1058:...replace the traditional terminologies of 'Chalcolithic', Iron Age, Proto-Historic, Early Historic, and Mauryan with those of a 'Localisation Era' followed by an Era of 'Regionalisation' and an Era of 'Integration'. We argue that Kenoyer’s (1998) suggestion that the Era of Integration was only reached with the Mauryan period (c. 317 BC) was overcautious and that such a cultural and economic stage became evident in the archaeological record as early as 600 BC This task is likely to be controversial and we acknowledge that not all scholars will be receptive.
500:
ethnographic observations, Shaffer developed a series of important critiques of archaeological theory. Shaffer and
Liechtenstein argued that the colonial legacy of Mortimer Wheeler and Stuart Piggot led to the projection of colonial stereotypes onto the ancient past. As a result of these critiques, Shaffer adapted the system developed by Willey and Phillips into one suitable for the Indus Valley Civilisation. In his original publication, this complex social formation was termed the
1054:
introduced in colonial times, with scholars who claimed that "a distinct cultural, linguistic, and social transformation lay between the Indus
Civilisation and the Early Historic," and perpetuated by "a number of post-Independence South Asian scholars." Coningham & Young adopt Shaffer's terminology "to better understand and explore the processes which led to the two main urban-focused developments in South Asia," and
516:
various phases. A phase is an archaeological unit possessing traits sufficiently characteristic to distinguish it from all other units similarly conceived. According to
Shaffer, there was considerable regional variation, as well as differences in cultural sequences, and these eras and phases are not evolutionary sequences, and cannot uniformly be applied to every site.
689:
in its oldest layers, dated at the 8th-7th millennium BCE. He proposes older datings for
Bhirrana compared to the conventional Harappan datings, yet sticks to the Harappan terminology. This proposal is supported by Sarkar et al. (2016), co-authored by Rao, who also refer to a proposal by Possehl, and
546:
Period I belongs to this era. The
Regionalisation Era corresponds to ca. 4000-2500/2300 BCE (Shaffer) or ca. 5000-2600 BCE (Coningham & Young). The Early Harappan phase belongs to this Era. According to Manuel, "the most significant development of this period was the shift in population from the
654:
Possehl's mixture of older periodisation (Mature
Harappan), artefact-based descriptive classifications (Early Iron Age), and socio-economic processes (Developed Village Farming Communities) is not unique and others, such as Singh (2008), have presented similar categories which treat the Indus Valley
499:
During his archaeological research in
Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Pakistan, and India, Shaffer observed the fluid and adaptive nature of local customs in rural South Asia and the many ways that cultural practices interfaced with material culture. Based on both his extensive work in the field and these
1353:
According to
Dikshit and Rami, the estimation for the antiquity of Bhirrana as pre-Harappan is based on two calculations of charcoal samples, giving two dates of respectively 7570-7180 BCE, and 6689-6201 BCE. Hakra Ware culture is a material culture which is contemporaneous with the early Harappan
454:
was coined by M. R. Mughal in his dissertation at the
University of Pennsylvania which provided a synthesis of his many surveys and studies throughout Pakistan. This classification is primarily based on Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, assuming an evolutionary sequence. According to Manuel, this division
532:...it remains questionable whether there is sufficient difference and distinction between Shaffer’s definitions of Regionalisation and Localisation. Shaffer’s own definition (quoted earlier) observes the similarities of the two eras, with some differentiation in the form of contact between groups.
483:
to divide past societies into a Stone Age, a Bronze Age, and an Iron Age. Although this system is very useful for its original purpose of organizing museum collections, it is unable to fully characterize the dynamic and fluid nature of human inter-settlement relationships. To address this issue,
1053:
Coningham & Young note that most works on urbanisation in early Indian history focus on either the Indus Valley
Civilisation or the Early Historic Period, "thus continuing the long-standing division between the Indus and Early Historic." According to Coningham & Young, this division was
523:
A critical feature of Shaffer's developmental framework was replacing the traditional Mesolithic/Neolithic, 'Chalcolithic'/Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, and Late Harappan terminology with Eras which were intended to reflect the longer-term changes or processes which provided the platform for
515:
Shaffer divided the broader Indus Valley Tradition into four eras, the pre-Harappan "Early Food Producing Era," and the Regionalisation, Integration, and Localisation eras, which correspond roughly with the Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, and Late Harappan phases. Each era can be divided into
466:
and Young, it was "cemented in common use" due to "the highly influential British archaeologists Raymond and Bridget Allchin used similar subdivisions in their work." According to Coningham and Young, this approach is "limited" and "restricted," putting too much emphasis on the mature phase.
524:
eventual complexity and urbanisation Notably, Shaffer's categorisation also allowed scholars to frame sites such as Mehrgarh, accepted by all as partly ancestral to the Indus cities, within a distinctly pervasive Indus tradition rather than lying outside a Pre-Urban or incipient urban phase.
428:
The most commonly used nomenclature classifies the Indus Valley civilisation into early, mature, and late Harappan phases. The Indus Valley Civilisation was preceded by local agricultural villages, from where the river plains were populated when water management became available, creating an
445:
led to the discovery of numerous prehistoric sites of unknown association. Following excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, the prehistoric sites in Sindh and Baluchistan were thought to represent a culture that migrated from Baluchistan to the Indus Valley to establish the Indus Valley
2339:
Kenoyer, J. M. 1995a Interaction Systems, Specialized Crafts and Culture Change: The Indus Valley Tradition and the Indo-Gangetic Tradition in South Asia. In The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, edited by G. Erdosy, pp. 213–257. Berlin, W.
1062:
They also note that the term "Integration Era" may not be applicable to the whole of South Asia for the period of the Mature Harappan Civilisation, because "large swathes of northern and southern South Asia were unaffected by what was, on a subcontinental scale, a regional feature."
