 8063: 8048: 8042: 8041: 8039: 8037: 8022: 8016: 8015: 8013: 8011: 7996: 7990: 7989: 7987: 7985: 7970: 7964: 7963: 7961: 7959: 7945: 7939: 7938: 7936: 7934: 7919: 7913: 7912: 7906: 7898: 7896: 7894: 7879: 7873: 7872: 7870: 7868: 7854: 7848: 7847: 7845: 7843: 7829: 7823: 7822: 7820: 7818: 7796: 7790: 7789: 7787: 7785: 7770: 7764: 7763: 7761: 7759: 7744: 7738: 7737: 7735: 7733: 7719: 7713: 7712: 7710: 7708: 7694: 7688: 7687: 7685: 7683: 7669: 7663: 7662: 7660: 7658: 7644: 7638: 7637: 7635: 7633: 7619: 7613: 7612: 7610: 7608: 7594: 7588: 7587: 7585: 7583: 7569: 7563: 7562: 7560: 7558: 7543: 7537: 7536: 7534: 7532: 7518: 7512: 7511: 7509: 7507: 7493: 7487: 7486: 7484: 7482: 7467: 7461: 7460: 7458: 7456: 7446:"ThinkPad | IBM" 7442: 7436: 7435: 7433: 7431: 7417: 7411: 7410: 7408: 7406: 7391: 7385: 7384: 7383: 7381: 7369: 7363: 7362: 7360: 7358: 7343: 7337: 7336: 7334: 7332: 7317: 7311: 7310: 7308: 7306: 7300:www.columbia.edu 7292: 7286: 7285: 7283: 7281: 7267: 7261: 7260: 7251: 7245: 7244: 7234: 7228: 7227: 7225: 7223: 7208: 7202: 7201: 7199: 7197: 7182: 7176: 7175: 7173: 7171: 7160: 7154: 7153: 7148: 7146: 7131: 7125: 7124: 7113: 7111: 7109: 7097: 7091: 7090: 7083:"Editor's Notes" 7078: 7072: 7071: 7069: 7067: 7052: 7046: 7045: 7043: 7041: 7030:"Editor's Notes" 7025: 7019: 7018: 7016: 7014: 7009:. pp. 16–23 6998: 6992: 6991: 6989: 6987: 6968: 6962: 6961: 6959: 6957: 6941: 6935: 6934: 6925: 6919: 6908: 6902: 6901: 6899: 6897: 6881: 6875: 6874: 6864: 6858: 6857: 6847: 6841: 6840: 6830: 6824: 6823: 6821: 6819: 6804: 6798: 6797: 6796:on 6 March 2023. 6792:. Archived from 6785: 6779: 6778: 6763: 6757: 6756: 6754: 6752: 6738: 6732: 6731: 6729: 6727: 6721:www.commodore.ca 6713: 6707: 6706: 6704: 6702: 6688: 6682: 6681: 6679: 6677: 6662: 6656: 6655: 6653: 6651: 6637: 6631: 6630: 6628: 6626: 6612: 6606: 6605: 6603: 6601: 6586: 6580: 6579: 6577: 6575: 6559: 6553: 6552: 6540: 6534: 6533: 6522:(2nd ed.). 6515: 6509: 6508: 6493: 6487: 6486: 6468: 6462: 6460: 6448: 6442: 6441: 6439: 6437: 6428: 6419: 6413: 6412: 6410: 6408: 6399:. Archived from 6388: 6377: 6376: 6374: 6372: 6356: 6350: 6349: 6347: 6345: 6324: 6318: 6317: 6315: 6313: 6288: 6282: 6281: 6279: 6277: 6254: 6248: 6247: 6245: 6243: 6228: 6222: 6221: 6219: 6217: 6203: 6197: 6196: 6194: 6192: 6178: 6172: 6171: 6161: 6152: 6151: 6133: 6124: 6123: 6121: 6119: 6113:www.commodore.ca 6105: 6099: 6098: 6089: 6083: 6082: 6080: 6078: 6062: 6056: 6051: 6042: 6041: 6039: 6037: 6028:. Archived from 6022: 6016: 6009: 6003: 6002: 6000: 5988: 5982: 5981: 5979: 5977: 5963: 5957: 5956: 5954: 5952: 5943: 5935: 5929: 5928: 5926: 5924: 5915: 5907: 5901: 5900: 5898: 5896: 5887: 5879: 5873: 5872: 5870: 5868: 5853: 5847: 5846: 5844: 5842: 5833: 5825: 5819: 5818: 5816: 5814: 5805: 5797: 5791: 5790: 5788: 5786: 5772: 5766: 5765: 5763: 5761: 5752: 5744: 5738: 5737: 5735: 5733: 5724: 5716: 5710: 5709: 5707: 5705: 5690: 5684: 5680: 5678: 5676: 5667:. Archived from 5661: 5655: 5654: 5652: 5650: 5645:. Google patents 5638: 5629: 5623: 5622: 5613: 5611: 5600: 5594: 5593: 5591: 5589: 5579: 5573: 5572: 