99:
1978:
1072:
2104:
2020:
2688:
1936:
1964:
2674:
665:; it was the first widely used high-level general purpose language to have a functional implementation, in contrast to only a design on paper. When FORTRAN was first introduced, it was viewed with skepticism due to bugs, delays in development, and the comparative efficiency of "hand-coded" programs written in assembly. However, in a hardware market that was rapidly evolving, the language eventually became known for its efficiency. It is still a popular language for
2618:
2716:
1706:
4354:
376:
2604:
2076:
1086:
2702:
1424:
841:
2048:
2660:
2646:
4326:
1785:. These did not directly descend from other languages and featured new syntaxes and more liberal incorporation of features. Many consider these scripting languages to be more productive than even the RAD languages, but often because of choices that make small programs simpler but large programs more difficult to write and maintain. Nevertheless, scripting languages came to be the most prominent ones used in connection with the Web.
2118:
869:
2006:
1650:
2090:
1410:
1992:
1950:
2632:
2062:
2034:
1382:
1720:
1058:
855:
1396:
46:
1664:
1678:
1692:
1737:
programming language rose to popularity because of its early integration with the
Netscape Navigator web browser. Various other scripting languages achieved widespread use in developing customized applications for web servers such as PHP. The 1990s saw no fundamental novelty in
1732:
The rapid growth of the
Internet in the mid-1990s was the next major historic event in programming languages. By opening up a radically new platform for computer systems, the Internet created an opportunity for new languages to be adopted. In particular, the
814:
ALGOL 68's many little-used language features (for example, concurrent and parallel blocks) and its complex system of syntactic shortcuts and automatic type coercions made it unpopular with implementers and gained it a reputation of being
1482:
Although major new paradigms for imperative programming languages did not appear, many researchers expanded on the ideas of prior languages and adapted them to new contexts. For example, the languages of the
728:(1959), created by the Short Range Committee. Another milestone in the late 1950s was the publication, by a committee of American and European computer scientists, of "a new language for algorithms"; the
704:
programming language and implemented a prototype. The FLOW-MATIC compiler became publicly available in early 1958 and was substantially complete in 1959. Flow-Matic was a major influence in the design of
3560:, et al. (2000). "Plankalkül: The First High-Level Programming Language and its Implementation". Institut frame Informatik, Freie Universität Berlin, Technical Report B-3/2000.
1510:(CPU) speed improvements that enabled increasingly aggressive compiling methods, the RISC movement sparked greater interest in compiler technology for high-level languages.
2331:
companies introduced multiple new programming languages that are designed to serve their needs and provides first-class support for their platforms. for example:
275:
67:
3619:
122:
98:
1250:
languages. Each of these languages spawned an entire family of descendants, and most modern languages count at least one of them in their ancestry.
4058:
636:
1448:, a systems programming language intended for use by defense contractors. In Japan and elsewhere, vast sums were spent investigating so-called
405:
639:
in 1961. Known as EDSAC 2 Autocode, it was a straight development from
Mercury Autocode adapted for local circumstances and was noted for its
1139:
foundation syntax. It first addressed efficient physics computing internally at ANL, was modified for research use (as "Modeleasy") for the
145:
773:(BNF), was used to describe the language's syntax. Nearly all subsequent programming languages have used a variant of BNF to describe the
3391:
4342:
318:
300:
117:
54:
3206:
2792:
295:
270:
155:
643:
optimization and source-language diagnostics which were advanced for the time. A contemporary but separate thread of development,
4347:
1452:
that incorporated logic programming constructs. The functional languages community moved to standardize ML and Lisp. Research in
224:
1098:
The period from the late 1960s to the late 1970s brought a major flowering of programming languages. Most of the major language
576:
The first functioning programming languages designed to communicate instructions to a computer were written in the early 1950s.
2230:
348:
4337:
3831:
3582:
3336:
1755:
1449:
1107:
989:
290:
1788:
Some programming languages included other languages in their distribution to save the development time. for example both of
1463:
One important new trend in language design was an increased focus on programming for large-scale systems through the use of
4383:
3188:
1176:
198:
4078:
4051:
3904:
3380:
2780:
757:: a block could have its own private variables, procedures and functions, invisible to code outside that block, that is,
554:
programs. It was eventually realized that programming in assembly language required a great deal of intellectual effort.
343:
338:
333:
328:
323:
23:
3914:
3066:
1751:
1172:
721:
469:(FORmula TRANslation), developed in 1956 (first manual appeared in 1956, but first developed in 1954) by a team led by
398:
173:
1440:. Rather than inventing new paradigms, all of these movements elaborated upon the ideas invented in the prior decade.
4083:
3416:
19:
743:
anguage"). This report consolidated many ideas circulating at the time and featured three key language innovations:
3885:
3396:
2558:
1495:
178:
27:
2130:
Programming language evolution continues, in both industry and research. Some of the recent trends have included:
1272:
to use it except in rare circumstances. This debate was closely related to language design: some languages had no
803:
became even more orthogonal, with anonymous routines, a recursive typing system with higher-order functions, etc.;
3264:
3136:
1476:
899:
558:
439:
285:
219:
203:
3623:
4357:
4289:
4162:
4044:
3486:
Fuegi, J.; Francis, J. (October–December 2003), "Lovelace & Babbage and the creation of the 1843 'notes'",
2770:
2566:
2450:
2432:
2420:
2343:
2339:
2281:
1551:
1453:
1034:
581:
546:
In the 1940s, the first recognizably modern electrically powered computers were created. The limited speed and
431:
280:
806:
not only the context-free part, but the full language syntax and semantics were defined formally, in terms of
600:
into machine code every time it ran, making the process much slower than running the equivalent machine code.