570:". It is a period of integration of various smaller cultures. The Localisation Era (1900-1300 BCE) is the fourth and final period of the Indus Valley Tradition. It refers to the fragmentation of the culture of the Integration Era. The Localisation Era comprises several phases:
1363:
Sarkar et al. (2016): "Conventionally the Harappan cultural levels have been classified into 1) an Early Ravi Phase (~5.7–4.8 ka BP), 2) Transitional Kot Diji phase (~4.8–4.6 ka BP), 3) Mature phase (~4.6–3.9 ka BP) and 4) Late declining (painted Grey Ware) phase (3.9–3.3 ka
1376:
According to Sarkar et al. (2016), the various cultural levels at Bhirrana, as deciphered from the archaeological artifacts, are pre-Harappan (~9.5–8 ka BP), Early Harappan (~8–6.5 ka BP), Early mature Harappan (~6.5–5 ka BP) and mature Harappan (~5–2.8 ka BP). Compare
1042:, and Coningham & Young, provide an overview of developmental phases of India in which the Indus Valley Civilisation and the Early Historic Period are combined. The post-Harappan phase shows renewed regionalisation, culminating in the integration of the
496:, or a heuristic concept for describing the distribution of "relatedness" across time and space. These concepts were later adapted by Jim G. Shaffer and Diane Liechtenstein as a potential solution to a similar problem in the Greater Indus Valley.
2343:
Shaffer, J. G. 1992 The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age. In Chronologies in Old World Archaeology (3rd Edition), edited by R. Ehrich, pp. 441–464. Chicago, University of Chicago
885:, taking into account new discoveries, periodised the Harappan Civilisation in a chronological framework that includes the Early, Mature, and Late Harappan Phase, and starts with the same date as the Regionalisation Era:
2329:
S.P. Gupta. The dawn of civilization, in G.C. Pande (ed.)(History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, ed., D.P. Chattophadhyaya, vol I Part 1) (New Delhi:Centre for Studies in Civilizations,
541:
The Early Food Producing Era corresponds to ca. 7000-5500 BCE. It is also called the Neolithic period. The economy of this era was based on food production, and agriculture developed in the Indus Valley.
2504:
668:, looking at the Indus "through a prism influenced by the archaeology of Mesopotamia," using the terms Early Food Producing Phase, Pre-Urban Phase, Urban Phase, and Post-Urban Phase.
455:"places the Indus Valley within a tripartite evolutionary framework, of the birth, fluorescence, and death of a society in a fashion familiar to the social evolutionary concepts of
2033:
547:
uplands of Baluchistan to the floodplains of the Indus Valley." This era was very productive in arts, and new crafts were invented. The Regionalisation Era includes the
2229:
Sarkar, Anindya (2016), "Oxygen isotope in archaeological bioapatites from India: Implications to climate change and decline of Bronze Age Harappan civilization",
879:
While the Early Harappan Phase was proposed to start at ca. 3300 BCE, the Regionalisation Era has been proposed to start earlier, at 4000 BCE to ca. 5000 BCE.
2103:(1997), "Early city-states in South Asia: comparing the Harappan phase and Early Historic period", in Charlton, Thomas Henry; Nichols, Deborah L. (eds.),
2386:
420:, newer periodisations include the Neolithic early farming settlements, and use a stage–phase model, often combining terminology from various systems.
2333:
Kenoyer, J.M. 1998 Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Oxford University Press and American Institute of Pakistan Studies, Karachi.
2139:
1568:
Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (2011). "Regional Cultures of the Greater Indus Valley: The Ravi and Kot Diji Phase Assemblages of Harappa, Pakistan".
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and the Early Historic Traditions in very different ways and thus reinforce established divisions which prevent easy comparative discussion.
581:, Late Harappan). The Punjab Phase includes the Cemetery H and other cultures. Punjab Phase sites are found in Harappa and in other places.
2115:
Inter-regional Interaction and Urbanism in the Ancient Indus Valley: A Geologic Provenience Study of Harappa's Rock and Mineral Assemblage
2494:
512:
or the "persistent configuration of basic technologies, as well as structure, in the context of geographical and temporal continuity".
2419:
588:
20:
2275:
Shaffer, J. G. (1992), "The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age", in Ehrich, R. (ed.),
2379:
1307:
2044:
1031:
The consensus on the dating of the Integration Era, or Urban, or Mature Harappan Phase, is broadly accepted to be 2600-1900 BC.
1570:
Cultural Relations Between the Indus and the Iranian Plateau During the Third Millennium BCE, Edited by T. Osada and M. Witzel
2306:
2204:
1970:
1899:
1868:
1810:
1718:
696:
2336:
Kenoyer, J. M. 1991a The Indus Valley Tradition of Pakistan and Western India. In Journal of World Prehistory 5(4): 331–385.
2148:
399:
1043:
2964:
2372:
2354:
2123:
608:
The Pirak Phase is a phase of the Localisation Era of both the Indus Valley Tradition and the Baluchistan Tradition.
2454:
2034:"Origin of Early Harappan Cultures in the Sarasvati Valley: Recent Archaeological Evidence and Radiometric Dates"
489:
690:
various radiocarbon dates from other sites, though giving 800 BCE as the enddate for the Mature Harappan phase:
2933:
1241:
416:. While the Indus Valley Civilisation was divided into Early, Mature, and Late Harappan by archaeologists like
331:
480:
2974:
2848:
429:
integrated civilisation. This broader time range has also been called the Indus Age and the Indus Tradition.
2938:
1600:
Shafer, Jim G.; Liechtenstein, Diane. "Cultural tradition and Palaeoethnicity in South Asian Archaeology".