5567: 5565: 5554: 5548: 5547: 5545: 5536: 5530: 5529: 5527: 5525: 5511: 5505: 5504: 5486: 5480: 5479: 5465: 5459: 5458: 5456: 5454: 5440: 5434: 5429: 5423: 5422: 5417: 5415: 5404: 5398: 5397: 5379: 5373: 5372: 5365: 5359: 5358: 5356: 5354: 5343: 5337: 5327: 5321: 5320: 5314: 5306: 5304: 5302: 5296: 5290:. Archived from 5289: 5281: 5275: 5274: 5272: 5270: 5254: 5248: 5245: 5239: 5221: 5215: 5214: 5212: 5210: 5194: 5188: 5187: 5185: 5183: 5167: 5161: 5160: 5140: 5134: 5133: 5131: 5129: 5119: 5111: 5105: 5104: 5102: 5100: 5091:. Archived from 5084: 5057:Simon (computer) 4831:Double data rate 4792:video controller 4782:processor and a 4745:Silicon Graphics 4649:(LANs), notably 4528:. Also in 2003, 4493:Tandem Computers 4472:USB flash drives 4329:in 1992 and the 4284:Network Computer 4012:Sun Microsystems 3912:Acorn Archimedes 3562: 3555: 3551: 3548: 3542: 3511: 3503: 3401:A method called 3302:Digital Research 3194: 3095: 3071:tablet computers 3063:Acorn Archimedes 2820:being produced. 2570: 2463:, respectively. 2449:chiclet keyboard 2357:operating system 2317:Apple Monitor II 2108:Magnavox Odyssey 1877:machine language 1869:operating system 1659:Digital Research 1624:operating system 1489:desktop metaphor 1311:Q1 microcomputer 896:Simon (computer) 885: 863: 856: 852: 849: 843: 840:inline citations 816: 815: 808: 713:technology, the 610:batch processing 414: 407: 400: 384: 383: 171:Computer science 93: 92: 84: 77: 73: 70: 64: 61:inline citations 37: 36: 29: 21: 8881: 8880: 8876: 8875: 8874: 8872: 8871: 8870: 8846: 8845: 8803:Wayback Machine 8792: 8782: 8763: 8744: 8725: 8703:Swaine, Michael 8691: 8664: 8648: 8646:Further reading 8643: 8642: 8632: 8630: 8621: 8620: 8616: 8606: 8604: 8595: 8594: 8590: 8585:Wayback Machine 8576: 8572: 8562: 8560: 8555: 8554: 8550: 8540: 8538: 8529: 8528: 8524: 8514: 8512: 8500: 8496: 8483:: 0997–I04–08. 8477:MRS Proceedings 8473: 8469: 8459: 8457: 8449:Shilov, Anton. 8447: 8443: 8418: 8414: 8404: 8402: 8395: 8391: 8374: 8373: 8369: 8359: 8357: 8349: 8348: 8344: 8334: 8332: 8324: 8313: 8311:"ACPI Overview" 8309: 8308: 8304: 8294: 8292: 8282: 8278: 8269: 8268: 8264: 8254: 8252: 8242: 8238: 8228: 8226: 8216: 8212: 8202: 8200: 8188: 8184: 8177: 8151: 8147: 8137: 8135: 8127: 8126: 8122: 8112: 8110: 8102: 8101: 8097: 8087: 8085: 8076: 8075: 8071: 8061: 8059: 8049: 8045: 8035: 8033: 8023: 8019: 8009: 8007: 7997: 7993: 7983: 7981: 7972: 7971: 7967: 7957: 7955: 7953:Lenovo StoryHub 7947: 7946: 7942: 7932: 7930: 7920: 7916: 7900: 7899: 7892: 7890: 7880: 7876: 7866: 7864: 7856: 7855: 7851: 7841: 7839: 7831: 7830: 7826: 7816: 7814: 7804:Washington Post 7798: 7797: 7793: 7783: 7781: 7771: 7767: 7757: 7755: 7746: 7745: 7741: 7731: 7729: 7721: 7720: 7716: 7706: 7704: 7696: 7695: 7691: 7681: 7679: 7671: 7670: 7666: 7656: 7654: 7646: 7645: 7641: 7631: 7629: 7621: 7620: 7616: 7606: 7604: 7596: 7595: 7591: 7581: 7579: 7571: 7570: 7566: 7556: 7554: 7545: 7544: 7540: 7530: 7528: 7520: 7519: 7515: 7505: 7503: 7495: 7494: 7490: 7480: 7478: 7469: 7468: 7464: 7454: 7452: 7444: 7443: 7439: 7429: 7427: 7419: 7418: 