4378:
4332:
4310:
4264:
4237:
4212:
4172:
3645:
3421:
3401:
3228:
3220:
3036:
2968:
2802:
2578:
2546:
2504:
2486:
2438:
2377:
2355:
2262:
2139:
1823:
1789:
1747:
1589:
1566:
1352:
1316:
1284:
982:
824:
391:
379:
249:
239:
3717:"HPL – A Portable Implementation of the High-Performance Linpack Benchmark for Distributed-Memory Computers"
4304:
4207:
4177:
3178:
3016:
2878:
2864:
2510:
2492:
2444:
2387:
2270:
2176:
1322:
1167:
800:
784:
was particularly influential in the design of later languages, some of which soon became more popular. The
365:
353:
188:
4279:
4274:
4217:
4197:
3366:
3182:
3168:
3094:
3090:
3070:
3032:
3006:
2978:
2920:
2882:
2854:
2582:
2534:
2528:
2522:
2516:
2480:
2397:
2373:
2277:
2266:
2257:
as a developmental philosophy for languages, including the GNU Compiler
Collection and languages such as
2210:
2188:
1870:
1858:
1793:
1775:
1759:
1582:
1303:
1160:
1120:
1112:
1026:
927:
717:
651:
183:
4222:
4118:
4101:
3474:
3312:
3118:
2992:
2982:
2784:
2562:
2554:
2540:
2468:
1835:
1533:
1445:
1128:
964:
666:
254:
3795:
1143:
in the early 1970s and then was made available commercially; Speakeasy and
Modeleasy are still in use.
4232:
4187:
3332:
3316:
3308:
3288:
3278:
3108:
2474:
2369:
1625:
1471:, Ada, and ML all developed notable module systems in the 1980s. Module systems were often wedded to
1346:
1235:
1116:
615:. In 1954, a second iteration of the language, known as the "Mark 1 Autocode", was developed for the
519:, which would describe the sequence of operations that their programmable machines should perform.
4269:
4152:
3356:
3326:
3268:
3200:
3196:
3122:
3104:
2906:
2842:
2788:
2574:
2426:
2294:
Massively parallel languages for GPU graphics processing units and supercomputer arrays, including
2216:
2184:
2157:
1841:
1801:
1328:
1309:
1183:
648:
612:
593:
505:
with the engine, recognized by most of historians as the world's first published computer program.
3513:
3339:, which was created with an OOPS, object-oriented programming system, the first instance, in 1964.
3295:
2320:
2312:
1507:
1484:
807:
785:
597:
229:
59:
4138:
2742:
2201:
2135:
1829:
1771:
1255:
1247:
939:
244:
3411:
3210:
2220:
2150:
1601:
1499:
1488:
1140:
697:
547:
427:
309:
2142:
for making code easier to reason about and to parallelize (at both micro- and macro- levels)
1444:
combined object-oriented and systems programming. The United States government standardized
4067:
3995:
3763:
3660:
3406:
2254:
2205:
2146:
1287:, where the main routine, or driver function, is the final section of the program listing.
1099:
774:
770:
501:; she supplemented the memoir with notes that specified in detail a method for calculating
462:
423:
90:
34:
8:
4143:
3426:
2305:
2248:
1743:
1739:
1472:
1437:
754:
748:
747:
nested block structure: code sequences and associated declarations could be grouped into
585:
140:
3664:
3561:
3984:
3800:
3362:
3292:
3114:
2456:
2359:
1977:
1782:
1188:
758:
234:
3767:
1264:. A significant fraction of programmers believed that, even in languages that provide
4123:
3910:
3839:
3805:
3578:
2808:
2766:
2301:
1877:
1280:
1269:
1228:
887:
551:
512:
498:
108:
4016:
Sebesta, Robert W. Concepts of programming languages. Pearson
Education India, 2004.
2213:(AOP) allowing developers to insert code in another module or class at "join points"
1175:
was designed by
Charles Moore in 1969 as a personal development system while at the
584:, proposed in 1949, was one of the first high-level languages ever developed for an
3988:
3974:
3668:
3556:
In 1998 and 2000 compilers were created for the language as a historical exercise.
3532:
3495:
3456:
Knuth, Donald E.; Pardo, Luis Trabb. "Early development of programming languages".
3274:
3084:
3080:
3060:
3002:
2964:
2860:
2758:
2161:
1742:, but much recombination and maturation of old ideas. This era began the spread of
1613:
1220:
701:
624:
502:
164:
4026:
2103:
1071:
3342:
3150:
2912:
2838:
2687:
2197:
2019:
1457:
1224:
1152:
693:
632:
623:. Brooker, with the University of Manchester, also developed an autocode for the
531:
494:
150:
1211:(mid-1970s) provided a complete ground-up design of an object-oriented language.
458:
4003:
3950:
3298:
3244:
3234:
3174:
3022:
2932:
2902:
2846:
2798:
2393:
1526:
1192:
1156:
689:
644:
616:
535:
490:
3499:
1935:
4372:
4242:
3843:
3809:
3694:
3352:
3216:
3012:
2974:
2874:
2868:
2165:
1889:
1881:
1763:
820:
604:
570:
527:
508:
3557:
3140:
1494:
The 1980s also brought advances in programming language implementation. The
765:
Another innovation, related to this, was in how the language was described:
562:
446:
4294:
4133:
4031:
3284:
3100:
2988:
2942:
2828:
2762:
2732:
2414:
1963:
1240:
1196:
677:
620:
589:
577:
516:
486:
453:
between 1942 and 1945. The first high-level language to have an associated
422:
spans from documentation of early mechanical computers to modern tools for
3979:
3962:
3598:
2673:
1279:
To provide even faster compile times, some languages were structured for "
3871:
3346:
3254:
3132:
3042:
2892:
2822:
2738:
2405:
1851:
1617:
1572:
1539:
1244:
1132:
662:
640:
566:
523:
470:
450:
4036:
3889:
3672:
2867:, the first concatenative programming language, and a prominent name in
4202:
3940:
3620:"CSC-302 99S : Class 02: A Brief History of Programming Languages"
3322:
3160:
3026:
2950:
2832:
2774:
2715:
2498:
2383:
2347:
2089:
1895:
1734:
1475:
constructs: generics being, in essence, parametrized modules (see also
906:
751:
without having to be turned into separate, explicitly named procedures;
681:
3716:
2957:. Popularized machine-independent programming languages and the term "
2617:
2603:
2404:
Some notable languages developed during this period and are listed in
1513:
Language technology continued along these lines well into the 1990s.
1159:
as a superset of ALGOL 60, was the first language designed to support
4299:
3864:"TIOBE Index, Top 100 programming languages according to TIOBE Index"
3863:
3782:
Edinburgh LCF, including the ML interpreter, was implemented in Lisp.
