Pergamon - Knowledge

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the growth of the city, the streets were expanded and the city was monumentalised. Under Attalos I some minor changes were made to the city of Philetairos. During the reign of Eumenes II and Attalos II, there was a substantial expansion of the city. A new street network was created and a new city wall, with a monumental gatehouse called the Gate of Eumenes, was built south of the Acropolis. The wall, with numerous gates, now surrounded the entire hill, not just the upper city and the flat area to the southwest, all the way to the Selinus river. Numerous public buildings were constructed, as well as a new marketplace south of the acropolis and a new gymnasion in the east. The southeast slope and the whole western slope of the hill were now settled and opened up by streets.

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multi-story building, which propbably had a function connected to the marketplace. With progressive development of the open space, these buildings were demolished, while the Upper Agora itself took on a more strongly commercial function, while still a special space as a result of the temple of Zeus. In the course of the expansion of the city under Eumenes, the commercial character of the Upper Agora was further developed. The key signs of this development are primarily the halls built under Eumenes II, whose back chambers were probably used for trade. In the west, the 'West Chamber' was built which might have served as a market administration building. After these renovations, the Upper Agora thus served as a centre for trade and spectacle in the city.

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north side, the rock forms a 70 metres (230 ft) wide spur of rock. To the southeast of this spur, which is known as the 'Garden of the Queen', the massif reaches its greatest height and breaks off suddenly immediately to the east. The upper city extends for another 250 metres (820 ft) to the south, but it remains very narrow, with a width of only 150 metres (490 ft). At its south en d the massif falls gradually to the east and south, widening to around 350 metres (1,150 ft) and then descends to the plain towards the southwest.

656: 2135: 8094: 57: 1654: 2035: 2088: 2227:(from Greek), or sometimes Asclepium (from Latin), was approached along an 820-metre (2,690 ft) colonnaded sacred way. In this place people with health problems could bathe in the water of the sacred spring, and in the patients' dreams Asclepius would appear in a vision to tell them how to cure their illness. Archeology has found many gifts and dedications that people would make afterwards, such as small terracotta body parts, no doubt representing what had been healed. 2302: 2460:

the courtyard often opened onto foyers, which enabled access to other rooms. An exact north–south arrangement of the city blocks was not possible because of the topographical situation and earlier construction. Thus the size and arrangement of the rooms differed from house to house. From the time of Philetairos, at the latest, this kind of courtyard house was common and it was ever more widespread as time went on, but not universal. Some complexes were designed as

921: 1037: 15217: 8014: 1734: 1556: 8024: 2212: 8034: 2913: 1674: 15205: 8616: 1768:, which was normal in a Greek theatre, so only a wooden stage building was built which could be taken down when there was no performance taking place. Thus, the view along the terrace to the Temple of Dionysos at the northern end was unimpeded. A marble stage building was only built in the 1st century BC. Additional theatres were built in the Roman period, one in the Roman new city and the other in the sanctuary of Asclepius. 2510:

adopted for the area around the gymnasium, with streets up to four metres wide, apparently intended to enable effective traffic flow. In contrast to it, Philetairos' system of alleys was created unsystematically, although the topic is still under investigation. Where the lay of the land prevented the laying of a street, small alleys were installed as connections instead. In general, therefore, there are large, broad streets (

2502: 1913: 8181: 695: 989: 709: 2468:. Others had wide columned halls in front of main rooms to the north. Especially in this latter type there is often a second story accessed by stairways. In the courtyards there were often cisterns, which captured rain water from the sloping roofs above. For the construction under Eumenes II, a city block of 35 x 45 m can be reconstructed, subject to significant variation as a result of the terrain. 680: 8197: 8149: 8133: 8101: 8165: 8117: 1974:, containing at least 200,000 scrolls. The location of the library building is not certain. Since the 19th century excavations, it has generally been identified with an annex of the northern stoa of the sanctuary of Athena in the Upper Citadel, which was built by Eumenes II. Inscriptions in the gymnasium which mention a library might indicate, however, that the building was located in that area. 631: 1777: 861:, and Athens. The two brothers Eumenes II and Attalus II displayed the most distinctive trait of the Attalids: a pronounced sense of family without rivalry or intrigue - rare amongst the Hellenistic dynasties. Attalus II bore the epithet 'Philadelphos', 'he who loves his brother', and his relations with Eumenes II were compared to the harmony between the mythical brothers 2489:

the 'Main Level' opened onto a central courtyard. On the lower level there were rooms only on the south and east sides because of the slope of the land, which led through a colonnade to the exterior of the space. The whole market area extended over two levels with a large columned hall in the centre, which contained small shop spaces and miscellaneous rooms.

1884:, 'the guide', and was already worshiped in the last third of the 3rd century BC, when the Attalids made him the chief god of their dynasty. In the 2nd century BC, Eumenes II (probably) built a temple for Dionysus at the northern end of the theatre terrace. The marble temple sits on a podium, 4.5 metres above the level of the theatre terrace and was an 1760:, and vertically by 0.75-metre-wide (2.5 ft) stairways into seven sections in the lowest part of the theatre and six in the middle and upper sections. Below the theatre is a 247-metre-long (810 ft) and up to 17.4-metre-wide (57 ft) terrace, which rested on a high retaining wall and was framed on the long side by a 1227:) visited Pergamon in 1250, he was shown the house of Galen, but he saw that the theatre had been destroyed and, except for the walls which he paid some attention to, only the vaults over the Selinus seemed noteworthy to him. The monuments of the Attalids and the Romans were only plundered ruins by this time. 2442:

Philetairos transformed Pergamon from an archaic settlement into a fortified city. He or his successor Attalos I built a wall around the whole upper city, including the plateau to the south, the upper agora and some of the housing – further housing must have been found outside these walls. Because of

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in Berlin. The balustrade of the upper level of the north and east stoas was decorated with reliefs depicting weapons which commemorated Eumenes II's military victory. The construction mixed Ionic columns and Doric triglyphs (of which five triglyphs and metopes survive). In the area of the sanctuary,

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The most famous structure from the city is the monumental altar, sometimes called the Great Altar, which was probably dedicated to Zeus and Athena. The foundations are still located in the Upper city, but the remains of the Pergamon frieze, which originally decorated it, are displayed in the Pergamon

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succeeded him as leader of excavations and directed the focus of research on the residential buildings of Pergamon, but also on technical issues, like the water management system of the city which supported a population of 200,000 at its height. He also carried out conservation projects which were of

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The course of the main street, which winds up the hill to the Acropolis with a series of hairpin turns, is typical of the street system of Pergamon. On this street were shops and warehouses. The surface of the street consisted of andesite blocks up to 5 metres wide, 1 metre long and 30 cm deep.