7414: 7404: 7402: 7393: 7392: 7388: 7379: 7377: 7371: 7370: 7366: 7356: 7354: 7344: 7340: 7330: 7328: 7318: 7314: 7304: 7302: 7294: 7293: 7289: 7279: 7277: 7269: 7268: 7264: 7253: 7252: 7248: 7235: 7231: 7221: 7219: 7209: 7205: 7195: 7193: 7183: 7179: 7169: 7167: 7161: 7157: 7144: 7142: 7139:Computing Japan 7133: 7132: 7128: 7115: 7114:Reprinted from 7107: 7105: 7098: 7094: 7079: 7075: 7065: 7063: 7053: 7049: 7039: 7037: 7026: 7022: 7012: 7010: 6999: 6995: 6985: 6983: 6969: 6965: 6955: 6953: 6942: 6938: 6927: 6926: 6922: 6909: 6905: 6895: 6893: 6882: 6878: 6865: 6861: 6848: 6844: 6831: 6827: 6817: 6815: 6805: 6801: 6786: 6782: 6765: 6764: 6760: 6750: 6748: 6740: 6739: 6735: 6725: 6723: 6715: 6714: 6710: 6700: 6698: 6690: 6689: 6685: 6675: 6673: 6663: 6659: 6649: 6647: 6639: 6638: 6634: 6624: 6622: 6614: 6613: 6609: 6599: 6597: 6596:. 19 April 2012 6588: 6587: 6583: 6573: 6571: 6560: 6556: 6541: 6537: 6530: 6516: 6512: 6494: 6490: 6483: 6469: 6465: 6449: 6445: 6435: 6433: 6426: 6420: 6416: 6406: 6404: 6389: 6380: 6370: 6368: 6357: 6353: 6343: 6341: 6340:on 18 June 2008 6326: 6325: 6321: 6311: 6309: 6289: 6285: 6275: 6273: 6271: 6255: 6251: 6241: 6239: 6229: 6225: 6215: 6213: 6205: 6204: 6200: 6190: 6188: 6186:www.atarihq.com 6180: 6179: 6175: 6162: 6155: 6148: 6134: 6127: 6117: 6115: 6107: 6106: 6102: 6091: 6090: 6086: 6076: 6074: 6063: 6059: 6052: 6045: 6035: 6033: 6024: 6023: 6019: 6010: 6006: 5989: 5985: 5975: 5973: 5965: 5964: 5960: 5950: 5948: 5941: 5937: 5936: 5932: 5922: 5920: 5913: 5909: 5908: 5904: 5894: 5892: 5885: 5881: 5880: 5876: 5866: 5864: 5854: 5850: 5840: 5838: 5831: 5827: 5826: 5822: 5812: 5810: 5803: 5799: 5798: 5794: 5784: 5782: 5774: 5773: 5769: 5759: 5757: 5750: 5746: 5745: 5741: 5731: 5729: 5722: 5718: 5717: 5713: 5703: 5701: 5692: 5691: 5687: 5674: 5672: 5663: 5662: 5658: 5648: 5646: 5636: 5630: 5626: 5609: 5607: 5602: 5601: 5597: 5587: 5585: 5581: 5580: 5576: 5563: 5561: 5556: 5555: 5551: 5543: 5537: 5533: 5523: 5521: 5513: 5512: 5508: 5488: 5487: 5483: 5467: 5466: 5462: 5452: 5450: 5442: 5441: 5437: 5430: 5426: 5413: 5411: 5406: 5405: 5401: 5394: 5380: 5376: 5367: 5366: 5362: 5352: 5350: 5345: 5344: 5340: 5328: 5324: 5308: 5307: 5300: 5298: 5294: 5287: 5285:"Archived copy" 5283: 5282: 5278: 5268: 5266: 5256: 5255: 5251: 5246: 5242: 5222: 5218: 5208: 5206: 5195: 5191: 5181: 5179: 5168: 5164: 5141: 5137: 5127: 5125: 5124:(Advertisement) 5122:Hewlett-Packard 5117: 5113: 5112: 5108: 5098: 5096: 5085: 5076: 5071: 5020:Computer museum 4996: 4962: 4953: 4900: 4895: 4884:virtual machine 4849: 4817: 4768:Voodoo Graphics 4766:in 1994. Their 4742: 4731: 4697: 4695:Multiprocessing 4643: 4587: 4566: 4506: 4487:(HP) purchased 4485:Hewlett-Packard 4481: 4479:Hewlett-Packard 4452:digital cameras 4438:USB flash drive 4432: 4430:USB, DVD player 4392: 4317:in "Bondi Blue" 4307: 4244:Acorn Computers 4232: 4197:Power Macintosh 4193: 4165: 4136: 4093: 4061: 4056: 4032: 3966: 3857:X Window System 3802: 3796: 3762:and the singer 3668: 3648:Aldus PageMaker 3578: 3576:Apple Macintosh 3563: 3552: 3546: 3543: 3528: 3512: 3501: 3381:Compaq Portable 3373:DEC Rainbow 100 3359: 3304:(co-founded by 3275: 3264: 3258: 3188: 3158: 3096: 3093: 3085: 3079: 3053:and the 32-bit 3008:Acorn Computers 2991: 2923: 2894: 2888: 2880:Grundy NewBrain 2739: 2690: 2684: 2668: 2658: 2589: 2564: 2544: 2506:QWERTY keyboard 2479: 2473: 2399: 2393: 2379:introduced the 2320: 2304: 2298: 2262: 2198: 2096: 2072: 2047:Microsoft BASIC 1990: 1965: 1959: 1953:games console. 