3126:
2958:
2752:
2701:
2335:
2180:
1705:
1334:
1254:
The 1960s and 1970s also saw considerable debate over the merits of "
1207:
1200:
1030:
840:
2751:, pioneering work on object-oriented programming, and originator of
2075:
1085:
3832:"Google says new AI model Gemini outperforms ChatGPT in most tests"
3304:
3144:
3074:
3054:
3050:
2946:
2818:
2748:
2659:
2645:
2328:
2047:
1811:
Some notable languages that were developed in this period include:
1758:, and were descendants of older languages. All such languages were
1516:
Some notable languages that were developed in this period include:
1503:
1423:
1290:
Some notable languages that were developed in this period include:
958:
933:
893:
881:
Some notable languages that were developed in this period include:
792:
781:
700:, and in early 1955, she and her team wrote a specification for an
692:
during the period from 1955 until 1959. Hopper found that business
685:
608:
454:
435:
131:
823:
actually walked out of the design committee to create the simpler
442:, which use a more accessible syntax to communicate instructions.
426:. Early programming languages were highly specialized, relying on
4192:
4182:
3386:
3258:
3046:
2462:
2351:
2285:
1817:
1805:
1578:
1559:
1283:" which expect subordinate routines to be defined first, as with
1136:
952:
920:
913:
658:
466:
2117:
1781:
More radical and innovative than the RAD languages were the new
868:
45:
4259:
4227:
4111:
3238:
3224:
3154:
2996:
2928:
2916:
2896:
2631:
2365:
2295:
2005:
1864:
1649:
1555:
1545:
1468:
1340:
1215:
1147:
1124:
976:
970:
788:
were designed to be programmed in an extended subset of ALGOL.
710:
670:
538:
was an abstraction of the operation of a tape-marking machine.
1991:
1949:
1409:
1395:
1381:
4167:
4157:
4128:
4106:
2954:
2936:
2812:
2408:(Top 100 programming languages) as of February 2024 include:
2316:
2172:
2061:
2033:
1913:
1907:
1767:
1746:. A big driving philosophy was programmer productivity. Many
1691:
1522:
1441:
1366:
1013:
995:
946:
730:
725:
706:
669:
and is used for programs that benchmark and rank the world's
628:
3063:, co-inventor of the polymorphic lambda calculus (System F).
1719:
1057:
854:
4249:
3878:
3192:
3164:
2924:
2886:
2570:
2289:
1847:
1677:
1663:
1595:
1487:
and
Emerald systems adapted object-oriented programming to
1296:
1260:
1019:
1007:
1001:
611:, possibly the first compiled programming language, at the
2728:
Some key people who helped develop programming languages:
1258:", which essentially meant programming without the use of
4284:
4254:
3248:
2850:
2258:
2244:
2226:
2171:
Alternative mechanisms for composability and modularity:
1901:
1797:
1607:
1358:
474:
596:
in understandable form. However, the program had to be
573:
between 1942 and 1945 but not implemented at the time.
465:
thesis. The first commercially available language was
3599:"Fortran creator John Backus dies – Tech and gadgets"
3237:, pioneered object-oriented programming, co-invented
3153:, pioneered object-oriented programming, co-invented
2138:
in mainstream languages used commercially, including
1506:
rather than for human assembly programmers. Aided by
1042:
810:, a formalism designed specifically for this purpose.
1750:(RAD) languages emerged, which usually came with an
3787:
3015:, main designer, and one of the core developers of
2315:(AI) methods to generate code using AI like using
1436:The 1980s were years of relative consolidation in
1276:, which forced the use of structured programming.
676:Another early programming language was devised by
2909:. Unix Operating System, Plan 9 Operating System.
4370:
3181:, and previously a contributor to the design of
3163:, creator of the Perl programming language (see
2240:Increased interest in distribution and mobility.
1502:postulated that hardware should be designed for
4009:Thomas J. Bergin and Richard G. Gibson (eds.):
3955:Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals
3458:Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology
1467:, or large-scale organizational units of code.
1029:(an educational language that later influenced
637:University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory
526:were specialized for their applications: e.g.,
489:translated the memoir of Italian mathematician
4027:History and evolution of programming languages
3906:The First Computers: History and Architectures
1778:. Java in particular received much attention.
541:
445:The first high-level programming language was
4052:
3902:
3514:"Charles Babbage Analytical Engine Explained"
1239:built a polymorphic type system (invented by
399:
3485:
2915:, influenced and designed such languages as
791:ALGOL's key ideas were continued, producing
3963:"Programming Languages: History and Future"
3856:
3392:History of Programming Languages Conference
2160:to the language: extended static checking,
716:Other languages still in use today include
434:. Throughout the 20th century, research in
4325:
4059:
4045:
3756:
3692:
1634:
1367:1980s: consolidation, modules, performance
709:, since only it and its direct descendant
406:
392:
4066:
3978:
1135:numerical package. Speakeasy has a clear
1102:now in use were invented in this period:
3195:programming language, forerunner of the
2553:Other new programming languages include
2194:Component-oriented software development.
1620:, only got a separate name in June 2013)
70:of all important aspects of the article.
33:For broader coverage of this topic, see
3705:(6). Association of Computing Machines.
3572:
550:forced programmers to write hand-tuned
18:For a detailed timeline of events, see
4371:
3960:
3793:
3762:
3566:
3455:
2243:Integration with databases, including
2231:Extensible Application Markup Language
1450:fifth-generation programming languages
156:Free software and open-source software
66:Please consider expanding the lead to
4040:
4032:Graph of programming language history
3829:
3796:"How Do You Know a Human Wrote This?"
3643:
3511:
2841:, co-author of the first book on the
1460:, began to take hold in this decade.
661:was invented at IBM by a team led by
3695:"The Ideal HPC Programming Language"
3653:Computing in Science and Engineering
3524:
3505:
1177:National Radio Astronomy Observatory
592:, Short Code statements represented
39:
3903:Rojas, Raúl; Hashagen, Ulf (2002).