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The sanctuary of Hera Basileia ('the Queen') lay north of the upper terrace of the gymnasium. Its structure sits on two parallel terraces, the south one about 107.4 metres above sea level and the north one about 109.8 metres above sea level. The Temple of Hera sat in the middle of the upper terrace,

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in Athens. A 20-metre-wide (66 ft) staircase cut into the base on the western side leads up to the upper structure, which is surrounded by a colonnade, and consists of a colonnaded courtyard, separated from the staircase by a colonnade. The interior walls of this colonnade had a further frieze,

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were Pergamon and the surrounding area removed from Persian control. There are few traces of the pre-Hellenistic city, since in the following period the terrain was profoundly changed and the construction of broad terraces involved the removal of almost all earlier structures. Parts of the temple of

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An ancient origin for "Pergamos" has often been assumed because of its appearing in the 17th-century King James Bible (Rev 2:12). This was however an erroneous reconstruction by the English translators, and does not appear in the Greek text, which uses either the original Πέργαμον (Rev 1:11) or the

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The Madradağ aqueduct was a ceramic pipe with a diameter of 18 cm which already brought water to the citadel from a source over 40 kilometres away in the Madradağ mountains at 1174 m above sea level in the Hellenistic period. Their significance for architectural history lies in the form of the

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The 80 m long and 55 m wide 'Lower Agora' was built under Eumenes II and was not significantly altered until Late Antiquity. As with the Upper Agora, the rectangular form of the agora was adapted to the steep terrain. The construction consisted in total of three levels. Of these the Upper Level and

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Generally, most of the Hellenistic houses at Pergamon were laid out with a small, centrally-located and roughly square courtyard, with rooms on one or two sides of it. The main rooms are often stacked in two levels on the north side of the courtyard. A wide passage or colonnade on the north side of

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Separate from this, a new area was laid out in Roman times, consisting of a whole new city west of the Selinus river, with all necessary infrastructure, including baths, theatres, stadiums, and sanctuaries. This Roman new city was able to expand without any city walls constraining it because of the

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In their constructive adaptation of the myth, the Attalids stood within the tradition of the other, older Hellenistic dynasties, who legitimized themselves through divine descent, and sought to increase their own prestige. The inhabitants of Pergamon enthusiastically followed their lead and took to

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area was built in the 2nd century BC on the south side of the Acropolis. It consisted of three terraces, with the main entrance at the southeast corner of the lowest terrace. The lowest and southernmost terrace is small and almost free of buildings. It is known as the Lower Gymnasium and has been

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As a result of these efforts, Carl Humann, who had been carrying out low-level excavations at Pergamon for the previous few years and had discovered for example the architrave inscription of the Temple of Demeter in 1875, was entrusted with carry out work in the area of the altar of Zeus in 1878,

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Nevertheless, under the brothers Eumenes II and Attalus II, Pergamon reached its apex and was rebuilt on a monumental scale. It had retained the same dimensions for a long interval after its founding by Philetaerus, covering c. 21 hectares (52 acres). After 188 BC a massive new city wall was

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of andesite. The massif is about one kilometre wide and around 5.5 km long from north to south. It consists of a broad, elongated base and a relatively small peak - the upper city. The side facing the Cetius river is a sharp cliff, while the side facing the Selinus is a little rough. On the

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Philetairos' design of the city was shaped above all by circumstantial considerations. Only under Eumenes II was this approach discarded and the city plan begins to show signs of an overall plan. Contrary to earlier attempts at an orthogonal street system, a fan-shaped design seems to have been

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For the altar's construction, the required flat area was skillfully created through terracing, in order to allow it to be oriented in relation to the neighbouring Temple of Athena. The base of the altar measured around 36 x 33 metres and was decorated on the outside with a detailed depiction in

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for his mother after her death. In a less heroic version, Grynos the son of Eurypylus named a city after him in gratitude for a favour. These mythic connections seem to be late and are not attested before the 3rd century BC. Pergamus' role remained subordinate, although he did receive some cult

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Because of significant new construction in the immediate vicinity – the renovation of the Sanctuary of Athena and the Pergamon altar and the redesign of the neighbouring area - the design and organisational principle of the Upper Agora underwent a further change. Its character became much more

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divided into two rooms. The foundations, measuring around 12.70 x 21.80 metres, are still visible today. The columns were around 5.25 metres high, 0.75 metres in diameter, and the distance between the columns was 1.62 metres, so the colonnade was very light for a temple of this period. This is

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Greek inscriptions discovered at Pergamon include the rules of the town clerks, the so-called Astynomoi inscription, which has added to understanding of Greek municipal laws and regulations, including how roads were kept in repair, regulations regarding the public and private water supply and

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The plan of Pergamon was affected by the extreme steepness of the site. As a result of this, the streets had to turn hairpin corners, so that the hill could be climbed as comfortably and quickly as possible. For the construction of buildings and laying out of the agoras, extensive work on the

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Thus, on the one hand, Eurypylus who must have been part of the dynastic line as a result of the appropriation of the myth, was not mentioned in the hymn sung in honour of Telephus in the Asclepieion. Otherwise he does not seem to have been paid any heed. But the Pergamenes made offerings to

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in the northwest of Turkey. The Caicus river breaks through the surrounding mountains and hills at this point and flows in a wide arc to the southwest. At the foot of the mountain range to the north, between the rivers Selinus and Cetius, there is the massif of Pergamon which rises 335 metres

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against Rome, in which he was defeated. The victorious Romans deprived Pergamon of all its benefits and of its status as a free city. Henceforth the city was required to pay tribute and accommodate and supply Roman troops, and the property of many of the inhabitants was confiscated. Imported

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From the beginning of the reign of Philetairos, civic events in Pergamon were concentrated on the Acropolis. Over time the so-called 'Upper agora' was developed at the south end of this. In the reign of Attalos I, a Temple of Zeus was built there. To the north of this structure there was a

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production, is not true. Surviving epigraphic documents show how the Attalids supported the growth of towns by sending in skilled artisans and by remitting taxes. They allowed the Greek cities in their domains to maintain nominal independence, and sent gifts to Greek cultural sites like

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The inhabitants of Pergamon were supplied with water by an effective system. In addition to cisterns, there was a system of nine pipes (seven Hellenistic ceramic pipes and two open Roman channels. The system provided around 30,000–35,000 cubic metres of water per day.

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was four columns wide and two columns deep and was accessed by a staircase of twenty-five steps. Only a few traces of the Hellenistic structure survive. The majority of the surviving structure derives from a reconstruction of the temple which probably took place under

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in the 15th century, ever more travellers visited the place and published their accounts of it. The key description is that of Thomas Smith, who visited the Levant in 1668 and transmitted a detailed description of Pergamon, to which the great 17th century travellers

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last kilometres from the mountains through a 200-metre-deep (660 ft) valley to the Akropolis. The pipe consisted of three channels, which ended 3 km north of the citadel, before reaching the valley, and emptied into a pool, which included a double

512:(1,099 ft) above sea level. The site is only 26 km from the sea, but the Caicus plain is not open to the sea, since the way is blocked by the Karadağ massif. As a result, the area has a strongly inland character. In Hellenistic times, the town of 3167: 2332:

or sacred area. The temple towers flanking the main building had courtyards with pools used for ablutions at each end, flanked by stoas on three sides. The forecourt of the Temple of Isis/Sarapis is still supported by the 193-metre-wide (633-foot)

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in the 70s BC, used their own possessions to maintain good relationships with Rome, by acting as donors for the development of the city. Numerous honorific inscriptions indicate Pasparus' work and his exceptional position in Pergamon at this time.

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and his successors that a comprehensive redesign and remodelling took place, with the construction of a Roman 'new city' at the base of the Acropolis. The city was the first in the province to receive a second neocorate, from Trajan in AD 113/4.