1931:Lee Felsenstein 1904: 1898: 1808: 1802: 1773:(1977) and the 1698: 1672: 1612: 1558: 1550:Apple Macintosh 1479:, developed at 1462: 1430: 1428:The Front Panel 1405: 1399: 1358: 1352: 1346:bases in 1979. 1313:, based on the 1309:sold the first 1303: 1285:(1975) and the 1196:Federico Faggin 1184: 1159: 1153: 1111: 1100: 1094: 1073:Federico Faggin 1053: 1047: 1010: 1004: 972: 966: 933: 927: 905:Edmund Berkeley 898: 892: 886: 875: 864: 853: 847: 844: 829: 817: 813: 806: 786:plug compatible 719:Federico Faggin 684: 664:word processing 644:As We May Think 592:, and later on 526: 517: 511: 462:Hewlett-Packard 458: 418: 218:Modern concepts 85: 74: 68: 65: 50: 38: 34: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8879: 8869: 8868: 8863: 8858: 8844: 8843: 8838: 8833: 8827: 8821: 8811: 8806: 8791: 8790:External links 8788: 8787: 8786: 8780: 8767: 8761: 8748: 8742: 8729: 8723: 8695: 8689: 8668: 8662: 8647: 8644: 8641: 8640: 8629:. 23 June 2008 8614: 8588: 8570: 8548: 8522: 8509:Bloomberg News 8494: 8467: 8441: 8412: 8389: 8367: 8342: 8331:on 25 May 2019 8302: 8276: 8262: 8236: 8210: 8182: 8175: 8145: 8120: 8108:Apple Newsroom 8095: 8084:. 16 June 2005 8069: 8043: 8017: 7991: 7980:. 5 March 2024 7965: 7940: 7914: 7874: 7849: 7824: 7791: 7765: 7754:. 9 April 2008 7739: 7714: 7689: 7677:Apple Newsroom 7664: 7639: 7614: 7589: 7564: 7538: 7513: 7488: 7462: 7437: 7412: 7401:on 27 May 2023 7386: 7364: 7352:Tom's Hardware 7338: 7312: 7287: 7262: 7246: 7229: 7211:Proven, Liam. 7203: 7177: 7155: 7126: 7092: 7073: 7047: 7020: 6993: 6974:(March 1984). 6963: 6950:Boston Phoenix 6936: 6920: 6903: 6876: 6859: 6850:Acorn (1985). 6842: 6833:Acorn (1983). 6825: 6799: 6780: 6758: 6733: 6708: 6696:sinclairql.net 6683: 6657: 6645:rk.nvg.ntnu.no 6632: 6607: 6581: 6570:. pp. 6–7 6554: 6535: 6529:978-0973864960 6528: 6510: 6505:pc-history.org 6488: 6481: 6463: 6443: 6414: 6403:on 6 June 2012 6378: 6351: 6319: 6301:. p. D4. 6283: 6269: 6249: 6223: 6198: 6173: 6153: 6146: 6125: 6100: 6084: 6057: 6043: 6017: 6004: 5998:10.1.1.22.1340 5983: 5958: 5930: 5902: 5874: 5848: 5820: 5792: 5767: 5739: 5711: 5685: 5671:on 12 May 2010 5656: 5624: 5595: 5574: 5549: 5531: 5506: 5481: 5460: 5435: 5424: 5399: 5392: 5374: 5360: 5338: 5322: 5276: 5249: 5240: 5216: 5189: 5172:"What is BYTE" 5162: 5135: 5106: 5073: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5066: 5065: 5060: 5054: 5048: 5042: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5002: 4995: 4992: 4987:Western Europe 4979:Western Europe 4961: 4958: 4952: 4949: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4848: 4845: 4816: 4813: 4741: 4738: 4730: 4727: 4707:respectively. 