3686:
3381:Association for Computing Machinery
2164:, information flow control, static
2156:Mechanisms for adding security and
1804:programming through libraries like
1123:system (OOPS), much like the later
13:
3934:
3768:"From LCF to HOL: a short history"
3488:Annals of the History of Computing
2735:, published first computer program
1752:integrated development environment
1550:1984 – dBase III, dBase III Plus (
1361:(a query language, later extended)
1173:concatenative programming language
1043:Establishing fundamental paradigms
696:customers were uncomfortable with
627:in the 1950s. The version for the
97:
14:
4395:
4020:
3945:Programming Systems and Languages
3575:Concepts of Programming Languages
3530:
3417:Timeline of programming languages
1920:
769:a mathematically exact notation,
146:Software configuration management
20:Timeline of programming languages
4353:
4352:
4324:
4011:History of Programming Languages
4000:History of Programming Languages
3794:Manjoo, Farhad (July 29, 2020).
3397:History of compiler construction
2714:
2700:
2686:
2672:
2658:
2644:
2630:
2616:
2602:
2116:
2102:
2088:
2074:
2060:
2046:
2032:
2018:
2004:
1990:
1976:
1962:
1948:
1934:
1718:
1704:
1690:
1676:
1662:
1648:
1496:reduced instruction set computer
1422:
1408:
1394:
1380:
1151:, invented in the late 1960s by
1084:
1070:
1056:
867:
853:
839:
497:'s newest proposed machine: the
480:
440:high-level programming languages
420:history of programming languages
375:
374:
44:
28:History of Programming Languages
3896:
3823:
3747:
3738:
3729:
3709:
3637:
3622:. Math.grin.edu. Archived from
3612:
3512:Bales, Rebecca (24 July 2023).
3137:high-level programming language
2204:(reflection), or access to the
1477:Polymorphism (computer science)
559:high-level programming language
58:may be too short to adequately
3591:
3550:
3479:
3468:
3449:
3440:
2588:
515:both were designed to utilize
438:theory led to the creation of
68:provide an accessible overview
1:
3961:Sammet, Jean E. (July 1972).
3433:
3422:List of programming languages
3402:History of computing hardware
2225:XML for graphical interface (
2140:purely functional programming
1748:rapid application development
1456:, a functional language with
1243:in 1973) on Lisp, pioneering
2953:, influenced development of
2278:visual programming languages
366:Glossary of computer science
7:
4384:History of computer science
3693:Eugene Loh (18 June 2010).
3373:
3319:Operating System co-author.
3007:polymorphic lambda calculus
2311:Early research in applying
2304:programming languages (see
2211:Aspect-oriented programming
1583:visual programming language
1191:language, was developed by
1161:object-oriented programming
1121:object-oriented programming
1113:Argonne National Laboratory
684:. It was developed for the
542:First programming languages
534:in a formulaic way and the
10:
4400:
3909:. MIT Press. p. 292.
3753:Sammet (1978) p. 204.
3313:Inferno (operating system)
3049:, cooperated in designing
2845:programming language with
1766:, Objective Caml (renamed
888:Regional Assembly Language
667:high-performance computing
32:
17:
4320:
4097:
4074:
3967:Communications of the ACM
3886:"GitHub's Octoverse 2018"
3830:Milmo, Dan (2023-12-06).
3744:Sammet (1969) p. 316
3735:Hopper (1978) p. 16.
3644:Padua, David (Feb 2000).
3500:10.1109/MAHC.2003.1253887
3475:Corrado Böhm's PhD thesis
3464:. Marcel Dekker: 419–493.
3446:Hopper (1978) p. 16.
3317:Plan 9 (operating system)
3291:, and sharing credit for
2217:Domain-specific languages
713:were in use at the time.
123:Hardware 1960s to present
3646:"The FORTRAN I Compiler"
2945:, first to use the term
2158:reliability verification
1223:, Phillipe Roussel, and
777:portion of their syntax.
673:fastest supercomputers.
649:University of Manchester
613:University of Manchester
594:mathematical expressions
557:An early proposal for a
530:was able to express the
225:Graphical user interface
4013:, Addison Wesley, 1996.
2313:artificial intelligence
2134:Increasing support for
1635:1990s: the Internet age
1529:, renamed in 1983)
1508:central processing unit
1111:, developed in 1964 at
808:Van Wijngaarden grammar
786:Burroughs large systems
174:Artificial intelligence
26:conference series, see
3957:, Prentice-Hall, 1969.
3601:. NBC News. 2007-03-20
3573:Sebesta, W.S. (2006).
3073:, design committee of
2871:microprocessor design.
2857:programming languages.
2202:reflective programming
2145:Constructs to support
2136:functional programming
1256:structured programming
1248:functional programming
1219:, designed in 1972 by
1203:between 1969 and 1973.
647:was developed for the
511:and Charles Babbage's
430:and similarly obscure
184:Early computer science
102:
4068:Programming languages
3980:10.1145/361454.361485
3764:Gordon, Michael J. C.
3412:Timeline of computing
3135:, designed the first
3005:, co-inventor of the
1602:PIC (markup language)
1500:computer architecture
1489:distributed computing
1141:Federal Reserve Board
942:(forerunner to COBOL)
698:mathematical notation
428:mathematical notation
310:Timeline of computing
194:Programming languages
179:Compiler construction
101:
4379:History of computing
3996:Richard L. Wexelblat
3947:, McGraw-Hill, 1967.
3518:history-computer.com
3407:Programming language
3209:, inventor of first
3083:, originator of the
2991:, chief designer of
2977:, lead developer of
2300:Early research into
2249:relational databases
2206:abstract syntax tree
1744:functional languages
1740:imperative languages
1438:imperative languages
923:(precursor to COBOL)
902:(forerunner to LISP)
720:(1958), invented by
603:In the early 1950s,
424:software development
220:General-purpose CPUs
204:Software engineering
118:Hardware before 1960
91:History of computing
35:Programming language
3874:. 22 February 2024.