816:. On this basis, Rome denied any reward to Pergamon and attempted to replace Eumenes with the future Attalus II, who refused to cooperate. These incidents cost Pergamon its privileged status with the Romans, who granted it no further territory. 480:. This mesa falls away sharply on the north, west, and east sides, but three natural terraces on the south side provide a route up to the top. To the west of the acropolis, the Selinus River (modern Bergamaçay) flows through the city, while the 2067:

and had a theatre-shaped lecture hall beyond the northern stoa, which is probably of Roman date and a large banquet hall in the centre. Further rooms of uncertain function were accessible from the stoas. In the west was a south-facing

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The upper terrace measured 150 x 70 metres square, making it the largest of the three terraces. It consisted of a courtyard surrounded by stoas and other structures, measuring roughly 36 x 74 metres. This complex is identified as a

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worked on the Asklepieion in particular, but also carried out important work on the lower city as a whole and performed survey work, which increased knowledge of the countryside surrounding the city. In 1971, after a short pause,

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was opened for them in 1907. The work was continued by Conze, who aimed for the most complete possible exposure and investigation of the historic city and citadel that was possible. He was followed by the architectural historian

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for which he had undertaken planning work and topographical studies, he returned in 1869 and began to focus intensively on the legacy of the city. In 1871, he organised a small expedition there under the leadership of

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It would seem that Hadrian had a definite impact upon the Pergamene sanctuary and this is best articulated in the creation of a new god here, the syncretic universal deity Zeus-Asclepius to whom a temple was built on

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identified as the boys' gymnasium. The middle terrace was around 250 metres long and 70 metres wide at the centre. On its north side there was a two-story hall. In the east part of the terrace there was a small

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in 281–133 BC under the Attalid dynasty, who transformed it into one of the major cultural centres of the Greek world. Many remains of its monuments can still be seen and especially the masterpiece of the

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In the east part of the courtyard, there were more than ten rows of seating laid out in front of the northern stoa for participants in the mysteries of Demeter. Roughly 800 initiates could fit in these seats.

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from 1900 to 1911, who was responsible for the most important discoveries. Under his leadership the Lower Agora, the House of Attalos, the Gymnasion, and the Sanctuary of Demeter were brought to light.

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The street included a drainage system, which carried the water down the slope. Since it was the most important street of the city, the quality of the material used in its construction was very high.

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worship. Beginning in the Roman period, his image appears on civic coinage and he is said to have had a heroon in the city. Even so, he provided a further, deliberately crafted link to the world of

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The Sanctuary of Demeter occupied an area of 50 x 110 metres on the middle level of the south slope of the citadel. The sanctuary was old; its activity can be traced back to the fourth century BC.

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to the west and a building whose function is very unclear to the east. The two terraces were linked by a staircase of eleven steps around 7.5 metres wide, descending from the front of the temple.

1690:, the battle between the Olympian gods and the Giants. The frieze is 2.30 metres high and has a total length of 113 metres, making it the second longest frieze surviving from antiquity, after the 1867: 844:, meaning "from Pergamon". Despite this etymology, parchment had been used in Asia Minor long before the rise of the city; the story that it was invented by the Pergamenes, to circumvent the 1803:. To the north, the area was closed off by a high stoa, while on the west and east sides it was surrounded by simple ashlar walls, until further stoas were inserted in Hadrian's reign. 2145:

The sanctuary was entered through a Propylon from the east, which led to a courtyard surrounded by stoas on three sides. In the centre of the western half of this courtyard, stood the

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dates from the Hellenistic period and had space for around 10,000 people, in 78 rows of seats. At a height of 36 metres, it is the steepest of all ancient theatres. The seating area (

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However, for the Attalids, it was apparently the genealogical connection to Heracles that was crucial, since all the other Hellenistic dynasties had long established such links: the

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Kleinasien und Byzanz. Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Altertumskunde und Kunstgeschichte. Martin Schede zu seinem sechzigsten Geburtstag am 20. Oktober 1943 im Manuskript überreicht.

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at the mouth of the Caicus served as the port of Pergamon. The climate is Mediterranean with a dry period from May to August, as is common along the west coast of Asia Minor.

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cliff-face and terracing had to be carried out. A consequence of the city's growth was the construction of new buildings over old ones, since there was not sufficient space.

3557: 2546:. This pool was 35 metres higher than the summit of the citadel. The pipe from the pool to the Acropolis consisted of only a single channel – a lead pipe pressurised to 200 4372: 2328:

in Turkish), about one kilometre (0.62 miles) south of the Acropolis at (39 7' 19" N, 27 11' 1" E). It consists of a main building and two round towers within an enormous

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Attalos I and Eumenes II constructed victory monuments, most notably the Gallic dedications. The northern stoa seems to have been the site of the Library of Pergamon.

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138–133. Philetaerus controlled only Pergamon and its immediate environs, but the city acquired much new territory under Eumenes I. In particular, after the Battle of

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under Xenophon's command ended at Pergamon in 400/399 BC. Xenophon, who calls the city Pergamos, handed over the rest of his Greek troops (some 5,000 men according to

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for detailed analysis, where they received some interest, but not a lot. It is not clear who connected these fragments with the Great Altar in Pergamon mentioned by

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Description de l'Asie Mineure: faite par ordre du gouvernement français en 1833–1837; beaux-arts, monuments historiques, plans et topographie des cités antiques

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refers to the city as the most important in the province and the local aristocracy continued to reach the highest circles of power in the 1st century AD, like

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The surviving remains of the inscription on the architrave indicate that the building was the temple of Hera Basileia and that it was erected by Attalus II.

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Most of the finds from the Pergamon excavations before the First World War were taken to the Pergamon Museum in Berlin, with a smaller portion going to the

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the Telephus myth is already connected with the area of Mysia. Searching for his mother, Telephus visits Mysia on the advice of an oracle. There he becomes

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Melfi, Milena (2010). "Rebuilding the Myth of Asklepios at the Sanctuary of Epidauros in the Roman Period". In Rizakēs, A. D.; Lepenioti, Cl. E. (eds.).

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Pergamon: The Telephos Friez from the Great Altar; [exhibition, The Metrolopitan Museum of Art, New York, N. Y., 16 January - 14 April 1996...]

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constructed, 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) long and enclosing an area of approximately 90 hectares (220 acres). The Attalids' goal was to create a second

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Die Stadtgrabung. Die hellenistischen und römischen Wohnhäuser von Pergamon. Unter Berücksichtigung der Anlagen zwischen der Mittel- und der Ostgasse

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spectacular and focussed on the two new structures looming over it, especially the altar which was visible on its terrace from below since the usual

15283: 5128: 8070: 4237: 3863: 3341: 3317: 14916: 1699:, the son of Heracles and mythical founder of Pergamon. This frieze is around 1.60 metres high and thus is clearly smaller than the outer frieze. 5161: 3594: 2461: 1603: 5025: 4993: 1608: 1393:). With his mother, he was said to have fled to Mysia where he killed the ruler of Teuthrania and gave the city his own name. There he built a 766:, to whom Pergamon had paid tribute under Eumenes I. Attalus thereafter declared himself leader of an entirely independent Pergamene kingdom. 649:, circa 450 BC. The name of the city ΠΕΡΓ ("PERG"), appears for the first on this coinage, and is the first evidence for the name of the city. 15188: 5129:"The Seductive Elegance and Startling Cruelty of Greece's Baroque Age: Power, Pathos and Prestige in Pergamon and Other Hellenistic Kingdoms" 4387: 3533: 1512:

made important sketches. A proper, multi-page description with plans, elevations, and views of the city and its ruins was first produced by

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Ulrike Wulf, "Der Stadtplan von Pergamon. Zu Entwicklung und Stadtstruktur von der Neugründung unter Philetairos bis in spätantike Zeit,"

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Ulrike Wulf, "Der Stadtplan von Pergamon. Zu Entwicklung und Stadtstruktur von der Neugründung unter Philetairos bis in spätantike Zeit,"

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Theatre of Pergamon, one of the steepest theatres in the world, has a capacity of 10,000 people and was constructed in the 3rd century BC.