1302:
2969:
2214:
2943:
2395:
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413:
323:
2499:
2470:
392:
276:
95:
2482:
447:
1602:
Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, Edited by G. Erdosy
624:
for this broader timespan, Possehl arranged archaeological phases into a seven-stage sequence:
2979:
84:
2194:
2063:
Gupta, S.P. (1999), "The dawn of civilisation", in Pande, G.C.; Chattophadhyaya, D.P. (eds.),
2798:
2489:
2113:
2100:
1039:
357:
1584:
2853:
2788:
2238:
2072:
Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991), "The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan and Western India",
528:
Coningham & Young raise theoretical concerns with Shaffer's periodisation, noting that
264:
132:
8:
2803:
385:
296:
252:
240:
232:
201:
72:
68:
2242:
1537:
Report of Archaeological Survey Work in the North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan
1535:
450:
based on his discovery of earlier occupational phases in the Cholistan Desert. The term
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2449:
2259:
2133:
2089:
1552:
1157:
686:
353:
335:
300:
205:
2873:
2520:
2302:
2264:
2200:
2119:
1330:
1275:
304:
288:
284:
280:
260:
224:
216:
197:
193:
80:
49:
2093:
2688:
2574:
2254:
2246:
2081:
1335:
476:
417:
361:
349:
327:
315:
272:
256:
248:
244:
236:
228:
189:
185:
128:
116:
2878:
2296:
2190:
2159:
617:
463:
438:
292:
268:
148:
144:
112:
1034:
124:
2728:
2644:
2619:
2477:
2292:
2065:
History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, vol I Part 1
1266:
998:
665:
451:
152:
88:
2359:
2958:
2838:
2434:
1047:
598:
485:
456:
160:
136:
64:
2364:
19:"Integration Era" redirects here. For the 1947–present era of baseball, see
2843:
2768:
2708:
2614:
2604:
2594:
2549:
2525:
2444:
2439:
2268:
2181:, in Gunawardhana, P.; Adikari, G.; Coningham Battaramulla, R.A.E. (eds.),
1280:
584:
574:
552:
168:
140:
39:
2213:
Rao, L.S.; Sahu, N.B.; Sahu, Prabash; Shastry, U.A.; Diwan, Samir (2005),
2899:
2758:
2409:
1844:
882:
705:, compares as follows with the conventional datings, and Shaffer (Eras).
442:
156:
1385:, late Harappan elements until 800 BCE, together with Painted Grey Ware.
2763:
2733:
2713:
2703:
2693:
2673:
2634:
2609:
2564:
2559:
2085:
1237:
994:
973:
936:
578:
164:
31:
2250:
601:(Late Harappan and Lustrous Red Ware). The Rangpur Phase sites are in
2912:
2833:
2783:
2698:
2683:
2668:
2639:
2624:
2025:
Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE–200 CE
1018:
954:
2907:
2888:
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2858:
2823:
2738:
2718:
2649:
2589:
2569:
2554:
2536:
2429:
2424:
1325:
1100:
915:
682:
560:
543:
375:
120:
2178:
620:
includes the Neolithic stage in his periodisation, using the term
2928:
2828:
2818:
2813:
2793:
2778:
2629:
2579:
2544:
969:
602:
548:
412:
Several periodisations are employed for the periodisation of the
365:
2215:"New light on the excavation of Harappan settlement at Bhirrana"
1696:
1694:
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2723:
2678:
1913:
1911:
1909:
1378:
92:
1505:
1503:
1501:
1429:
1427:
1425:
1423:
1421:
2868:
2748:
2743:
2660:
2584:
1774:
1730:
1728:
1691:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1658:
1656:
1654:
1652:
1650:
1382:
1035:
Durée longue: Harappan Civilisation and Early Historic Period
595:) The Jhukar Phase refers to Mohenjo-daro and sites in Sindh.
592:
556:
1906:
1046:
of the Early Historic Period, starting ca. 600 BC, c.q. the
628:
Beginnings of Village Farming Communities and Pastoral camps
475:
Scholarship in archaeology commonly uses a variation of the
1498:
1418:
76:
1745:
1743:
1725:
1647:
1635:
2105:
The Archaeology of City-states: Cross-cultural Approaches
1982:
1980:
1834:
1832:
1936:
1934:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1764:
1762:
1760:
1758:
1681:
1679:
1677:
631:
Developed Village Farming Communities and Pastoral camps
2149:"Kashmir Neolithic and Early Harappan : A Linkage"
1740:
1456:
1454:
1452:
1450:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1354:
Ravi phase culture (3300-2800 BCE) of the Indus Valley.
1992:
1977:
1946:
1829:
1613:
1611:
1958:
1923:
1887:
1755:
1674:
1540:. Peshawar: Government Press, N.W. Frontier Province.
1471:
1469:
1408:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1400:
2179:"Chronology and Culture-History in the Indus Valley"
1786:
1488:
1486:
1484:
1439:
1372:
1370:
671:
664:
A "similar framework" as Shaffer's has been used by
504:, after the type site at Harappa, Punjab. This term
2277:
Chronologies in Old World Archaeology (3rd Edition)
1608:
1515:
432:
2212:
2196:The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective
1856:
1817:
1706:
1466:
1397:
2298:The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society
1875:
1798:
1481:
1367:
637:Transition from Early Harappan to Mature Harappan
566:The Integration Era refers to the period of the "
16:Prehistoric eras of the Indus Valley Civilisation
2956:
2067:, New Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilizations
1066:
1599:
2283:
2022:
1917:
1780:
1700:
1668:
1641:
1509:
1433:
470:
2394:
2380:
646:Early Iron Age of Northern India and Pakistan
393:
2017:Ancient Pakistan - an Archaeological History
1582:
1187:Mature Harappan (Indus Valley Civilisation)
2505:Inventions of the Indus Valley Civilisation
2495:Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilisation
676:
2387:
2373:
2138:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1969:sfn error: no target: CITEREFParpola2-15 (
1898:sfn error: no target: CITEREFKenoyer1007 (
1550:
400:
386:
2286:Method and Theory in American Archaeology
2258:
2183:Sirinimal Lakdusinghe Felicitation Volume
1867:sfn error: no target: CITEREFSarkar2015 (
1717:sfn error: no target: CITEREFWright1999 (
1586:Method and Theory in American Archaeology
1583:Willey, Gordon; Philip, Phillips (1958).
695:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFRao2005 (
446:Civilisation. This notion was refuted by
2111:
21:History of baseball in the United States
2274:
2189:
2099:
2071:
2031:
1998:
1986:
1964:
1952:
1940:
1893:
1850:
1838:
1734:
1629:
1617:
1567:
1521:
1475:
1412:
1290:c.1500-600 BCE (Coningham & Young)
1136:c.5000-3200 BCE (Coningham & Young)
702:
2957:
2291:
2279:, Chicago: University of Chicago Press
2228:
2176:
2054:
2023:Coningham, Robin; Young, Ruth (2015),
1862:
1823:
1809:sfn error: no target: CITEREFLaw2008 (
1768:
1712:
1685:
1492:
1460:
1347:
874:
755:Pre-Harappan Hakra Period (Neolithic)
2368:
2062:
2057:The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia
2014:
1881:
1792:
1533:
612:
2146:
1749:
685:, claims to have found pre-Harappan
650:According to Coningham & Young,
2041:Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology
1804:
691:
605:, Saurashtra, and mainland Gujarat.
13:
2323:
1589:. The University of Alabama Press.
1551:Fairservis, Walter Ashlin (1971).
1026:
792:Period IIA: Early Mature Harappan
519:According to Coningham and Young,
14:
2991:
2348:
2112:Law (II), William Randal (2008).
672:Datings and alternative proposals
423:
433:Early, Mature, and Late Harappan
1623:
1593:
1576:
1561:
1357:
752:Period IA: Hakra Wares Culture
2934:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture
2360:Ancient Civilisations Timeline
2301:, Cambridge University Press,
1544:
1527:
1134:c.4000-2500/2300 BCE (Shaffer)
659:
494:Culture-Historical Integration
1:
2118:. Ann Arbor, MI. p. 83.
1557:. New York: The Macmillan Co.
1391:
1067:Concordance of periodisations
54:
2939:Northern Black Polished Ware
2156:Pragdhara 18, 229–247 (2008)
2055:Erdosy, George, ed. (1995),
2027:, Cambridge University Press
1303:Northern Black Polished Ware
1119:Pre-Harappan/Early Harappan
821:Period IIB: Mature Harappan
492:developed a system based on
7:
2455:Indus–Mesopotamia relations
2074:Journal of World Prehistory
1319:
481:Christian Jürgensen Thomsen
471:Shaffer: Harappan Tradition
10:
2996:
2007:
1918:Coningham & Young 2015
1781:Coningham & Young 2015
1701:Coningham & Young 2015
1669:Coningham & Young 2015
1642:Willey & Phillips 1958
1510:Coningham & Young 2015
1434:Coningham & Young 2015
1192:Harappan 3A (Nausharo II)
1149:c.5000-2800 BCE (Kenoyer)
778:Period IB: Early Harappan
508:stems from his concept of
18:
2965:Indus Valley civilisation
2944:Painted Grey Ware culture
2921:
2897:
2658:
2534:
2513:
2463:
2402:
2396:Indus Valley Civilisation
2284:Willey; Phillips (1958),
2107:, Smithsonian Inst. Press
1853:, I:441–464, II:425–446..
1263:
1245:
1236:
1228:
1196:
1186:
1144:
1130:
1118:
1111:Early Food Producing Era
1110:
1096:
1005:
1002:
941:
923:
826:
823:
820:
817:
811:
808:
803:
800:
797:
794:
791:
788:
770:Early Food Producing Era
769:
766:
763:
760:
568:Indus Valley civilisation
414:Indus Valley Civilisation
324:Indus Valley Civilisation
2500:Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro
1632:, I:441–464, II:425–446.
1341:
1288:c.1200-300 BCE (Kenoyer)
741:Conventional date (Era)
677:Early Food Producing Era
277:Proto-Villanovan culture
96:Late Bronze Age collapse
2015:Ahmed, Mihktar (2014),
1305:(Iron Age)(700-200 BCE)
824:Mature Harappan Period
735:Conventional date (HP)
701:, and as summarized by
536:
2898:Indus Valley sites in
2659:Indus Valley sites in
2535:Indus Valley sites in
2101:Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark
2032:Dikshit, K.N. (2013),
1554:Roots of Ancient India
1242:Ochre Coloured Pottery
1060:
798:Early Mature Harappan
795:Early Harappan Period
657:
534:
526:
332:Ochre Coloured Pottery
2490:Harappan architecture
2355:Article with Timeline
2177:Manuel, Mark (2010),
1534:Stein, Aurel (1905).
1104:(aceramic Neolithic)
1056:
950:Period of Transition
856:Late Harappan Period
853:Late Harappan Period
652:
530:
521:
2975:Prehistoric Pakistan
2464:Art and architecture
1124:(ceramic Neolithic)
1011:ca. 1500 - 1400 BCE
987:ca. 1900 - 1500 BCE
962:ca. 2600 - 1900 BCE
947:ca. 2800 - 2600 BCE
929:ca. 3500 - 2800 BCE
924:Regionalisation Era
908:ca. 4000 - 3500 BCE
804:Regionalisation Era
781:Transitional Period
179:Eurasia and Siberia
2514:Language and script
2403:History and culture
2243:2016NatSR...626555S
2199:, Rowman Altamira,
2191:Possehl, Gregory L.