3673:10.1109/5992.814661
3665:2000CSE.....2a..70P
3537:computerhistory.org
3427:List of programmers
3207:Nathaniel Rochester
2981:and its precursor,
1783:scripting languages
1498:(RISC) movement in
1473:generic programming
1189:systems programming
586:electronic computer
522:The first computer
3801:The New York Times
3363:Yukihiro Matsumoto
3143:(which influenced
3121:, co-developer of
3115:Kenneth E. Iverson
2849:, coauthor of the
2693:Yukihiro Matsumoto
1756:garbage collection
1281:one-pass compilers
759:information hiding
485:During 1842–1849,
240:Personal computers
199:Prominent pioneers
103:
4366:
4365:
4348:Non-English-based
3584:978-0-321-33025-3
2949:and developer of
2809:Bjarne Stroustrup
2651:Bjarne Stroustrup
2302:quantum computing
2276:More interest in
1762:. These included
1312:(forerunner to C)
1299:(forerunner to B)
1270:programming style
1229:logic programming
1022:(forerunner to C)
985:(forerunner to C)
680:in the US, named
631:2 was devised by
552:assembly language
513:Difference Engine
503:Bernoulli numbers
499:Analytical Engine
461:in 1951, for his
416:
415:
189:Operating systems
85:
84:
4391:
4356:
4355:
4328:
4327:
4061:
4054:
4047:
4038:
4037:
3992:
3982:
3928:
3927:
3925:
3923:
3900:
3894:
3893:
3888:. Archived from
3882:
3876:
3875:
3860:
3854:
3853:
3851:
3850:
3827:
3821:
3820:
3818:
3816:
3791:
3785:
3784:
3779:
3778:
3772:
3760:
3754:
3751:
3745:
3742:
3736:
3733:
3727:
3726:
3724:
3723:
3713:
3707:
3706:
3690:
3684:
3683:
3681:
3679:
3650:
3641:
3635:
3634:
3632:
3631:
3616:
3610:
3609:
3607:
3606:
3595:
3589:
3588:
3570:
3564:
3554:
3548:
3547:
3545:
3543:
3528:
3522:
3521:
3509:
3503:
3502:
3483:
3477:
3472:
3466:
3465:
3453:
3447:
3444:
3325:, co-creator of
3307:, co-creator of
3277:, co-creator of
3275:Robert Griesemer
3267:, co-creator of
3265:Robert Gentleman
3085:operating system
3081:John von Neumann
3061:John C. Reynolds
3003:Jean-Yves Girard
2965:Guido van Rossum
2821:, co-creator of
2759:Anders Hejlsberg
2718:
2704:
2690:
2679:Guido van Rossum
2676:
2665:Anders Hejlsberg
2662:
2648:
2634:
2620:
2606:
2162:dependent typing
2120:
2106:
2092:
2078:
2064:
2050:
2036:
2022:
2008:
1994:
1980:
1966:
1952:
1938:
1885:
1722:
1708:
1694:
1680:
1666:
1652:
1629:
1614:Wolfram Language
1426:
1412:
1398:
1384:
1275:
1267:
1263:
1245:statically typed
1227:, was the first
1221:Alain Colmerauer
1088:
1074:
1060:
916:(first compiler)
871:
857:
843:
771:Backus–Naur form
702:English language
625:Ferranti Mercury
408:
401:
394:
378:
377:
165:Computer science
87:
86:
80:
77:
71:
48:
40:
4399:
4398:
4394:
4393:
4392:
4390:
4389:
4388:
4369:
4368:
4367:
4362:
4316:
4093:
4070:
4065:
4023:
3951:Sammet, Jean E.
3937:
3935:Further reading
3932:
3931:
3921:
3919:
3917:
3901:
3897:
3884:
3883:
3879:
3862:
3861:
3857:
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3788:
3776:
3774:
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3748:
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3734:
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3721:
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3715:
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3567:
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3529:
3525:
3510:
3506:
3484:
3480:
3473:
3469:
3454:
3450:
3445:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3376:
3343:Stephen Wolfram
3189:Martin Richards
3151:Kristen Nygaard
3117:, developer of
2913:Douglas McIlroy
2839:Brian Kernighan
2831:, developer of
2811:, developer of
2783:, developer of
2761:, developer of
2741:, developer of
2726:
2725:
2724:
2723:
2722:
2719:
2710:
2709:
2708:
2705:
2696:
2695:
2694:
2691:
2682:
2681:
2680:
2677:
2668:
2667:
2666:
2663:
2654:
2653:
2652:
2649:
2640:
2639:
2638:
2637:Grace M. Hopper
2635:
2626:
2625:
2624:
2621:
2612:
2611:
2610:
2607:
2598:
2597:
2596:Some innovators
2591:
2551:
2221:code generation
2198:Metaprogramming
2128:
2127:
2126:
2125:
2124:
2121:
2112:
2111:
2110:
2107:
2098:
2097:
2096:
2093:
2084:
2083:
2082:
2079:
2070:
2069:
2068:
2065:
2056:
2055:
2054:
2051:
2042:
2041:
2040:
2037:
2028:
2027:
2026:
2023:
2014:
2013:
2012:
2009:
2000:
1999:
1998:
1995:
1986:
1985:
1984:
1981:
1972:
1971:
1970:
1967:
1958:
1957:
1956:
1953:
1944:
1943:
1942:
1939:
1930:
1929:
1923:
1918:
1875:
1760:object-oriented
1730:
1729:
1728:
1727:
1726:
1723:
1714:
1713:
1712:
1709:
1700:
1699:
1698:
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1686:
1685:
1684:
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1672:
1671:
1670:
1667:
1658:
1657:
1656:
1653:
1644:
1643:
1637:
1632:
1623:
1458:lazy evaluation
1434:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1430:
1427:
1418:
1417:
1416:
1413:
1404:
1403:
1402:
1399:
1390:
1389:
1388:
1385:
1376:
1375:
1369:
1364:
1273:
1265:
1259:
1225:Robert Kowalski
1171:, the earliest
1096:
1095:
1094:
1093:
1092:
1089:
1080:
1079:
1078:
1075:
1066:
1065:
1064:
1061:
1052:
1051:
1045:
1040:
879:
878:
877:
876:
875:
872:
863:
862:
861:
858:
849:
848:
847:
844:
835:
834:
755:lexical scoping
694:data processing
633:Douglas Hartree
565:, developed by
548:memory capacity
544:
532:lambda calculus
495:Charles Babbage
483:
457:was created by
412:
212:Modern concepts
81:
75:
72:
65:
53:This article's
49:
38:
31:
12:
11:
5:
4397:
4387:
4386:
4381:
4364:
4363:
4361:
4360:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4335:
4321:
4318:
4317:
4315:
4314:
4307:
4302:
4297:
4292:
4287:
4282:
4277:
4272:
4267:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4246:
4245:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4220:
4215:
4210:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4180:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4149:
4148:
4147:
4146:
4141:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4115:
4114:
4104:
4098:
4095:
4094:
4092:
4091:
4086:
4081:
4075:
4072:
4071:
4064:
4063:
4056:
4049:
4041:
4035:
4034:
4029:
4022:
4021:External links
4019:
4018:
4017:
4014:
4007:
4004:Academic Press
3993:
3973:(7): 601–610.