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In the late 18th century, these visits were reinforced by a scholarly (especially ancient historical) desire for research, epitomised by

14838: 2550:. The water was able to cross the valley between the pool and the citadel with the help of this pressurised conduit. It functioned as a 1764:. Coming from the Upper market, one could enter this from a tower-building at the south end. This terrace had no space for the circular 15298: 15268: 14918: 14904: 14903: 14880: 14879: 8234: 6761: 14912: 14875: 14847: 14834: 14853: 3891: 3404:

Sabine Müller, "Genealogie und Legitimation in den hellenistischen Reichen," in Hartwin Brandt, Katrin Köhler, Ulrike Siewert (ed.),

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Das Gebäude mit dem Podiensaal in der Stadtgrabung von Pergamon. Studien zu sakralen Banketträumen mit Liegepodien in der Antike

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temple, about 18 metres wide with six columns on the short sides and nine columns on the long sides, and two rows of columns

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granted the city a third neocorate, but a decline had already set in. The economic strength of Pergamon collapsed during the

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In the middle of the 2nd century Pergamon was one of the largest cities in the province, and had around 200,000 inhabitants.

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Three kilometres (1.9 miles) south of the Acropolis (at 39° 7′ 9″ N, 27° 9′ 56″ E), down in the valley, is the Sanctuary of

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The Caicus valley is mostly composed of volcanic rock, particularly andesite, and the Pergamon massif is also an intrusive

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was located in Pergamon near the Caicus. Pergamon thus entered the Trojan epic cycle, with its ruler said to have been an

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When Attalus III died without an heir in 133 BC, he bequeathed the whole of Pergamon to Rome. This was challenged by

14794: 5154: 3673: 3558:"1,800-year-old Geometric Patterned Mosaic Found In The Ancient Greek City Pergamon Now Modern Turkey – Greek City Times" 978: 3121: 1940:, but are instead composed of three of triglyphs and three metopes. The columns of the temple are unfluted and retained 1338:, but Pergamon does not seem to have played any role in any of them. The adaptation of the myth is not entirely smooth. 14828: 6771: 6461: 6154: 6088: 14857: 14846: 14899: 6159: 6134: 4603: 4560: 4541: 4522: 4503: 4084: 4041: 3750: 3606: 3590: 3507: 3429: 3353: 3329: 3305: 3284: 3062: 2954: 2896: 14833: 1811: 9388: 7968: 6717: 6144: 6139: 2264: 14884: 2165:. The rest of the structure was of Hellenistic date, built in local marble and had a marble frieze decorated with 1670:

museum in Berlin, where the parts of the frieze taken to Germany have been installed in a partial reconstruction.

14839: 8056: 6611: 6471: 6466: 5743: 5071: 2398: 1625:

In May 2022, archaeologists announced the discovery of a 1,800-year-old well-preserved geometric patterned floor

1476:

The first mention of Pergamon in written records after ancient times comes from the 13th century. Beginning with

889: 14868: 5117:

The Theatre at Pergamon. The Ancient Theatre Archive. Theatre specifications and virtual reality tour of theatre

3626: 3104: 2759: 1615: 1607:

vital importance for maintaining the material remains of Pergamon. Since 2006, the excavations have been led by

808:

in 188 BC. The kingdom's territories thus reached their greatest extent. Eumenes II supported Rome again in the

56: 15288: 14894: 14878: 12751: 8550: 8093: 7995: 6636: 6050: 5147: 3053: 1765: 1052:, was born at Pergamon and received his early training at the Asclepieion. At the beginning of the 3rd century 14863: 14852: 14835: 4962:

Das Asklepieion. Der nördliche Temenosbezirk und angrenzende Anlagen in hellenistischer und frührömischer Zeit

1365:

hero of the city. He also belonged to the broader cycle of myths related to the Trojan War as the grandson of

612:, satrap of Mysia, used Pergamon as his base for an unsuccessful revolt against the Persian Empire. Only with 15278: 14867: 14837: 11460: 9783: 7990: 7547: 7040: 6556: 6476: 6174: 5884: 4913: 1298:, encompassing the area between Pergamon and the mouth of the Caicus. Telephus refuses to participate in the 1145: 970: 575: 14890: 3484:„Pergamo ara marmorea magna, alta pedes quadraginta, cum maximis sculpturis; continet autem gigantomachiam.“ 3092: 2727: 256: 43: 15150: 15128: 14908: 14610: 13236: 10691: 8570: 7963: 6492: 5946: 3406:

Inter- und intragenerationelle Auseinandersetzungen sowie die Bedeutung von Verwandtschaft bei Amtswechseln

2686: 14869: 14843: 4079:. Roman Peloponnese. Vol. 3. Athēna: Kentron Hellēnikēs kai Rōmaikēs Archaiotētos. pp. 329–340. 2001:

The Heroön – a shrine where the kings of Pergamon, particularly Attalus I and Eumenes II, were worshipped.

14888: 14885: 14600: 13444: 7018: 6626: 6502: 6164: 6118: 6073: 5849: 5538: 4585: 1303: 1057: 14909: 14864: 14848: 14836: 14830: 7557: 4031: 3172: 2554:, such that the water rose to the height of the citadel on its own as a result of the pressurised pipe. 15104: 14870: 12046: 11818: 11014: 7679: 7552: 6685: 6680: 6656: 6566: 6083: 5181: 2043: 14902: 14895: 14876: 2103:

The temple was about 7 metres wide by 12 metres long, and sat on a three-stepped foundation. It was a

730:. In 281 BC the kingdom of Thrace collapsed and Philetaerus became an independent ruler, founding the 15303: 14861: 14860: 14856: 14851: 14842: 12506: 12436: 8264: 8037: 7980: 6936: 6739: 6724: 6646: 6581: 5901: 5796: 5270: 5204: 3249: 2254:

in some sources, referred to as the Temple of Zeus Asclepius, or the Temple of Zeus Asclepius Soter (

2018: 1847: 1477: 1461: 1022: 14871: 6548: 6528: 5726: 5384: 5095: 4036:. Altertümer von Pergamon (in German). Vol. 8. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co. p. 13. 3699: 1080:

for the first time. As a result of the ongoing Arab threat, the area of settlement retracted to the

15308: 14886: 14883: 14881: 14500: 14165: 11219: 9958: 9728: 8953: 6734: 6697: 6631: 6297: 6184: 5116: 4495: 3162: 3100: 1982: 1505: 1347: 1270: 1141: 280: 14850: 14849: 14841: 1947:

A two-story stoa surrounding the temple on three sides was added under Eumenes II, along with the

1856:

During the excavations fragments of statues of Trajan and Hadrian were found in the rubble of the

1357:

On the other hand, the story was linked to the foundation of the city with another myth – that of

15113: 15064: 15027: 14874: 14505: 13709: 13624: 11775: 11294: 10966: 10951: 10556: 10398: 8918: 8803: 8017: 7141: 6941: 6926: 6729: 6712: 6692: 6661: 6561: 6497: 6113: 6098: 6068: 6029: 5906: 5758: 5260: 4266:

Klaus Rheidt, "Die Obere Agora. Zur Entwicklung des hellenistischen Stadtzentrums von Pergamon."

4253:

Klaus Rheidt, "Die Obere Agora. Zur Entwicklung des hellenistischen Stadtzentrums von Pergamon."

4224:

Klaus Rheidt, "Die Obere Agora. Zur Entwicklung des hellenistischen Stadtzentrums von Pergamon."

4211:

Klaus Rheidt, "Die Obere Agora. Zur Entwicklung des hellenistischen Stadtzentrums von Pergamon."

3022: 2847: 2838: 2606: 2390: 2206: 1920:

Pergamon's oldest temple is a sanctuary of Athena from the 4th century BC. It was a north-facing

1747: 1159:

in 1071. Attacks in 1109 and 1113 largely destroyed the city, which was only rebuilt, by Emperor

589:, at this location in March 399 BC. At this time Pergamon was in the possession of the family of 15050: 14882: 5085: 4570:

Nagy, Gregory (1998). "The Library of Pergamon as a Classical Model". In Koester, Helmut (ed.).