4696: 4693: 4676:to run on the 4662:microprocessor 4642: 4639: 4603:wireless cards 4586: 4583: 4565: 4562: 4518:microprocessor 4505: 4502: 4480: 4477: 4431: 4428: 4391: 4388: 4360:legacy devices 4306: 4303: 4231: 4228: 4192: 4189: 4164: 4161: 4135: 4132: 4092: 4089: 4060: 4057: 4055: 4052: 4031: 4028: 3965: 3962: 3898:The Commodore 3798:Main article: 3795: 3792: 3768:Motorola 68000 3754:The Commodore 3667: 3664: 3656:Macintosh Plus 3616:Motorola 68000 3592:Motorola 68000 3584:Apple Computer 3573: 3565: 3564: 3515: 3513: 3506: 3500: 3497: 3489:VESA Local Bus 3411:Eagle computer 3358: 3355: 3322:Dorothy McEwen 3270: 3260:Main article: 3257: 3254: 3157: 3154: 3110:MOS Technology 3101:Color Computer 3091: 3078: 3075: 2990: 2987: 2979:MOS Technology 2922: 2919: 2890:Main article: 2887: 2884: 2844:Linus Torvalds 2829:Motorola 68008 2738: 2735: 2686:Main article: 2683: 2680: 2657: 2654: 2588: 2585: 2548:the eight-bit 2543: 2540: 2536:TRS-80 Model 4 2475:Main article: 2472: 2469: 2405:October 1977: 2395:Main article: 2392: 2389: 2368:floating point 2349:Apple Computer 2343:and associate 2310: 2300:Main article: 2297: 2294: 2261: 2258: 2197: 2194: 2095: 2092: 2076:Exidy Sorcerer 2071: 2068: 2029:Monte Davidoff 1989: 1986: 1961:Main article: 1958: 1955: 1900:Main article: 1897: 1894: 1804:Main article: 1801: 1798: 1775:Transam Triton 1769:magazine, the 1697: 1694: 1671: 1668: 1663:Gnat Computers 1655:Intel Intellec 1611: 1608: 1557: 1554: 1461: 1458: 1429: 1426: 1401:Main article: 1398: 1397:Intel Intellec 1395: 1370:Intertechnique 1354:Main article: 1351: 1348: 1330:plasma display 1307:Q1 Corporation 1302: 1299: 1231:Tadashi Sasaki 1183: 1180: 1155:Main article: 1152: 1149: 1109:Datapoint 2200 1106: 1098:Datapoint 2200 1096:Main article: 1093: 1092:Datapoint 2200 1090: 1049:Main article: 1046: 1043: 1006:Main article: 1003: 1000: 993:transistorized 968:Main article: 965: 962: 929:Main article: 926: 923: 894:Main article: 891: 888: 873: 866: 865: 820: 818: 811: 805: 802: 761:described the 696:circuit boards 692:microprocessor 683: 680: 606:Prime Computer 537:microprocessor 531:were used for 525: 522: 510: 507: 457: 454: 450:electronic kit 446:microcomputers 442:microprocessor 420: 419: 417: 416: 409: 402: 394: 391: 390: 389: 388: 375: 374: 368: 367: 366: 365: 361:more timelines 357: 352: 347: 342: 337: 332: 327: 319: 318: 312: 311: 310: 309: 304: 299: 294: 289: 284: 279: 271: 270: 266: 265: 264: 263: 258: 256:World Wide Web 253: 248: 243: 238: 233: 228: 220: 219: 215: 214: 213: 212: 207: 202: 197: 192: 187: 182: 174: 173: 167: 166: 165: 164: 159: 154: 149: 141: 140: 134: 133: 132: 131: 126: 118: 117: 111: 110: 100: 99: 87: 86: 41: 39: 32: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8878: 8867: 8864: 8862: 8859: 8857: 8854: 8853: 8851: 8842: 8839: 8837: 8834: 8831: 8828: 8825: 8822: 8819: 8815: 8812: 8810: 8807: 8804: 8800: 8797: 8794: 8793: 8783: 8777: 8773: 8768: 8764: 8758: 8754: 8749: 8745: 8739: 8735: 8730: 8726: 8720: 8716: 8711: 8710: 8704: 8700: 8696: 8692: 8686: 8682: 8677: 8676: 8669: 8665: 