3958:
3948:
3936:
3933:
3930:
3929:
3916:978-0262681377
3915:
3895:
3892:on 2019-03-22.
3877:
3855:
3822:
3786:
3755:
3746:
3737:
3728:
3708:
3685:
3636:
3611:
3590:
3583:
3577:. p. 44.
3565:
3549:
3531:Swade, Doron.
3523:
3504:
3478:
3467:
3448:
3438:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3371:
3370:
3360:
3350:
3340:
3335:, inventor of
3330:
3320:
3302:
3299:type inference
3293:Hindley–Milner
3287:, inventor of
3282:
3272:
3262:
3252:
3245:Rasmus Lerdorf
3242:
3235:Ole-Johan Dahl
3232:
3219:, inventor of
3214:
3204:
3191:developed the
3186:
3175:Martin Odersky
3172:
3158:
3148:
3130:
3112:
3103:, inventor of
3098:
3093:, inventor of
3088:
3078:
3069:, inventor of
3064:
3058:
3045:, inventor of
3040:
3030:
3025:, inventor of
3023:Jeffrey Snover
3020:
3010:
3000:
2986:
2972:
2962:
2940:
2910:
2905:, inventor of
2903:Dennis Ritchie
2900:
2890:
2872:
2863:, inventor of
2858:
2847:Dennis Ritchie
2836:
2826:
2816:
2806:
2801:, inventor of
2799:Bertrand Meyer
2796:
2781:Arthur Whitney
2778:
2756:
2746:
2736:
2720:
2713:
2712:
2711:
2706:
2699:
2698:
2697:
2692:
2685:
2684:
2683:
2678:
2671:
2670:
2669:
2664:
2657:
2656:
2655:
2650:
2643:
2642:
2641:
2636:
2629:
2628:
2627:
2622:
2615:
2614:
2613:
2609:Dennis Ritchie
2608:
2601:
2600:
2599:
2595:
2594:
2593:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2550:
2549:
2543:
2537:
2531:
2525:
2519:
2513:
2507:
2501:
2495:
2489:
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2477:
2471:
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2423:
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2410:
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2401:
2391:
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2309:
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2274:
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2241:
2238:
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2236:
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2214:
2195:
2192:
2169:
2154:
2143:
2122:
2115:
2114:
2113:
2108:
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2100:
2099:
2094:
2087:
2086:
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2080:
2073:
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2066:
2059:
2058:
2057:
2052:
2045:
2044:
2043:
2038:
2031:
2030:
2029:
2024:
2017:
2016:
2015:
2010:
2003:
2002:
2001:
1996:
1989:
1988:
1987:
1982:
1975:
1974:
1973:
1968:
1961:
1960:
1959:
1954:
1947:
1946:
1945:
1940:
1933:
1932:
1931:
1927:
1926:
1925:
1924:
1922:
1921:Current trends
1919:
1917:
1916:
1910:
1904:
1898:
1892:
1886:
1873:
1867:
1861:
1855:
1850:(part of ANSI
1844:
1838:
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1826:
1820:
1813:
1724:
1717:
1716:
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1710:
1703:
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1604:
1598:
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1548:
1542:
1536:
1530:
1527:C with classes
1518:
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1419:
1414:
1407:
1406:
1405:
1400:
1393:
1392:
1391:
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1325:
1319:
1313:
1306:
1300:
1292:
1252:
1251:
1232:
1212:
1204:
1193:Dennis Ritchie
1180:
1164:
1144:
1090:
1083:
1082:
1081:
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1069:
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1067:
1062:
1055:
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1044:
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1038:
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986:
979:
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961:
955:
949:
943:
936:
930:
924:
917:
910:
909:(led to COBOL)
903:
896:
890:
883:
873:
866:
865:
864:
859:
852:
851:
850:
845:
838:
837:
836:
832:
831:
830:
829:
812:
811:
804:
779:
778:
763:
762:
752:
690:Remington Rand
645:Atlas Autocode
543:
540:
536:Turing machine
509:Jacquard Looms
491:Luigi Menabrea
482:
479:
414:
413:
411:
410:
403:
396:
388:
385:
384:
383:
382:
369:
368:
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355:more timelines
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62:the key points
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50:
43:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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3990:
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3899:
3891:
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3881:
3873:
3869:
3868:www.tiobe.com
3865:
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3807:
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3797:
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3759:
3750:
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3718:
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3704:
3700:
3696:
3689:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3647:
3640:
3626:on 2010-07-15
3625:
3621:
3615:
3600:
3594:
3586:
3580:
3576:
3569:
3563:
3559:
3553:
3538:
3534:
3533:"The Engines"
3527:
3519:
3515:
3508:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3482:
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3471:
3463:
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3403:
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3382:
3379:
3378:
3368:
3365:, creator of
3364:
3361:
3358:
3355:, creator of
3354:
3353:Walter Bright
3351:
3348:
3345:, creator of
3344:
3341:
3338:
3334:
3333:Stanley Cohen
3331:
3328:
3324:
3321:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3303:
3300:
3297:
3294:
3290:
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3280:
3276:
3273:
3270:
3266:
3263:
3260:
3257:, creator of
3256:
3253:
3250:
3247:, creator of
3246:
3243:
3240:
3236:
3233:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3217:Niklaus Wirth
3215:
3212:
3208:
3205:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3187:
3184:
3180:
3177:, creator of
3176:
3173:
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3159:
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3134:
3131:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3113:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3099:
3096:
3092:
3091:Graydon Hoare
3089:
3086:
3082:
3079:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3067:John McCarthy
3065:
3062:
3059:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3041:
3038:
3035:, creator of