4477:

Grewe, Klaus; Özis, Ünal (1994). "Die antiken Flußüberbauungen von Pergamon und Nysa (Türkei)".

4413: 3726:

The temple could actually have been for the worship of both Zeus and Hadrian with the latter as

14866: 14855: 14740: 14220: 13539: 12476: 11946: 11550: 10896: 10378: 8888: 8079: 7975: 6978: 6749: 6707: 6641: 6606: 6058: 6042: 5738: 5679: 5528: 5523: 2578: 1205: 1190: 1186: 1126: 935: 924: 789: 455: 15158: 14873: 4385:

Klaus Grewe, Ünal Özis, et al. "Die antiken Flußüberbauungen von Pergamon und Nysa (Türkei),"

2944: 2886: 1286:, is not mentioned in Greek myth or epic of the archaic or classical periods. However, in the 14901: 14889: 14630: 14280: 13724: 13689: 13639: 13359: 12481: 11129: 9883: 9778: 9618: 8933: 8565: 8203: 8027: 7256: 7246: 7236: 7221: 6911: 6651: 6621: 6576: 6571: 6202: 6169: 5971: 5876: 5862: 5518: 5389: 5353: 4005: 2928: 2916: One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the 2637: 2616: 2594: 2551: 2059:, known as the Basement Stadium is located between the middle terrace and the upper terrace. 1971: 1198: 993: 939: 905: 833: 782: 14680: 4428:

Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften. Abhandlungen. Klasse für Sprachen, Literatur und Kunst

3962:. VI, pp. 102–110, Tables I-II, IV–V, VI–VII, VIII, X–XI, XVIII, XXXII, XXXIII, XXXIV, XXXV. 2119:

for each span in the entablature. All the other buildings in the sanctuary were made out of

14330: 13759: 13684: 13619: 13494: 13344: 13121: 12756: 12746: 12326: 12251: 12041: 12031: 11981: 11941: 11354: 11344: 11329: 11259: 10856: 10846: 10781: 10616: 10516: 10143: 10008: 9893: 8903: 8858: 7499: 7493: 7479: 6963: 6921: 6893: 6778: 6591: 5821: 5617: 2422: 1709:, the faith of the Pergamon believers, who "dwell where Satan's throne is" is commended by 1549: 1430: 1217: 897: 873: 824:, a cultural and artistic hub of the Greek world. They remodeled their Acropolis after the 809: 778: 10979: 4406:

Leichtweiss-Institut für Wasserbau der Technischen Universität Braunschweig – Mitteilungen

3888: 8: 14817: 14745: 14710: 14625: 14620: 14590: 14490: 14425: 14175: 14115: 13664: 13554: 13339: 13191: 13006: 12906: 12661: 12441: 12261: 11876: 11861: 11615: 11430: 10906: 10806: 10791: 10711: 10706: 10606: 10213: 10208: 9943: 9723: 9198: 9193: 8768: 8683: 8595: 8486: 7630: 7600: 6988: 6883: 6878: 6315: 5630: 5543: 5513: 5467: 5230: 2622: 2547: 2341: 1965: 1426: 1414: 1156: 829: 812:, but the Romans heard rumours of his conducting secret negotiations with their opponent 774: 700: 613: 562: 446: 240: 15099: 10721: 4883: 4880: 4856: 4853: 4843: 4840: 4826: 4805: 4792: 4775: 4727: 2286:

the Via Tecta (or the Sacred Way, which is a colonnaded street leading to the sanctuary)

1994:

Other notable structures still in existence on the upper part of the Acropolis include:

1574: 14896: 14775: 14660: 14635: 14255: 14095: 13989: 13919: 13329: 12986: 12951: 12611: 12331: 12311: 12201: 12011: 12001: 11896: 11871: 11525: 11394: 10771: 10576: 9968: 9708: 9693: 9518: 9358: 9018: 8823: 7847: 7744: 7650: 7294: 7211: 7099: 6601: 6425: 5941: 5921: 5778: 5649: 5533: 5328: 5255: 4969:

Das Asklepieion. Die Kultbauten aus römischer Zeit an der Ostseite des Heiligen Bezirks

4907: 4897: 4870: 4823: 4802: 4789: 4772: 4709: 4689: 2814:, "Zur ältesten Besiedlungsgeschichte der unteren Kaïkos-Ebene," in Kurt Bittel (ed.): 2543: 2439:

Pergamon is a good example of a city that expanded in a planned and controlled manner.

2406: 2349: 2231:, the most famous doctor in the ancient Roman Empire and personal physician of Emperor 1706: 1527:

visited Pergamon for the first time. For the construction of the road from Pergamon to

1254:

urns transported from the ruins of Pergamon and placed on two sides of the nave in the

1077: 1026: 813: 763: 462: 442: 15035: 11455: 11139: 2949:. Blackwell History of the Ancient World. Vol. 13. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. 2079:

in Roman times. Further Roman baths were constructed to the west of the Ionic temple.

15248: 14595: 14485: 14350: 14230: 14125: 14020: 13994: 13924: 13894: 13429: 13404: 13364: 13334: 13319: 13284: 13141: 12841: 12761: 12636: 12446: 12271: 12231: 12196: 12186: 12166: 12111: 11926: 11901: 11881: 11625: 11600: 11520: 11415: 11319: 11299: 11264: 10926: 10851: 10641: 10601: 10546: 10173: 10138: 9888: 9858: 9638: 9363: 9183: 8828: 8818: 8600: 8545: 8023: 7922: 7509: 7058: 6906: 6858: 6702: 6671: 6616: 6533: 6410: 6282: 6103: 5936: 5889: 5829: 5703: 5685: 5661: 5643: 5598: 5553: 5548: 5199: 5059:

Die byzantinischen Befestigungsanlagen von Pergamon mit ihrer Wehr- und Baugeschichte

4955:

Das Asklepieion. Der südliche Temenosbezirk in hellenistischer und frührömischer Zeit

4781: 4599: 4556: 4537: 4518: 4499: 4409: 4090: 4080: 4055: 4047: 4037: 3746: 3602: 3586: 3425: 3422:

Attalidische Herrscherbildnisse. Studien zur hellenistischen Porträtplastik Pergamons

3409: 3349: 3325: 3301: 3280: 3131: 3058: 3048: 2950: 2892: 2600: 2588: 1861: 1597:

also caused a break in work at Pergamon, which lasted until 1957. From 1957 to 1968,

1465: 1231: 1194: 1160: 948: 862: 642: 598: 191: 14720: 4730: 4532:

Kosmetatou, Elizabeth (2003). "The Attalids of Pergamon". In Erskine, Andrew (ed.).