2147:Mani, B.R. (2008),
2043:(9), archived from
1308:Second urbanisation
1131:Regionalisation Era
1044:Second Urbanisation
1040:Jonathan M. Kenoyer
875:Regionalisation Era
681:Rao, who excavated
316:Indian subcontinent
297:Atlantic Bronze Age
253:Bell Beaker culture
202:Mezhovskaya culture
2450:Cemetery H culture
2231:Scientific Reports
2165:on 18 January 2017
2086:10.1007/BF00978474
1965:Parpola & 2-15
1752:, p. 237-238.
1737:, p. 129-133.
767:c.7000-c.4500 BCE
643:Posturban Harappan
613:Possehl: Indus Age
510:Cultural Tradition
502:Harappan Tradition
301:Bronze Age Britain
206:Cherkaskul culture
2970:Prehistoric India
2952:
2951:
2874:Kotla Nihang Khan
2521:Harappan language
2308:978-0-521-57219-4
2251:10.1038/srep26555
2206:978-0-7591-1642-9
1331:Iron Age in India
1317:
1316:
1283:(c.1500-500 BCE)
1276:Painted Grey Ware
1246:Localisation Era
1137:
1024:
1023:
1006:Localisation Era
872:
871:
868:Localisation Era
850:
732:
725:
718:
437:Early surveys by
410:
409:
319:(c. 3300–1200 BC)
305:Nordic Bronze Age
289:Golasecca culture
285:Canegrate culture
281:Hallstatt culture
261:Terramare culture
198:Andronovo culture
194:Sintashta culture
2987:
2575:Lakhueen-jo-daro
2430:Mehrgarh culture
2425:Bhirrana culture
2389:
2382:
2375:
2366:
2365:
2318:
2317:
2315:
2288:
2280:
2271:
2262:
2225:
2219:
2209:
2186:
2173:
2172:
2170:
2164:
2158:, archived from
2153:
2143:
2137:
2129:
2108:
2096:
2068:
2059:
2051:
2049:
2038:
2028:
2019:
2002:
1996:
1990:
1984:
1975:
1974:
1962:
1956:
1950:
1944:
1938:
1921:
1915:
1904:
1903:
1891:
1885:
1879:
1873:
1872:
1860:
1854:
1848:
1842:
1836:
1827:
1821:
1815:
1814:
1802:
1796:
1790:
1784:
1778:
1772:
1766:
1753:
1747:
1738:
1732:
1723:
1722:
1710:
1704:
1698:
1689:
1683:
1672:
1666:
1645:
1639:
1633:
1627:
1621:
1615:
1606:
1605:
1597:
1591:
1590:
1580:
1574:
1573:
1565:
1559:
1558:
1548:
1542:
1541:
1531:
1525:
1519:
1513:
1507:
1496:
1490:
1479:
1473:
1464:
1458:
1437:
1431:
1416:
1410:
1386:
1374:
1365:
1361:
1355:
1351:
1336:History of India
1310:(c.500-200 BCE)
1197:Integration Era
1175:(Kot Diji Phase,
1147:c.3300-2800 BCE
1133:
1083:Harappan phases
1080:Mehrgarh phases
1071:
1070:
982:Integration Era
979:Mature Harappan
911:Formative Phase
888:
887:
848:
841:Integration Era
835:Mature Harappan
827:Mature Harappan
801:c.4500-2600 BCE
730:
723:
716:
708:
707:
700:
477:Three-age system
418:Mortimer Wheeler
402:
395:
388:
350:Arsenical bronze
328:Bronze Age India
320:
273:Urnfield culture
257:Apennine culture
249:Srubnaya culture
245:Catacomb culture
221:
220:(c. 3200–900 BC)
190:Abashevo culture
186:Poltavka culture
182:
181:(c. 2700–700 BC)
109:
108:(c. 3100–300 BC)
61:
59:
56:
28:
27:
2995:
2994:
2990:
2989:
2988:
2986:
2985:
2984:
2955:
2954:
2953:
2948:
2917:
2893:
2879:Kerala-no-dhoro
2654:
2530:
2509:
2459:
2398:
2393:
2351:
2326:
2324:Further reading
2321:
2313:
2311:
2309:
2293:Wright, Rita P.
2217:
2207:
2168:
2166:
2162:
2151:
2131:
2130:
2126:
2047:
2036:
2010:
2005:
1997:
1993:
1985:
1978:
1968:
1963:
1959:
1951:
1947:
1939:
1924:
1916:
1907:
1897:
1892:
1888:
1880:
1876:
1866:
1861:
1857:
1849:
1845:
1837:
1830:
1822:
1818:
1808:
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1799:
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1711:
1707:
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1566:
1562:
1549:
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1532:
1528:
1520:
1516:
1508:
1499:
1491:
1482:
1474:
1467:
1459:
1440:
1432:
1419:
1411:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1375:
1368:
1362:
1358:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1322:
1306:
1289:
1287:
1286:Regionalisation
1279:
1265:
1240:
1176:
1174:
1155:
1148:
1146:
1135:
1132:
1123:
1103:
1069:
1037:
1029:
1027:Integration Era
942:Early Harappan
900:Harappan Phase
877:
847:
813:
784:Early Harappan
738:Harappan Phase
729:
722:
715:
694:
679:
674:
662:
640:Mature Harappan
618:Gregory Possehl
615:
539:
490:Philip Phillips
484:archaeologists
473:
439:Sir Aurel Stein
435:
426:
406:
369:
368:
347:
339:
338:
321:
318:
308:
307:
293:Argaric culture
269:Tumulus culture
265:Únětice culture
222:
219:
209:
208:
183:
180:
172:
171:
110:
107:
99:
98:
62:
57:
52:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2993:
2983:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2950:
2949:
2947:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2925:
2923:
2922:Related topics
2919:
2918:
2916:
2915:
2910:
2904:
2902:
2895:
2894:
2892:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2665:
2663:
2656:
2655:
2653:
2652:
2647:
2645:Judeir-jo-daro
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2620:Pir Shah Jurio
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2541:
2539:
2532:
2531:
2529:
2528:
2523:
2517:
2515:
2511:
2510:
2508:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2480:
2478:Pashupati seal
2475:
2467:
2465:
2461:
2460:
2458:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2406:
2404:
2400:
2399:
2392:
2391:
2384:
2377:
2369:
2363:
2362:
2357:
2350:
2349:External links
2347:
2346:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2334:
2331:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2319:
2307:
2289:
2281:
2272:
2226:
2210:
2205:
2187:
2174:
2144:
2124:
2109:
2097:
2069:
2060:
2052:
2029:
2020:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2003:
2001:, p. 336.
1991:
1989:, p. 333.
1976:
1957:
1955:, p. 335.
1945:
1922:
1905:
1886:
1874:
1855:
1843:
1841:, p. 132.
1828:
1816:
1797:
1795:, p. 107.
1785:
1783:, p. 158.
1773:
1771:, p. 2-3.
1754:
1739:
1724:
1705:
1703:, p. 145.
1690:
1688:, p. 149.
1673:
1646:
1634:
1622:
1607:
1592:
1575:
1560:
1543:
1526:
1514:
1497:
1480:
1465:
1463:, p. 148.
1438:
1417:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1388:
1387:
1366:
1356:
1345:
1343:
1340:
1339:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1321:
1318:
1315:
1314:
1311:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1292:
1291:
1284:
1278:(1200-600 BCE)
1273:
1271:
1269:
1267:Iron Age India
1262:
1258:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1251:1700–1300 BCE
1248:
1247:
1244:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1229:Late Harappan
1227:
1226:1900–1700 BCE
1223:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1214:2200–1900 BCE
1211:
1210:
1208:
1205:
1203:
1202:2450–2200 BCE
1199:
1198:
1195:
1193:
1190:
1188:
1185:
1184:2600–2450 BCE
1181:
1180:
1178:
1171:
1168:
1167:2800–2600 BCE
1164:
1163:
1161:
1152:
1150:
1145:Early Harappan
1143:
1142:3300–2800 BCE
1139:
1138:
1129:
1127:
1125:
1122:Mehrgarh II-VI
1120:
1117:
1116:5500–3300 BCE
1113:
1112:
1109:
1107:
1105:
1098:
1095:
1094:7000–5500 BCE
1091:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1081:
1078:
1075:
1068:
1065:
1050:, ca. 300 BC.
1036:
1033:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1021:
1015:
1012:
1008:
1007:
1004:
1003:Late Harappan
1001:
991:
988:
984:
983:
980:
977:
966:
963:
959:
958:
951:
948:
944:
943:
940:
933:
930:
926:
925:
922:
919:
912:
909:
905:
904:
901:
898:
895:
892:
876:
873:
870:
869:
866:
863:
862:Late Harappan
860:
859:1900-1300 BCE
857:
854:
851:
849:(1800-800 BCE)
843:
842:
839:
838:2600-1900 BCE
836:
833:
832:2600-1900 BCE
829:
828:
825:
822:
819:
818:3000-1800 BCE
815:
814:
812:Early Harappan
810:
809:3300-2600 BCE
806:
805:
802:
799:
796:
793:
790:
789:4500-3000 BCE
786:
785:
782:
779:
776:
775:6000-4500 BCE
772:
771:
768:
765:
762:
761:7000-3300 BCE
759:
756:
753:
750:
749:7500-6000 BCE
746:
745:
742:
739:
736:
733:
726:
724:(Dikshit 2013)
719:
712:
678:
675:
673:
670:
661:
658:
648:
647:
644:
641:
638:
635:
634:Early Harappan
632:
629:
614:
611:
610:
609:
606:
596:
582:
538:
535:
472:
469:
452:Early Harappan
434:
431:
425:
424:Periodisations
422:
408:
407:
405:
404:
397:
390:
382:
379:
378:
371:
370:
348:
345:
344:
341:
340:
322:
314:
313:
310:
309:
223:
215:
214:
211:
210:
184:
178:
177:
174:
173:
111:
105:
104:
101:
100:
63:
47:
46:
43:
42:
35:
34:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2992:
2981:
2980:Periodization
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2962:
2960:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2926:
2924:
2920:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2905:
2903:
2901:
2896:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
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2750:
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2740:
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2700:
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2690:
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2677:
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2670:
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2662:
2657:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
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2542:
2540:
2538:
2533:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2518:
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2506:
2503:
2501:
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2491:
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2485:
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2479:
2476:
2474:
2473:
2469:
2468:
2466:
2462:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2435:Kulli culture
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2415:Periodisation
2413:
2411:
2408:
2407:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2390:
2385:
2383:
2378:
2376:
2371:
2370:
2367:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2352:
2342:
2338:
2335:
2332:
2328:
2327:
2310:
2304:
2300:
2299:
2294:
2290:
2287:
2282:
2278:
2273:
2270:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2227:
2223:
2216:
2211:
2208:
2202:
2198:
2197:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2175:
2161:
2157:
2150:
2145:
2141:
2135:
2127:
2125:9780549628798
2121:
2117:
2116:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2070:
2066:
2061:
2058:
2053:
2050:on 2017-01-18
2046:
2042:
2035:
2030:
2026:
2021:
2018:
2013:
2012:
2000:
1995:
1988:
1983:
1981:
1972:
1967:, p. 17.
1966:
1961:
1954:
1949:
1943:, p. 53.
1942:
1937:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1920:, p. 28.