3034:
3033:Joe Armstrong
3031:
3028:
3024:
3021:
3018:
3014:
3013:Jeff Bezanson
3011:
3008:
3004:
3001:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2987:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2975:James Gosling
2973:
2970:
2967:, creator of
2966:
2963:
2960:
2956:
2952:
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2944:
2941:
2938:
2934:
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2926:
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2904:
2901:
2898:
2895:, creator of
2894:
2891:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2877:, creator of
2876:
2875:Chris Lattner
2873:
2870:
2869:stack machine
2866:
2862:
2859:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2837:
2834:
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2807:
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2757:
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2734:
2731:
2730:
2729:
2717:
2707:James Gosling
2703:
2689:
2675:
2661:
2647:
2633:
2623:Niklaus Wirth
2619:
2605:
2586:
2584:
2580:
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2564:
2560:
2556:
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2209:
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2203:
2199:
2196:
2193:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2167:
2166:thread safety
2163:
2159:
2155:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2132:
2131:
2119:
2105:
2091:
2077:
2063:
2049:
2035:
2021:
2007:
1993:
1979:
1965:
1951:
1937:
1915:
1911:
1909:
1905:
1903:
1899:
1897:
1893:
1891:
1890:Visual FoxPro
1887:
1883:
1882:Object Pascal
1879:
1874:
1872:
1868:
1866:
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1856:
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1803:
1799:
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1773:
1769:
1765:
1764:Object Pascal
1761:
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1749:
1745:
1741:
1736:
1721:
1707:
1693:
1679:
1665:
1651:
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1154:
1150:
1149:
1145:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1117:Stanley Cohen
1114:
1110:
1109:
1105:
1104:
1103:
1101:
1087:
1073:
1059:
1036:
1032:
1028:
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1021:
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937:
935:
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922:
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911:
908:
904:
901:
897:
895:
891:
889:
885:
884:
882:
870:
856:
842:
828:
826:
822:
821:Niklaus Wirth
818:
809:
805:
802:
798:
797:
796:
794:
789:
787:
783:
776:
772:
768:
767:
766:
760:
756:
753:
750:
746:
745:
744:
742:
738:
734:
732:
727:
723:
722:John McCarthy
719:
714:
712:
708:
703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
674:
672:
668:
664:
660:
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646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
621:R. A. Brooker
618:
614:
610:
606:
605:Alick Glennie
601:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
574:
572:
568:
564:
560:
555:
553:
549:
539:
537:
533:
529:
528:Alonzo Church
525:
520:
518:
517:punched cards
514:
510:
506:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
481:Early history
478:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
449:, created by
448:
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441:
437:
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429:
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397:
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308:
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299:
297:
294:
292:
291:South America
289:
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157:
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149:
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139:
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133:
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129:
124:
121:
119:
116:
115:
114:
113:
110:
107:
106:
100:
96:
95:
92:
89:
88:
79:
76:February 2018
69:
63:
61:
56:
51:
47:
42:
41:
36:
29:
25:
21:
16:
4343:Generational
4333:Alphabetical
4329:
4309:
4134:Visual Basic
4088:
4010:
3999:
3970:
3966:
3954:
3944:
3943:, (editor),
3920:. Retrieved
3905:
3898:
3890:the original
3880:
3867:
3858:
3847:. Retrieved
3836:The Guardian
3835:
3825:
3813:. Retrieved
3799:
3789:
3781:
3775:. Retrieved
3758:
3749:
3740:
3731:
3720:. Retrieved
3711:
3702:
3698:
3688:
3676:. Retrieved
3659:(1): 70–75.
3656:
3652:
3639:
3628:. Retrieved
3624:the original
3614:
3603:. Retrieved
3593:
3574:
3568:
3552:
3540:. Retrieved
3536:
3526:
3517:
3507:
3494:(4): 16–26,
3491:
3487:
3481:
3470:
3461:
3457:
3451:
3442:
3285:Robin Milner
3101:Ken Thompson
2989:Jean Ichbiah
2943:Grace Hopper
2829:Brendan Eich
2763:Turbo Pascal
2743:Visual Basic
2733:Ada Lovelace
2727:
2552:
2415:ActionScript
2403:
2326:
2153:programming.
2129:
1830:Visual Basic
1810:
1787:
1780:
1772:Visual Basic
1731:
1616:(as part of
1515:
1512:
1493:
1481:
1464:
1462:
1435:
1289:
1278:
1268:, it is bad
1253:
1241:Robin Milner
1234:
1214:
1206:
1197:Ken Thompson
1182:
1166:
1146:
1106:
1097:
880:
816:
813:
790:
780:
775:context-free
764:
740:
736:
729:
715:
678:Grace Hopper
675:
656:
602:
590:machine code
578:John Mauchly
575:
556:
545:
521:
507:
487:Ada Lovelace
484:
459:Corrado Böhm
444:
419:
417:
354:
349:2020–present
296:Soviet Union
276:Eastern Bloc
193:
73:
57:
55:lead section
15:
4338:Categorical
3941:Rosen, Saul
3922:October 25,
3872:TIOBE index
3773:. p. 3
3562:(full text)
3558:Rojas, Raúl
3542:23 February
3347:Mathematica
3296:polymorphic
3255:Rich Hickey
3133:Konrad Zuse
3043:John Backus
3009:(System F).
2893:Cleve Moler
2861:Chuck Moore
2823:Objective-C
2739:Alan Cooper
2589:Key figures
2406:TIOBE index
2396:introduced
2386:introduced
2368:introduced
2338:introduced
2255:Open source
2181:typeclasses
2151:distributed
1852:Common Lisp
1800:to support
1618:Mathematica
1573:Objective-C
1540:Common Lisp
1187:, an early
1133:Mathematica
799:syntax and
663:John Backus
641:object code
598:interpreted
571:Z1 computer
567:Konrad Zuse
471:John Backus
451:Konrad Zuse
319:before 1950
245:Video games
4373:Categories
4203:JavaScript
4079:Comparison
3849:2024-02-26
3777:2015-05-04
3722:2015-02-21
3678:7 November
3630:2010-04-25
3605:2010-04-25
3434:References
3323:Ross Ihaka
3213:(IBM 701).
3203:languages.
3161:Larry Wall
3141:Plankalkül
3027:PowerShell
2951:FLOW-MATIC
2833:JavaScript
2775:TypeScript
2721:Larry Wall
2499:TypeScript
2457:PowerShell
2348:TypeScript
2147:concurrent
2067:TypeScript
1969:PowerShell
1896:JavaScript
1735:JavaScript
907:FLOW-MATIC
827:language.
682:FLOW-MATIC
607:developed
582:Short Code
563:Plankalkül
447:Plankalkül
301:Yugoslavia
263:By country
22:. For the
4300:Smalltalk
3844:0261-3077
3815:August 4,
3810:0362-4331
3337:Speakeasy
3211:assembler
3127:Roger Hui
2959:debugging
2753:Smalltalk
2575:V (Vlang)
2559:Ballerina
2336:Microsoft
2185:delegates
1796:included
1504:compilers
1491:systems.
1335:Smalltalk
1231:language.
1208:Smalltalk
1201:Bell Labs
1115:(ANL) by
1108:Speakeasy
1100:paradigms
1091:Smalltalk
1031:Smalltalk
990:Speakeasy
817:difficult
801:semantics
733:60 Report
657:In 1954,
654:machine.
588:. Unlike
344:2010–2019
339:2000–2009
334:1990–1999
329:1980–1989
324:1950–1979
60:summarize
4358:Category
4124:Assembly
4084:Timeline
3766:(1996).
3374:See also
3305:Rob Pike
3145:ALGOL 58
3087:concept.
3075:ALGOL 60
3055:ALGOL 60
3051:ALGOL 58
2947:compiler
2819:Brad Cox
2749:Alan Kay
2360:Power Fx
2329:Big Tech
1628:(Backus)
1119:, is an
959:ALGOL 60
934:ALGOL 58
894:Autocode
793:ALGOL 68
782:ALGOL 60
739:rithmic
686:UNIVAC I
609:Autocode
569:for his
455:compiler
436:compiler
380:Category
271:Bulgaria
230:Internet
141:Software
132:Software
109:Hardware
4311:more...
4290:Scratch
4193:Haskell
4183:Fortran
4139:classic
4089:History
3998:(ed.):
3989:2003242
3661:Bibcode
3387:SIGPLAN
3259:Clojure
3047:Fortran
2567:Crystal
2545:2022 –
2539:2016 –
2533:2016 –
2527:2015 –
2521:2015 –
2515:2014 –
2509:2014 –
2503:2012 –
2497:2012 –
2491:2012 –
2485:2011 –
2479:2011 –
2473:2009 –
2467:2008 –
2463:Clojure
2461:2007 –
2455:2006 –
2449:2005 –
2443:2003 –
2437:2003 –
2433:Scratch
2431:2002 –
2425:2001 –
2419:2001 –
2413:2000 –
2286:LabVIEW
2282:Scratch
2233:(XAML))
2189:aspects
1997:Scratch
1912:1997 –
1906:1996 –
1900:1995 –
1894:1995 –
1888:1995 –
1876:1995 –
1869:1995 –
1863:1995 –
1857:1995 –
1846:1994 –
1840:1993 –
1834:1993 –
1828:1991 –
1822:1991 –
1818:Haskell
1816:1990 –
1806:Tkinter
1754:(IDE),
1655:Haskell
1624:1989 –
1612:1988 –
1606:1988 –
1600:1988 –
1594:1987 –
1588:1986 –
1579:LabVIEW
1577:1986 –
1571:1986 –
1565:1985 –
1560:FoxBASE
1552:Clipper
1544:1984 –
1538:1984 –
1532:1983 –
1521:1980 –
1465:modules
1454:Miranda
1357:1978 –
1351:1975 –
1345:1973 –
1339:1972 –
1333:1972 –
1327:1972 –
1321:1970 –
1315:1970 –
1308:1969 –
1302:1967 –
1295:1967 –
1179:(NRAO).
1153:Nygaard
1137:Fortran
1035:Scratch
1025:1967 –
1018:1967 –
1012:1966 –
1006:1966 –
1000:1964 –
994:1964 –
988:1964 –
981:1963 –
975:1962 –
969:1962 –
963:1962 –
957:1960 –
951:1959 –
945:1959 –
938:1959 –
932:1958 –
926:1958 –
921:COMTRAN
919:1957 –
914:FORTRAN
912:1957 –
905:1955 –
898:1954 –
892:1952 –
886:1951 –
846:Fortran
659:FORTRAN
652:Atlas 1
467:FORTRAN
286:Romania
235:Laptops
4330:Lists:
4265:Python
4260:Prolog
4238:Pascal
4228:MATLAB
4213:Kotlin
4173:Erlang
4112:Simula
3987:
3913:
3842:
3808:
3581:
3239:Simula
3229:Oberon
3225:Modula
3221:Pascal
3155:Simula
3037:Erlang
2997:Ada 83
2969:Python
2929:ALTRAN
2917:SNOBOL
2897:MATLAB
2803:Eiffel
2791:, and
2773:, and
2767:Delphi
2581:, and
2579:Reason
2547:Carbon
2505:Elixir
2487:Kotlin
2439:Groovy
2378:Carbon
2376:, and
2366:Google
2358:, and
2356:Bosque
2321:Gemini
2296:OpenCL
2288:, and
2269:, and
2263:Python
2177:traits
2173:mixins
2053:Kotlin
1955:Groovy
1878:Delphi
1865:Ada 95
1824:Python
1790:Python
1774:, and
1711:Python
1590:Erlang
1567:Eiffel
1556:FoxPro
1546:MATLAB
1469:Modula
1401:Erlang
1387:MATLAB
1353:Scheme
1341:Prolog
1317:Pascal
1285:Pascal
1216:Prolog
1148:Simula
1125:MATLAB
1063:Scheme
977:SNOBOL
971:Simula
874:Simula
825:Pascal
749:blocks
735:(the "
711:AIMACO
671:TOP500
617:Mark 1
493:about
432:syntax
281:Poland
4305:Swift
4295:Shell
4208:Julia
4178:Forth
4168:COBOL
4129:BASIC
4107:ALGOL
4006:1981.
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