1970:

The Library of Pergamon was the second largest in the ancient Greek world after the

499: 95: 15004: 14755: 14705: 14120: 14010: 13999: 13969: 13844: 13784: 13649: 13509: 13026: 12996: 12696: 12546: 12521: 12386: 12346: 12336: 12306: 12281: 12171: 12151: 12146: 11911: 11798: 11760: 11570: 11174: 11079: 10701: 10531: 10506: 10496: 10471: 10448: 10328: 10073: 10068: 9953: 9923: 9868: 9753: 9738: 9578: 9438: 9373: 9368: 9263: 9133: 9108: 8928: 8878: 8833: 8808: 7852: 7384: 7349: 7166: 7023: 6901: 6788: 6783: 6108: 6063: 5894: 5801: 5417: 5250: 5235: 5225: 4932: 3792: 3711: 2361: 2353: 2158: 2052: 1944:, but it is not clear whether this was a result of carelessness or incompleteness. 1793: 1691: 1594: 1213: 1175: 1103: 893: 354: 319: 14015: 5121: 4987:

Das Asklepieion. Die Platzhallen und die zugehörigen Annexbauten in römischer Zeit

3787: 2223:, the god of healing. The Sanctuary of Asclepius, more commonly left untranslated 2134: 15221: 14928: 14405: 14385: 14340: 14335: 14260: 14235: 14130: 14065: 14004: 13974: 13904: 13789: 13714: 13679: 13574: 13454: 13449: 13434: 13384: 13269: 13264: 13254: 13116: 13091: 13076: 12901: 12641: 12541: 12456: 12356: 12316: 12266: 12206: 12156: 12141: 11971: 11700: 11450: 11445: 11279: 11154: 11074: 11024: 10936: 10428: 10193: 10133: 10098: 10053: 10018: 9928: 9833: 9643: 9543: 9123: 8883: 8838: 8456: 8386: 8367: 7867: 7625: 7413: 7226: 6968: 6834: 6766: 6093: 5691: 5673: 5667: 5581: 5558: 5432: 5343: 5303: 5240: 4832: 4815: 4685: 3895: 2522: 2334: 2232: 1952: 1658: 1586: 1582: 1569: 1545: 1541: 1107: 1040:

A model of the acropolis of Pergamon, showing the situation in the 2nd century CE

1021:. An ambitious building programme was carried out: massive temples, a stadium, a 974: 805: 785: 731: 520: 15167: 14675: 8631: 7892: 7605: 4030:

Habicht, Christian; Wörrle, Michael; Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (1969).

1447:) and referring to Pergamon itself in poetic registers as the 'Telephian city' ( 1354:

when he landed at the Caicus, mistook it for Troy and began to ravage the land.

15162: 15087: 14640: 14460: 14450: 14415: 14275: 14190: 13779: 13719: 13699: 13614: 12916: 12911: 12891: 12851: 12806: 12771: 12721: 12606: 12566: 12451: 12426: 12351: 12246: 12216: 12101: 12016: 11996: 11991: 11951: 11891: 11848: 11720: 10796: 10631: 10586: 10486: 10373: 10333: 10258: 10238: 10198: 10118: 10113: 9668: 9633: 9628: 9623: 9553: 9498: 9328: 9303: 9228: 9033: 9013: 8863: 8738: 8718: 8555: 8352: 8219: 7749: 7689: 7684: 7640: 7421: 7369: 7359: 7339: 7329: 7073: 7068: 7063: 5916: 5715: 5709: 5697: 5497: 5472: 5245: 5170: 5111: 5090: 4982: 4029: 3583:

Der Pergamonaltar. Die neue Präsentation nach Restaurierung des Telephosfrieses

3508:"Darstellung der Forschungsgeschichte seit Carl Humann auf der Website des DAI" 3116: 3108: 2402: 2162: 2075:, the central sanctuary of the gymnasium. The eastern area was replaced with a 1710: 1653: 1648: 1619: 1565: 1513: 1378: 1243: 1239: 1209: 1152: 1118: 1065: 901: 770: 601:

who had taken refuge in Asia Minor and obtained the territory of Pergamon from

586: 538: 513: 451: 407: 387: 20: 14650: 14135: 13824: 4889: 4620:. Translated by Brownson, Carleton L. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 2034: 1789: 1274:

Founding of Pergamon: depiction from the Telephos frieze of the Pergamon altar

1060:, as the city was badly damaged in an earthquake in 262 and was sacked by the 726:, took possession in 301 BC, and the town was enlarged by his lieutenant 507:

Pergamon lies on the north edge of the Caicus plain in the historic region of

15237: 15209: 14967: 14470: 14365: 13984: 13979: 13934: 13884: 13769: 13559: 13529: 13464: 13011: 12646: 12471: 12431: 12136: 12051: 12036: 11936: 11916: 11274: 10974: 10826: 10676: 10521: 10438: 10338: 10248: 10188: 10148: 9863: 9763: 9718: 9653: 9488: 9393: 9353: 9338: 9188: 9153: 8923: 8868: 8778: 8723: 8688: 8670: 8620: 8518: 7985: 7902: 7877: 7567: 7489: 7171: 7114: 7013: 7003: 6973: 6955: 6829: 5981: 5763: 5655: 5611: 5573: 5412: 5333: 4811: 4051: 3237: 3224: 3211: 3198: 3185: 3135: 3112: 3096: 2917: 2394: 2345: 1703: 1533: 1497: 793: 459: 427: 136: 123: 4094: 2529:

in the centre of Bergama is the largest bridge substruction from antiquity.

2312:

Pergamon's other notable structure is the great temple of the Egyptian gods

414:. It is located 26 kilometres (16 mi) from the modern coastline of the 15172: 14475: 14430: 14380: 14170: 14105: 13799: 13634: 13534: 13314: 13161: 13041: 12871: 12736: 12551: 12361: 12221: 12061: 11725: 11630: 11309: 11229: 11164: 11104: 11099: 10841: 10536: 10456: 10383: 10368: 10268: 10153: 9898: 9843: 9378: 7802: 7754: 7620: 7474: 7344: 6983: 6819: 6325: 6287: 5986: 4862: 4747: 4059: 2631: 2526: 2382: 2321: 2306: 2154: 2087: 2072: 1951:

in the southeast corner, which is now found, largely reconstructed, in the

1687: 1590: 1255: 582: 567: 195: 11783: 11555: 10994: 3511: 2274:

a circular treatment center (sometimes known as the Temple of Telesphorus)

884:. For a period he enjoyed success, defeating and killing the Roman consul 14975: 14530: 14360: 14285: 14205: 14195: 14055: 13809: 13544: 13499: 13349: 13046: 12681: 12536: 12511: 11886: 11755: 11635: 11590: 11334: 11134: 11069: 11049: 10821: 10716: 10491: 10423: 10283: 10083: 9938: 9873: 9748: 9588: 9433: 9163: 9038: 8968: 8813: 8708: 8590: 8502: 8337: 8294: 8048: 7822: 7714: 7694: 7522: 7030: 7008: 6998: 6993: 6916: 6873: 6420: 6330: 6320: 6207: 6197: 5961: 5338: 5313: 4459: 4445: 2811: 2376: 2365: 2301: 2224: 2146: 2104: 2069: 1927:

temple with six columns on the short side and ten on the long side and a

1921: 1885: 1683: 1524: 1370: 1130: 1085: 1049: 869: 759: 751: 727: 684: 14580: 13504: 8187: 7527: 3730:

with the former, as Trajan shared the temple of Zeus Philios at Pergamon

2181:

The lower part of the Acropolis also contains the following structures:

1144:. It was again rebuilt and refortified after the Arabs abandoned their 1036: 920: 734:. His family ruled Pergamon from 281 until 133 BC: Philetaerus 281–263; 621:, as well as the walls and foundations of the altar in the sanctuary of 15054: 15017: 14985: 14750: 14665: 14645: 14550: 14510: 14455: 14370: 14310: 14240: 14060: 14045: 14040: 14030: 13889: 13764: 13594: 13484: 13166: 13111: 13061: 13056: 12991: 12966: 12956: 12946: 12936: 12931: 12881: 12861: 12826: 12781: 12731: 12711: 12671: 12531: 12406: 12396: 12211: 12116: 12096: 11976: 11808: 11793: 11620: 11490: 11384: 11339: 11249: 11184: 11054: 10861: 10761: 10736: 10313: 10273: 10203: 10178: 10093: 9768: 9673: 9533: 9493: 9458: 9383: 9168: 9088: 8494: 8441: 8381: 8376: 8312: 8279: 7759: 7729: 7724: 7709: 7595: 7562: 7231: 7201: 6868: 6596: 6430: 6272: 6267: 6257: 6242: 6227: 6217: 6192: 5568: 5323: 5278: 3715: 2357: 2076: 1924: 1796: 1482: 1410: 1382: 1299: 1295: 1287: 1010: 801: 747: 743: 719: 641:, wearing the Persian cap on the reverse, as ruler of Pergamon for the 550: 546: 419: 415: 14786: 13909: 11399: 8322: 4637:(2nd revised and expanded ed.). Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 4404:. Leichtweiss-Institut für Wasserbau, Braunschweig 1981, pp. 275–290 ( 4402:

Vorträge der Tagung Wasser im Antiken Hellas in Athen, 4./5. Juni 1981

4400:

Boris Ilakovac, "Unbekannte Herstellungsmethode römischer Bleirohre."