1919:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1901:
1896:, p. 53.
1895:
1890:
1883:
1878:
1870:
1864:
1859:
1852:
1847:
1840:
1835:
1833:
1825:
1820:
1812:
1807:, p. 83.
1806:
1801:
1794:
1789:
1782:
1777:
1770:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1759:
1751:
1746:
1744:
1736:
1731:
1729:
1720:
1714:
1709:
1702:
1697:
1695:
1687:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1670:
1665:
1663:
1661:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1643:
1638:
1631:
1626:
1619:
1614:
1612:
1603:
1596:
1588:
1587:
1579:
1571:
1564:
1556:
1555:
1547:
1539:
1538:
1530:
1523:
1518:
1512:, p. 25.
1511:
1506:
1504:
1502:
1494:
1489:
1487:
1485:
1477:
1472:
1470:
1462:
1457:
1455:
1453:
1451:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1436:, p. 27.
1435:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1422:
1414:
1409:
1407:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1396:
1384:
1380:
1373:
1371:
1364:BP13,19,20)."
1360:
1350:
1346:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1323:
1312:
1309:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1293:
1285:
1282:
1277:
1274:
1272:
1270:
1268:
1264:Post-Harappan
1261:1300–600 BCE
1260:
1259:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1249:
1243:
1239:
1233:
1231:
1225:
1224:
1221:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1212:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1200:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1183:
1182:
1179:
1172:
1170:Mehrgarh VII
1169:
1166:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1156:(Ravi Phase;
1153:
1151:
1141:
1140:
1128:
1126:
1121:
1115:
1114:
1108:
1106:
1102:
1099:
1097:Pre-Harappan
1093:
1092:
1088:
1086:Other phases
1085:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1072:
1064:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1049:
1048:Maurya Empire
1045:
1041:
1032:
1020:
1016:
1013:
1010:
1009:
1000:
996:
992:
989:
986:
985:
981:
978:
975:
971:
967:
965:Mature Phase
964:
961:
960:
956:
952:
949:
946:
945:
938:
934:
931:
928:
927:
921:Pre-Harappan
920:
917:
913:
910:
907:
906:
902:
899:
896:
893:
890:
889:
886:
884:
880:
867:
864:
861:
858:
855:
852:
846:1800-1600 BCE
845:
844:
840:
837:
834:
831:
830:
816:
807:
787:
783:
780:
777:
774:
773:
764:Pre-Harappan
758:Pre-Harappan
757:
754:
751:
748:
747:
743:
740:
737:
734:
731:(Sarkar 2016)
727:
720:
713:
710:
709:
706:
704:
698:
693:
688:
684:
669:
667:
656:
651:
645:
642:
639:
636:
633:
630:
627:
626:
625:
623:
619:
607:
604:
600:
599:Rangpur Phase
597:
594:
590:
586:
583:
580:
576:
573:
572:
571:
569:
564:
562:
558:
554:
550:
545:
533:
529:
525:
520:
517:
513:
511:
507:
503:
497:
495:
491:
487:
486:Gordon Willey
482:
479:developed by
478:
468:
465:
462:According to
460:
458:
457:Elman Service
453:
449:
444:
440:
430:
421:
419:
415:
403:
398:
396:
391:
389:
384:
383:
381:
380:
377:
373:
372:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
343:
342:
337:
333:
329:
325:
317:
312:
311:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
218:
213:
212:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
176:
175:
170:
166:
162:
161:Shang dynasty
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
103:
102:
97:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
51:
45:
44:
41:
37:
36:
33:
30:
29:
26:
22:
2769:Lohari Ragho
2615:Tharro Hills
2605:Sutkagan Dor
2595:Rehman Dheri
2550:Mohenjo-daro
2526:Indus script
2483:
2472:Dancing Girl
2471:
2445:Bara culture
2440:Amri culture
2414:
2314:29 September
2312:, retrieved
2297:
2285:
2276:
2234:
2230:
2221:
2195:
2182:
2167:, retrieved
2160:the original
2155:
2114:
2104:
2077:
2073:
2064:
2056:
2045:the original
2040:
2024:
2016:
1999:Kenoyer 1991
1994:
1987:Kenoyer 1991
1960:
1953:Kenoyer 1991
1948:
1941:Kenoyer 1997
1894:Kenoyer 1007
1889:
1877:
1858:
1851:Shaffer 1992
1846:
1839:Dikshit 2013
1819:
1800:
1788:
1776:
1735:Dikshit 2013
1708:
1637:
1630:Shaffer 1992
1625:
1618:Shaffer 1992
1601:
1595:
1585:
1578:
1569:
1563:
1553:
1546:
1536:
1529:
1524:, p. 3.
1522:Possehl 2002
1517:
1476:Possehl 2002
1413:Kenoyer 1991
1359:
1349:
1313:Integration
1295:600-300 BCE
1281:Vedic period
1219:Harappan 3C
1207:Harappan 3B
1177:Nausharo I)
1061:
1057:
1052:
1038:
1030:
1014:Final Phase
932:Early Phase
881:
878:
703:Dikshit 2013
680:
663:
653:
649:
621:
616:
585:Jhukar Phase
575:Punjab Phase
565:
540:
531:
527:
522:
518:
514:
509:
505:
501:
498:
493:
474:
461:
436:
427:
411:
169:Zhou dynasty
40:Chalcolithic
25:
2900:Afghanistan
2854:Bhagwanpura
2759:Oriyo timbo
2484:Priest-king
2410:Indus River
2080:(4): 1–64,
1863:Sarkar 2015
1824:Sarkar 2016
1769:Sarkar 2016
1713:Wright 1999
1686:Manuel 2010
1493:Manuel 2010
1461:Manuel 2010
1256:Harappan 5
1234:Harappan 4
1077:Main phase
990:Late Phase
894:Main phase
883:S. P. Gupta
666:Rita Wright
660:Rita Wright
448:M.R. Mughal
443:Balochistan
157:Xia dynasty
85:Mesopotamia
58: 3300
2959:Categories
2764:Dher Majra
2734:Rakhigarhi
2714:Alamgirpur
2704:Kalibangan
2694:Jognakhera
2674:Gola Dhoro
2635:Ganeriwala
2610:Sokhta Koh
2565:Ganweriwal
2560:Chanhudaro
2340:DeGruyter.
2222:Purātattva
2169:17 January
1882:Gupta 1999
1793:Ahmed 2014
1392:References
1238:Cemetery H
1173:Harappan 2
1158:Hakra Ware
1154:Harappan 1
1101:Mehrgarh I
995:Cemetery H
974:Kalibangan
937:Kalibangan
865:1900-1300
717:(Rao 2005)
687:Hakra Ware
579:Cemetery H
358:literature
336:Cemetery H
165:Sanxingdui
106:East Asia
32:Bronze Age
2913:Shortugai
2834:Babar Kot
2799:Ganeshwar
2784:Loteshwar
2699:Surkotada
2684:Bhagatrav
2669:Dholavira
2640:Nindowari
2625:Allahdino
2237:: 26555,
2185:, Neptune
2134:cite book
1750:Mani 2008
1019:Dholavira
955:Dholavira
897:Subphase
622:Indus Age
506:Tradition
464:Coningham
459:(1971)."
237:Mycenaean
60:–1200 BC)
50:Near East
2908:Mundigak
2889:Desalpur
2884:Mitathal
2864:Banawali
2859:Bhirrana
2824:Pabumath
2739:Rupnagar
2719:Daimabad
2650:Dabarkot
2590:Kot Diji
2570:Mehrgarh
2555:Nausharo
2537:Pakistan
2420:Religion
2295:(2009),
2269:27222033
2193:(2002),
2094:41175522
1805:Law 2008
1326:Bhirrana
1320:See also
916:Mehrgarh
692:Rao 2005
683:Bhirrana
563:Phases.
561:Kot Diji
544:Mehrgarh
376:Iron Age
241:Caucasus
229:Cycladic
129:Majiayao
121:Gojoseon
117:Erligang
73:Caucasus
69:Anatolia
48:Africa,
2929:Meluhha
2849:Bargaon
2829:Nagwada
2819:Sanghol
2814:Sanauli
2794:Farmana
2779:Kuntasi
2689:Rangpur
2630:Balakot
2580:Larkana
2545:Harappa
2260:4879637
2239:Bibcode
2008:Sources
970:Harappa
714:Culture
603:Kachchh
549:Balakot
366:Chariot
354:writing
149:Xindian
145:Wucheng
113:Erlitou
2809:Siswal
2774:Dwarka
2754:Kanmer
2724:Malwan
2679:Lothal
2344:Press.
2305:
2267:
2257:
2203:
2122:
2092:
1379:Madina
1074:Dates
1017:e.g.,
999:Jhukar
993:e.g.,
972:-III,
968:e.g.,
953:e.g.,
935:e.g.,
918:-IV-V
914:e.g.,
721:Period
589:Jhukar
559:, and
346:Topics
233:Minoan
225:Aegean
217:Europe
153:Yueshi
93:Canaan
89:Sistan
81:Levant
2869:Rojdi
2804:Sothi
2789:Mandi
2749:Hulas
2744:Rupar
2729:Kunal
2709:Manda
2661:India
2585:Pirak
2330:1999)
2218:(PDF)
2163:(PDF)
2152:(PDF)
2090:S2CID
2048:(PDF)
2037:(PDF)
1383:Pirak
1342:Notes
957:-III
891:Date
728:Phase
711:Date
593:Pirak
557:Hakra
362:Sword
137:Qijia
133:Mumun
125:Jomon
65:Egypt
2844:Bara
2839:Balu
2600:Amri
2316:2013
2303:ISBN
2265:PMID
2224:(35)
2201:ISBN
2171:2017
2140:link
2120:ISBN
1971:help
1900:help
1869:help
1811:help
1719:help
1381:and
1089:Era
976:-II
903:Era
744:Era
697:help
591:and
553:Amri
537:Eras
488:and
141:Siwa
77:Elam
2255:PMC
2247:doi
2082:doi
939:-I
441:in
239:),
2961::
2263:,
2253:,
2245:,
2233:,
2220:,
2154:,
2136:}}
2132:{{
2088:,
2076:,
2039:,
1979:^
1925:^
1908:^
1831:^
1757:^
1742:^
1727:^
1693:^
1676:^
1649:^
1610:^
1500:^
1483:^
1468:^
1441:^
1420:^
1399:^
1369:^
1160:)
997:,
555:,
551:,
374:↓
364:,
360:,
356:,
352:,
334:,
330:,
326:,
303:,
299:,
295:,
291:,
287:,
283:,
279:,
275:,
271:,
267:,
263:,
259:,
255:,
251:,
247:,
243:,
235:,
231:,
204:,
200:,
196:,
192:,
188:,
167:,
163:,
159:,
155:,
151:,
147:,
143:,
139:,
135:,
131:,
127:,
123:,
119:,
115:,
91:,
87:,
83:,
79:,
75:,
71:,
67:,
55:c.
38:↑
2388:e
2381:t
2374:v
2249::
2241::
2235:6
2142:)
2128:.
2084::
2078:5
1973:)
1902:)
1884:.
1871:)
1865:.
1826:.
1813:)
1721:)
1715:.
1671:.
1644:.
1620:.
1604:.
1572:.
1495:.
1478:.
1415:.
699:)
587:(
577:(
401:e
394:t
387:v
227:(
53:(
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.