8659: 8655: 8650: 8649: 8628: 8624: 8618: 8602: 8598: 8592: 8586: 8582: 8579: 8574: 8558: 8552: 8536: 8532: 8526: 8511: 8510: 8505: 8498: 8490: 8486: 8482: 8478: 8471: 8456: 8452: 8445: 8436: 8431: 8427: 8423: 8416: 8400: 8393: 8385: 8381: 8377: 8371: 8356: 8352: 8346: 8328: 8323: 8319: 8318:www.acpi.info 8312: 8306: 8291: 8287: 8280: 8272: 8266: 8251: 8247: 8240: 8225: 8221: 8214: 8199: 8198: 8193: 8186: 8178: 8172: 8168: 8164: 8160: 8156: 8149: 8134: 8130: 8124: 8109: 8105: 8099: 8083: 8079: 8073: 8058: 8054: 8047: 8032: 8028: 8021: 8006: 8002: 7995: 7979: 7975: 7969: 7954: 7950: 7944: 7929: 7925: 7918: 7910: 7904: 7889: 7888:Computerworld 7885: 7878: 7863: 7859: 7853: 7838: 7834: 7828: 7813: 7809: 7805: 7801: 7795: 7780: 7776: 7769: 7753: 7749: 7743: 7728: 7724: 7718: 7703: 7699: 7693: 7678: 7674: 7668: 7653: 7649: 7643: 7628: 7624: 7618: 7603: 7599: 7593: 7578: 7574: 7568: 7552: 7548: 7542: 7527: 7523: 7517: 7502: 7498: 7492: 7477:. 20 May 2006 7476: 7472: 7466: 7451: 7447: 7441: 7426: 7422: 7416: 7400: 7396: 7390: 7376: 7375: 7368: 7353: 7349: 7342: 7327: 7323: 7316: 7301: 7297: 7291: 7276: 7272: 7266: 7258: 7257: 7250: 7242: 7241: 7233: 7218: 7214: 7207: 7192: 7188: 7181: 7166: 7159: 7152: 7140: 7136: 7130: 7122: 7121: 7118: 7103: 7096: 7088: 7084: 7077: 7062: 7058: 7051: 7035: 7031: 7024: 7008: 7004: 6997: 6981: 6977: 6973: 6967: 6951: 6947: 6940: 6932: 6931: 6924: 6917: 6913: 6907: 6892:. p. 198 6891: 6887: 6880: 6872: 6871: 6863: 6855: 6854: 6846: 6838: 6837: 6829: 6814: 6810: 6807:Smith, Tony. 6803: 6795: 6791: 6784: 6776: 6772: 6768: 6762: 6747: 6743: 6737: 6722: 6718: 6712: 6697: 6693: 6687: 6672: 6668: 6665:Smith, Tony. 6661: 6646: 6642: 6636: 6621: 6617: 6611: 6595: 6591: 6585: 6569: 6565: 6558: 6550: 6546: 6539: 6531: 6525: 6521: 6514: 6506: 6502: 6498: 6492: 6484: 6478: 6474: 6467: 6458: 6454: 6447: 6432: 6431:Byte Magazine 6425: 6418: 6402: 6398: 6394: 6387: 6385: 6383: 6366: 6362: 6355: 6339: 6335: 6334: 6329: 6323: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6299: 6294: 6287: 6272: 6266: 6262: 6261: 6253: 6238: 6234: 6227: 6212: 6208: 6202: 6187: 6183: 6177: 6169: 6168: 6160: 6158: 6149: 6143: 6139: 6132: 6130: 6114: 6110: 6104: 6096: 6095: 6088: 6072: 6068: 6061: 6055: 6050: 6048: 6031: 6027: 6021: 6014: 6008: 5999: 5994: 5987: 5972: 5968: 5962: 5947: 5940: 5934: 5919: 5912: 5906: 5891: 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4873: 4869: 4864: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4844: 4842: 4837: 4835: 4832: 4828: 4826: 4822: 4812: 4810: 4809:Khronos Group 4806: 4803:SGI had made 4801: 4799: 4795: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4760: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4737: 4735: 4726: 4724: 4719: 4716: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4692: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4658: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4638: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4591: 4582: 4580: 4575: 4571: 4561: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4501: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4476: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4456:video cameras 4453: 4449: 4448:plug and play 4445: 4436: 4427: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4387: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4316: 4311: 4302: 4300: 4296: 4291: 4289: 4285: 4279: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4263: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4246:launched its 4245: 4236: 4230:Acorn Risc PC 4227: 4225: 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2283: 2279: 2271: 2266: 2257: 2253: 2251: 2250:vinyl records 2245: 2243: 2242:random access 2239: 2235: 2230: 2226: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2211: 2202: 2193: 2190: 2185: 2181: 2176: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2148: 2144: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2124: 2122: 2118: 2113: 2109: 2100: 2091: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2067: 2064: 2058: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2004: 2003:minicomputers 1999: 1995: 1985: 1983: 1978: 1969: 1964: 1954: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1919:Steve Wozniak 1915: 1913: 1909: 1908:Gordon French 1903: 1893: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1882:bootstrapping 1878: 1874: 1870: 1865: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1848: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1833: 1830: 1829: 1823: 1821: 1812: 1807: 1797: 1795: 1794:Sinclair ZX80 1790: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1771:Newbear 77-68 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1747: 1744: 1739: 1736: 1732: 1731:TV Typewriter 1723: 1719: 1716: 1711: 1702: 1696:Kit Computers 1693: 1690: 1687: 1681: 1676: 1667: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1639:minicomputers 1636: 1631: 1627: 1625: 1616: 1607: 1605: 1601: 1600: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1553: 1551: 1547: 1542: 1540: 1536: 1535:print servers 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1509: 1505: 1500: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1471: 1466: 1457: 1455: 1454:bootstrapping 1450: 1446: 1445:minicomputers 1441: 1439: 1435: 1425: 1423: 1418: 1409: 1404: 1394: 1391: 1386: 1382: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1362: 1357: 1347: 1345: 1340: 1338: 1333: 1331: 1327: 1322: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1298: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1275:Motorola 6800 1270: 1268: 1264: 1261:in 1974, the 1260: 1256: 1252: 1246: 1244: 1243:Stanley Mazor 1240: 1236: 1232: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1188: 1179: 1177: 1171: 1169: 1164: 1158: 1148: 1146: 1141: 1139: 1134: 1130: 1125: 1123: 1119: 1110: 1104: 1099: 1089: 1087: 1086:HP9100 series 1082: 1076: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1065:Programma 101 1057: 1052: 1051:Programma 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July 2002 8401:. 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