3534:"1,800-year-old geometric patterned mosaic found in Turkey's Pergamon" 3393:

Die politische Rolle der Heraklesgestalt im griechischen Herrschertum.

3380:

Die politische Rolle der Heraklesgestalt im griechischen Herrschertum.

3367:

Die politische Rolle der Heraklesgestalt im griechischen Herrschertum.

1850:

minted in Pergamon depicting Trajan sharing a temple with Zeus Philios

1788:, the Traianeum or Trajaneum. The Temple is also called the Temple of 1733: 1555: 269: 14989: 14725: 14690: 14585: 14535: 14515: 14495: 14480: 14465: 14320: 14315: 14290: 14270: 14160: 14110: 14080: 13959: 13864: 13839: 13819: 13804: 13744: 13729: 13644: 13524: 13389: 13369: 13309: 13289: 13249: 13244: 13136: 13081: 13036: 12961: 12941: 12886: 12876: 12831: 12796: 12776: 12766: 12741: 12716: 12701: 12691: 12676: 12601: 12596: 12586: 12526: 12466: 12461: 12376: 12366: 12321: 12191: 12181: 12126: 12091: 12026: 11730: 11705: 11680: 11605: 11510: 11440: 11420: 11410: 11239: 11234: 11204: 11179: 11169: 11149: 11124: 11044: 11019: 10999: 10989: 10916: 10891: 10871: 10466: 10408: 10358: 10353: 10323: 10318: 10278: 10263: 10218: 10078: 10003: 9853: 9823: 9773: 9678: 9593: 9423: 9343: 9323: 9213: 9148: 9078: 8988: 8848: 8798: 8713: 8575: 7734: 7660: 7645: 7615: 7610: 7542: 7466: 7451: 7436: 7379: 7279: 6931: 6863: 6435: 6415: 6385: 6380: 6375: 6340: 6335: 6305: 6252: 6212: 5991: 5857: 5811: 5791: 5422: 5293: 4076:

Economy and Culture under the Roman Empire: Continuity and Innovation

3346:

Die politische Rolle der Heraklesgestalt im griechischen Herrschertum

3322:

Die politische Rolle der Heraklesgestalt im griechischen Herrschertum

2843: 2665: 2653: 2386: 2290: 2220: 2211: 2166: 2064: 1897: 1721:" refers to the Pergamon Altar, due to its resemblance to a gigantic 1568:, the reliefs discovered there were transported to Berlin, where the 1418: 1406: 1362: 1351: 1327: 1319: 1311: 1251: 1247: 1171: 1122: 1081: 1053: 1030: 962: 957: 845: 837: 825: 739: 735: 713: 688: 662: 609: 477: 4676:

The archaeological reports from Pergamon are published in German as

2982:

Elizabeth Kosmetatou, "The Attalids of Pergamon" in Andrew Erskine,

2971:

Alexander to Actium. The historical evolution of the Hellenistic age

2269:, who constructed the temple, dedicated it to this new syncretic god 1673: 15108: 14730: 14715: 14570: 14560: 14540: 14525: 14355: 14305: 14300: 14245: 14210: 14145: 14100: 13879: 13869: 13854: 13829: 13659: 13654: 13584: 13514: 13479: 13469: 13459: 13419: 13414: 13409: 13379: 13304: 13294: 13259: 13221: 13206: 13200: 13176: 13146: 13131: 13106: 13086: 13051: 13016: 12976: 12926: 12846: 12786: 12706: 12686: 12656: 12651: 12581: 12576: 12501: 12486: 12421: 12411: 12296: 12291: 12256: 12241: 12176: 12131: 12106: 12081: 12056: 11931: 11866: 11803: 11745: 11665: 11640: 11575: 11545: 11540: 11505: 11495: 11480: 11465: 11425: 11374: 11369: 11364: 11349: 11244: 11209: 11199: 11194: 11114: 11089: 11084: 11064: 11039: 10886: 10876: 10831: 10816: 10686: 10656: 10651: 10621: 10561: 10541: 10461: 10433: 10403: 10393: 10348: 10223: 10163: 10123: 10023: 9978: 9948: 9903: 9648: 9603: 9583: 9538: 9523: 9508: 9503: 9418: 9413: 9398: 9333: 9318: 9308: 9298: 9288: 9278: 9258: 9208: 9203: 9143: 9138: 9128: 9113: 9098: 9093: 9068: 9058: 9053: 9048: 9008: 8993: 8978: 8958: 8898: 8873: 8853: 8843: 8773: 8748: 8733: 8703: 8693: 8678: 8560: 8401: 8327: 8304: 8299: 8289: 8155: 7784: 7774: 7764: 7739: 7517: 7484: 7446: 7389: 7304: 7289: 7146: 7136: 7053: 7048: 6445: 6440: 6400: 6395: 6370: 6350: 6277: 6232: 6222: 6078: 5976: 5911: 5839: 4613: 4581:"The Idea of the Library as a Classical Model for European Culture" 4074: 2995: 2831: 2750:

The Pergamon Altar, P. v Zaubern, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, 1991

2681: 2659: 2610: 2572: 2120: 2112: 2108: 2048: 1948: 1933: 1888: 1800: 1696: 1501: 1402:

epic. Mithridates VI was celebrated in the city as a new Pergamus.

1366: 1358: 1291: 1283: 1279: 1259: 1235: 966: 944: 881: 877: 797: 638: 602: 590: 571: 557: 545:, which date to the late 8th century BC. Earlier habitation in the 473: 187: 13211: 7537: 4596:

Innocents Return Abroad: Exploring Ancient Sites in Western Turkey

3999: 3866:, "Die Bibliothek und die Kunstsammlung der Könige von Pergamon," 2501: 1912: 1548:

took over direction of the department of ancient sculpture at the

15136: 15045: 15012: 14980: 14760: 14735: 14700: 14695: 14655: 14575: 14410: 14395: 14250: 14225: 14215: 14185: 14180: 14150: 14140: 14085: 14025: 13964: 13954: 13949: 13914: 13874: 13859: 13834: 13814: 13794: 13704: 13629: 13609: 13604: 13579: 13519: 13489: 13474: 13439: 13354: 13324: 13274: 13181: 13101: 13071: 13066: 13031: 13001: 12981: 12866: 12816: 12726: 12666: 12631: 12616: 12571: 12561: 12496: 12416: 12401: 12381: 12301: 12286: 12276: 12161: 12121: 12086: 12076: 12071: 12066: 12021: 11961: 11856: 11833: 11828: 11715: 11695: 11685: 11670: 11650: 11535: 11485: 11405: 11359: 11324: 11289: 11284: 11254: 11189: 11159: 11144: 11109: 11034: 11009: 10984: 10956: 10946: 10941: 10931: 10911: 10901: 10811: 10766: 10751: 10696: 10681: 10666: 10646: 10636: 10626: 10596: 10591: 10581: 10566: 10551: 10511: 10388: 10343: 10308: 10298: 10293: 10243: 10168: 10158: 10063: 10058: 10043: 10028: 10013: 9973: 9963: 9918: 9818: 9813: 9808: 9803: 9798: 9788: 9733: 9713: 9683: 9658: 9613: 9608: 9563: 9528: 9473: 9428: 9348: 9293: 9283: 9268: 9248: 9238: 9223: 9073: 9063: 8983: 8973: 8948: 8938: 8893: 8788: 8763: 8758: 8728: 8698: 8585: 8580: 8524: 8506: 8451: 8446: 8415: 8391: 8372: 8347: 8342: 8332: 8316: 8284: 8107: 7927: 7917: 7862: 7857: 7842: 7832: 7817: 7812: 7699: 7587: 7577: 7456: 7431: 7426: 7399: 7394: 7374: 7364: 7354: 7319: 7309: 7299: 7251: 7241: 7216: 7181: 7176: 7151: 6804: 6586: 6247: 6237: 5996: 5966: 5956: 5951: 5931: 5926: 5806: 5753: 5462: 5452: 5442: 5437: 5427: 5139: 4292:

W. Dörpfeld, "Die Arbeiten zu Pergamon 1901–1902. Die Bauwerke,"

3258: 2426: 2369: 2356:, was a victim of an early clash between Serapis worshippers and 2317: 2150: 2056: 1941: 1901: 1892: 1310:. This material was dealt with in a number of tragedies, such as 1170:), around 1170. It likely became the capital of the new theme of 1014: 1006: 909: 849: 694: 622: 594: 542: 431: 91: 8514: 7872: 7186: 4574:. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International. pp. 185–232. 1622:

was opened, which has received all finds discovered since then.

1564:

where he continued to work until 1886. With the approval of the

1029:

were constructed. In addition, at the city limits the shrine to

988: 556:

The earliest mention of Pergamon in literary sources comes from

15140: 14685: 14670: 14565: 14555: 14445: 14440: 14420: 14400: 14390: 14375: 14325: 14155: 14090: 14070: 14035: 13929: 13849: 13754: 13749: 13674: 13669: 13589: 13569: 13564: 13549: 13399: 13394: 13299: 13279: 13226: 13216: 13186: 13171: 13156: 13096: 13021: 12921: 12896: 12836: 12821: 12811: 12801: 12491: 12391: 12371: 12341: 12236: 11986: 11966: 11956: 11838: 11813: 11765: 11750: 11710: 11690: 11675: 11660: 11645: 11610: 11595: 11585: 11580: 11560: 11530: 11515: 11500: 11475: 11470: 11435: 11389: 11379: 11314: 11304: 11269: 11119: 11094: 11059: 11029: 10881: 10866: 10801: 10776: 10746: 10726: 10671: 10661: 10611: 10571: 10526: 10501: 10481: 10476: 10418: 10413: 10288: 10233: 10228: 10183: 10128: 10108: 10103: 10088: 10038: 10033: 9993: 9988: 9983: 9913: 9908: 9878: 9828: 9758: 9743: 9688: 9663: 9598: 9573: 9568: 9558: 9548: 9513: 9483: 9478: 9463: 9253: 9243: 9218: 9173: 9158: 9118: 9103: 9083: 9043: 9003: 8998: 8963: 8943: 8913: 8793: 8753: 8743: 8529: 8510: 8498: 8481: 8461: 8431: 8406: 8274: 8269: 8171: 8123: 7897: 7827: 7807: 7769: 7635: 7441: 7334: 7271: 7261: 7206: 6824: 6809: 6405: 6390: 6365: 6360: 6345: 6006: 6001: 5768: 5748: 5492: 5482: 5477: 5348: 5308: 5298: 5283: 5112:

Photographic tour of old and new Pergamon, including the museum

4426:

Klaffenbach, G. (1954). "Die Astynomeninschrift von Pergamon".

3255: 3168:

Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie

3148:

E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936 - Page 526

2465: 2372: 2116: 2097: 1937: 1936:, which usually consist of a sequence of two triglyphs and two 1785: 1722: 1714: 1662: 1626: 1537: 1528: 1422: 1394: 1386: 1374: 1096: 1018: 1001: 982: 928: 854: 836:. Pergamon was also a flourishing center for the production of 821: 755: 723: 708: 618: 579: 435: 423: 411: 177: 109: 99: 14827: 3057:. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 1628. 679: 15095: 15077: 14770: 14765: 14545: 14345: 14295: 14265: 14200: 14050: 13944: 13939: 13899: 13734: 13694: 13424: 13374: 13151: 13126: 12971: 12626: 12621: 12591: 12556: 12516: 12006: 11921: 11823: 11740: 11735: 11655: 11565: 11224: 11214: 11004: 10836: 10786: 10756: 10741: 10731: 10363: 10253: 10048: 9933: 9848: 9793: 9703: 9698: 9468: 9453: 9443: 9408: 9403: 9313: 9273: 9233: 9178: 9028: 9023: 8908: 8783: 8490: 8476: 8471: 8466: 8436: 8396: 8362: 8357: 8308: 7907: 7882: 7779: 7719: 7704: 7572: 7532: 7284: 7196: 7191: 7161: 7156: 7131: 6814: 6355: 6310: 6262: 5834: 5786: 5487: 5457: 5404: 5379: 5318: 5288: 2647: 2641: 2379: 2255: 2228: 1928: 1871:

Sanctuary of Dionysus at the north end of the theatre terrace

1857: 1718: 1448: 1442: 1399: 1102:

During the middle Byzantine period, the city was part of the

1061: 1045: 955:

Pergamon still remained a famous city, and was the seat of a

858: 773:

in the Hellenistic world. Attalus I allied with Rome against

666: 646: 508: 391: 199: 4664:(Revised ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 4646:(3rd ed.). Istanbul: Türkiye Turing Ve Otomobil Kurumu. 1489:

were able to add nothing significant in their own accounts.

1125:

community in Pergamon, probably formed of refugees from the

1095:) fortified with a 6-meter-thick (20 ft) wall built of 363: 328: 15118: 14520: 14435: 14075: 13774: 13739: 13599: 13196: 12856: 12791: 12226: 11906: 10921: 10303: 9838: 9448: 8410: 7912: 7887: 7837: 7324: 7314: 3743:

Die Kapitellproduktion der römischen Kaiserzeit in Pergamon

2582: 2482: 2313: 1864:, as well as fragments of the cult statue of Zeus Philios. 1776: 1761: 1618:

after it was opened in 1891. After the First World War the

1390: 1343: 1307: 469: 369: 340: 334: 888:

and his army, but he was defeated in 129 BC by the consul

537:

Settlement of Pergamon can be detected as far back as the

375: 15072: 11788: 3790:, "Ein neues hellenistisches Weihepigramm aus Pergamon," 1504:

from 1784 to 1791. At the beginning of the 19th century,

1496:, a traveller in Asia Minor and French ambassador to the 1413:

inserted Heracles into their family tree in the reign of

769:

The Attalids became some of the most loyal supporters of

468:

The city is centered on a 335-metre-high (1,100 ft)

366: 331: 4391:. Vol. 25, No. 4 (1994) pp. 348–352 (pp. 350 & 352). 1429:, who claimed descent from Heracles, through his father 1417:

at the end of the 3rd century BC at the latest, and the

4333: