Passenger pigeon - Knowledge

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on. This is strikingly proved by the case of particular species; for we find that their abundance in individuals bears no relation whatever to their fertility in producing offspring. Perhaps the most remarkable instance of an immense bird population is that of the passenger pigeon of the United States, which lays only one, or at most two eggs, and is said to rear generally but one young one. Why is this bird so extraordinarily abundant, while others producing two or three times as many young are much less plentiful? The explanation is not difficult. The food most congenial to this species, and on which it thrives best, is abundantly distributed over a very extensive region, offering such differences of soil and climate, that in one part or another of the area the supply never fails. The bird is capable of a very rapid and long-continued flight, so that it can pass without fatigue over the whole of the district it inhabits, and as soon as the supply of food begins to fail in one place is able to discover a fresh feeding-ground. This example strikingly shows us that the procuring a constant supply of wholesome food is almost the sole condition requisite for ensuring the rapid increase of a given species, since neither the limited fecundity, nor the unrestrained attacks of birds of prey and of man are here sufficient to check it. In no other birds are these peculiar circumstances so strikingly combined. Either their food is more liable to failure, or they have not sufficient power of wing to search for it over an extensive area, or during some season of the year it becomes very scarce, and less wholesome substitutes have to be found; and thus, though more fertile in offspring, they can never increase beyond the supply of food in the least favourable seasons.

1568:, based on observation of C. O. Whitman's captive passenger pigeons in 1903. Craig compiled these records to assist in identifying potential survivors in the wild (as the physically similar mourning doves could otherwise be mistaken for passenger pigeons), while noting this "meager information" was likely all that would be left on the subject. According to Craig, one call was a simple harsh "keck" that could be given twice in succession with a pause in between. This was said to be used to attract the attention of another pigeon. Another call was a more frequent and variable scolding. This sound was described as "kee-kee-kee-kee" or "tete! tete! tete!", and was used to call either to its mate or towards other creatures it considered to be enemies. One variant of this call, described as a long, drawn-out "tweet", could be used to call down a flock of passenger pigeons passing overhead, which would then land in a nearby tree. "Keeho" was a soft cooing that, while followed by louder "keck" notes or scolding, was directed at the bird's mate. A nesting passenger pigeon would also give off a stream of at least eight mixed notes that were both high and low in tone and ended with "keeho". Overall, female passenger pigeons were quieter and called infrequently. Craig suggested that the loud, strident voice and "degenerated" musicality was the result of living in populous colonies where only the loudest sounds could be heard. 2163:

them to the female over her back. The male then went in search of more nesting material while the female constructed the nest beneath herself. Nests were built between 2.0 and 20.1 m (6.6 and 65.9 ft) above the ground, though typically above 4.0 m (13.1 ft), and were made of 70 to 110 twigs woven together to create a loose, shallow bowl through which the egg could easily be seen. This bowl was then typically lined with finer twigs. The nests were about 150 mm (5.9 in) wide, 61 mm (2.4 in) high, and 19 mm (0.75 in) deep. Though the nest has been described as crude and flimsy compared to those of many other birds, remains of nests could be found at sites where nesting had taken place several years prior. Nearly every tree capable of supporting nests had them, often more than 50 per tree; one hemlock was recorded as holding 317 nests. The nests were placed on strong branches close to the tree trunks. Some accounts state that ground under the nesting area looked as if it had been swept clean, due to all the twigs being collected at the same time, yet this area would also have been covered in dung. As both sexes took care of the nest, the pairs were

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foods easier to find, once they had fallen from the trees. Some have argued that such Native American land-use practices increased the populations of various animal species, including the passenger pigeon, by increasing the food available to them, while elsewhere it has been claimed that, by hunting passenger pigeons and competing with them for some kinds of nuts and acorns, Native Americans suppressed their population size. Genetic research may shed some light on this question. A 2017 study of passenger-pigeon DNA found that the passenger-pigeon population size was stable for 20,000 years prior to its 19th-century decline and subsequent extinction, while a 2016 study of ancient Native American DNA found that the Native American population went through a period of rapid expansion, increasing 60-fold, starting about 13–16 thousand years ago. If both of these studies are correct, then a great change in the size of the Native American population had no apparent impact on the size of the passenger-pigeon population. This suggests that the net effect of Native American activities on passenger-pigeon population size was neutral.

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had been made in twenty-one minutes. I traveled on, and still met more the farther I proceeded. The air was literally filled with Pigeons; the light of noon-day was obscured as by an eclipse; the dung fell in spots, not unlike melting flakes of snow, and the continued buzz of wings had a tendency to lull my senses to repose ... I cannot describe to you the extreme beauty of their aerial evolutions, when a hawk chanced to press upon the rear of the flock. At once, like a torrent, and with a noise like thunder, they rushed into a compact mass, pressing upon each other towards the center. In these almost solid masses, they darted forward in undulating and angular lines, descended and swept close over the earth with inconceivable velocity, mounted perpendicularly so as to resemble a vast column, and, when high, were seen wheeling and twisting within their continued lines, which then resembled the coils of a gigantic serpent ... Before sunset I reached Louisville, distant from Hardensburgh fifty-five miles. The Pigeons were still passing in undiminished numbers and continued to do so for three days in succession.

2694:, is estimated to have shipped 1.8 million pigeons to larger cities in 1851 alone at a price of 31 to 56 cents a dozen. By the late 19th century, the trade of passenger pigeons had become commercialized. Large commission houses employed trappers (known as "pigeoners") to follow the flocks of pigeons year-round. A single hunter is reported to have sent three million birds to eastern cities during his career. In 1874, at least 600 people were employed as pigeon trappers, a number which grew to 1,200 by 1881. Pigeons were caught in such numbers that by 1876, shipments of dead pigeons were unable to recoup the costs of the barrels and ice needed to ship them. The price of a barrel full of pigeons dropped to below fifty cents, due to overstocked markets. Passenger pigeons were instead kept alive so their meat would be fresh when killed, and sold once their market value had increased. Thousands of birds were kept in large pens, though the bad conditions led many to die from lack of food and water, and by fretting (gnawing) themselves; many rotted away before they could be sold. 2969: 2661:

also frequently used as bait, and many trappers set up near salt springs. At least one trapper used alcohol-soaked grain as bait to intoxicate the birds and make them easier to kill. Another method of capture was to hunt at a nesting colony, particularly during the period of a few days after the adult pigeons abandoned their nestlings, but before the nestlings could fly. Some hunters used sticks to poke the nestlings out of the nest, while others shot the bottom of a nest with a blunt arrow to dislodge the pigeon. Others cut down a nesting tree in such a way that when it fell, it would also hit a second nesting tree and dislodge the pigeons within. In one case, 6 km (1,500 acres) of large trees were speedily cut down to get birds, and such methods were common. A severe method was to set fire to the base of a tree nested with pigeons; the adults would flee and the juveniles would fall to the ground.

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as the birds were badly treated before and after such contests. Conservationists were ineffective in stopping the slaughter. A bill was passed in the Michigan legislature making it illegal to net pigeons within 3 km (1.9 mi) of a nesting area. In 1897, a bill was introduced in the Michigan legislature asking for a 10-year closed season on passenger pigeons. Similar legal measures were passed and then disregarded in Pennsylvania. The gestures proved futile, and by the mid-1890s, the passenger pigeon had almost completely disappeared, and was probably extinct as a breeding bird in the wild. Small flocks are known to have existed at this point, since large numbers of birds were still being sold at markets. Thereafter, only small groups or individual birds were reported, many of which were shot on sight.

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flight during migration or immediately after, when they commonly perched in dead, exposed trees. Hunters only had to shoot toward the sky without aiming, and many pigeons would be brought down. The pigeons proved difficult to shoot head-on, so hunters typically waited for the flocks to pass overhead before shooting them. Trenches were sometimes dug and filled with grain so that a hunter could shoot the pigeons along this trench. Hunters largely outnumbered trappers, and hunting passenger pigeons was a popular sport for young boys. In 1871, a single seller of ammunition provided three tons of powder and 16 tons (32,000 lb) of shot during a nesting. In the latter half of the 19th century, thousands of passenger pigeons were captured for use in the

690: 2887:. It is unclear exactly where, when, and by whom these photos were taken, but some appear to have been taken in Chicago in 1896, others in Massachusetts in 1898, the latter by a J. G. Hubbard. By 1902, Whitman owned sixteen birds. Many eggs were laid by his pigeons, but few hatched, and many hatchlings died. A newspaper inquiry was published that requested "fresh blood" to the flock which had now ceased breeding. By 1907, he was down to two female passenger pigeons that died that winter, and was left with two infertile male hybrids, whose subsequent fate is unknown. By this time, only four (all males) of the birds Whitman returned to Whittaker were alive, and these died between November 1908 and February 1909. 2935:, and offers of a $ 1,000 reward for finding a mate for her brought even more visitors to see her. During her last four years in solitude (her cage was 5.4 by 6 m (18 by 20 ft)), Martha became steadily slower and more immobile; visitors would throw sand at her to make her move, and her cage was roped off in response. Martha died of old age on September 1, 1914, and was found lifeless on the floor of her cage. It was claimed that she died at 1 p.m., but other sources suggest she died some hours later. Depending on the source, Martha was between 17 and 29 years old at the time of her death, although 29 is the generally accepted figure. At the time, it was suggested that Martha might have died from an 1688:

narrow columns that twisted and undulated, and they were reported as being in nearly every conceivable shape. A skilled flyer, the passenger pigeon is estimated to have averaged 100 km/h (62 mph) during migration. It flew with quick, repeated flaps that increased the bird's velocity the closer the wings got to the body. It was equally adept and quick flying through a forest as through open space. A flock was also adept at following the lead of the pigeon in front of it, and flocks swerved together to avoid a predator. When landing, the pigeon flapped its wings repeatedly before raising them at the moment of landing. The pigeon was awkward when on the ground, and moved around with jerky, alert steps.

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closer look at a native species. Recognizing the decline of the wild populations, Whitman and the Cincinnati Zoo consistently strove to breed the surviving birds, including attempts at making a rock dove foster passenger pigeon eggs. In 1902, Whitman gave a female passenger pigeon to the zoo; this was possibly the individual later known as Martha, which would become the last living member of the species. Other sources argue that Martha was hatched at the Cincinnati Zoo, lived there for 25 years, and was the descendant of three pairs of passenger pigeons purchased by the zoo in 1877. It is thought this individual was named Martha because her last cage mate was named George, thereby honoring

2393: 2716: 1963: 2340:) was known as the "great pigeon hawk" due to its successes, and these hawks allegedly followed migrating passenger pigeons. While many predators were drawn to the flocks, individual pigeons were largely protected due to the sheer size of the flock, and overall little damage could be inflicted on the flock by predation. Despite the number of predators, nesting colonies were so large that they were estimated to have a 90% success rate if not disturbed. After being abandoned and leaving the nest, the very fat juveniles were vulnerable to predators until they were able to fly. The sheer number of juveniles on the ground meant that only a small percentage of them were killed; 2143:

others gradually diminishing In power. The male assumes a pompous demeanor, and follows the female, whether on the ground or on the branches, with spread tail and drooping wings, which it rubs against the part over which it is moving. The body is elevated, the throat swells, the eyes sparkle. He continues his notes, and now and then rises on the wing, and flies a few yards to approach the fugitive and timorous female. Like the domestic Pigeon and other species, they caress each other by billing, in which action, the bill of the one is introduced transversely into that of the other, and both parties alternately disgorge the contents of their crop by repeated efforts.

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the back of the flock flew to the front in order to pick over unsearched ground; however, birds never ventured far from the flock and hurried back if they became isolated. It is believed that the pigeons used social cues to identify abundant sources of food, and a flock of pigeons that saw others feeding on the ground often joined them. During the day, the birds left the roosting forest to forage on more open land. They regularly flew 100 to 130 km (62 to 81 mi) away from their roost daily in search of food, and some pigeons reportedly traveled as far as 160 km (99 mi), leaving the roosting area early and returning at night.

1741:(which itself fluctuates). The study suggested the bird was not always abundant, mainly persisting at around 1/10,000 the amount of the several billions estimated in the 1800s, with vastly larger numbers present during outbreak phases. Some early accounts also suggest that the appearance of flocks in great numbers was an irregular occurrence. These large fluctuations in population may have been the result of a disrupted ecosystem and have consisted of outbreak populations much larger than those common in pre-European times. The authors of the 2014 genetic study note that a similar analysis of the human population size arrives at an " 2753: 2068:, which could expand to about the size of an orange, causing the neck to bulge and allowing a bird quickly to grab any food it discovered. The crop was described as being capable of holding at least 17 acorns or 28 beechnuts, 11 grains of corn, 100 maple seeds, plus other material; it was estimated that a passenger pigeon needed to eat about 61 cm (3.7 in) of food a day to survive. If shot, a pigeon with a crop full of nuts would fall to the ground with a sound described as like the rattle of a bag of marbles. After feeding, the pigeons perched on branches and digested the food stored in their crop overnight. 2459:. Most early accounts dwell on the vast number of pigeons, the resulting darkened skies, and the enormous amount of hunted birds (50,000 birds were reportedly sold at a Boston market in 1771). The early colonists thought that large flights of pigeons would be followed by ill fortune or sickness. When the pigeons wintered outside of their normal range, some believed that they would have "a sickly summer and autumn." In the 18th and 19th centuries, various parts of the pigeon were thought to have medicinal properties. The blood was supposed to be good for eye disorders, the powdered stomach lining was used to treat 2113:

data was recorded, it is not possible to give more than estimates on the size and population of these nesting areas, but most accounts mention colonies containing millions of birds. The largest nesting area ever recorded was in central Wisconsin in 1871; it was reported as covering 2,200 km (850 sq mi), with the number of birds nesting there estimated to be around 136,000,000. As well as these "cities", there were regular reports of much smaller flocks or even individual pairs setting up a nesting site. The birds do not seem to have formed as vast breeding colonies at the periphery of their range.

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in size and extent, from a few acres to 260 km (100 sq mi) or greater. Some roosting areas would be reused for subsequent years, others would only be used once. The passenger pigeon roosted in such numbers that even thick tree branches would break under the strain. The birds frequently piled on top of each other's backs to roost. They rested in a slumped position that hid their feet. They slept with their bills concealed by the feathers in the middle of the breast while holding their tail at a 45-degree angle. Dung could accumulate under a roosting site to a depth of over 0.3 m (1.0 ft).

2883:, whose collection began with passenger pigeons bought from Whittaker beginning in 1896. He had an interest in studying pigeons, and kept his passenger pigeons with other pigeon species. Whitman brought his pigeons with him from Chicago to Massachusetts by railcar each summer. By 1897, Whitman had bought all of Whittaker's birds, and upon reaching a maximum of 19 individuals, he gave seven back to Whittaker in 1898. Around this time, a series of photographs were taken of these birds; 24 of the photos survive. Some of these images have been reproduced in various media, copies of which are now kept at the 679: 8391: 1831: 1659: 119: 2876:. Being common birds, these attracted little interest, until the species became rare in the 1890s. By the turn of the 20th century, the last known captive passenger pigeons were divided in three groups; one in Milwaukee, one in Chicago, and one in Cincinnati. There are claims of a few further individuals having been kept in various places, but these accounts are not considered reliable today. The Milwaukee group was kept by David Whittaker, who began his collection in 1888, and possessed fifteen birds some years later, all descended from a single pair. 9045: 2793: 2644: 1807:, reduced their genetic diversity, but not if population instability did. The study concluded that earlier suggestion that population instability contributed to the extinction of the species was invalid. Evolutionary biologist A. Townsend Peterson said of the two passenger-pigeon genetic studies (published in 2014 and 2017) that, though the idea of extreme fluctuations in the passenger-pigeon population was "deeply entrenched," he was persuaded by the 2017 study's argument, due to its "in-depth analysis" and "massive data resources." 706: 3014: 1388:

the male except that the outer edges of the primary feathers were edged in buff or rufous buff. The wings had more spotting than those of the male. The tail was shorter than that of the male, and the legs and feet were a paler red. The iris was orange red, with a grayish blue, naked orbital ring. The wing of the female was 180 to 210 mm (7.1 to 8.3 in), the tail 150 to 200 mm (5.9 to 7.9 in), the bill 15 to 18 mm (0.59 to 0.71 in), and the tarsus was 25 to 28 mm (0.98 to 1.10 in).

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have been a single egg, but there is some uncertainty about this, as two have also been reported from the same nests. Occasionally, a second female laid its egg in another female's nest, resulting in two eggs being present. The egg was white and oval shaped and averaged 40 by 34 mm (1.6 by 1.3 in) in size. If the egg was lost, it was possible for the pigeon to lay a replacement egg within a week. A whole colony was known to re-nest after a snowstorm forced them to abandon their original colony. The egg was

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that some portion of their seeds would be too large for passenger pigeons to swallow (thus allowing some of their seeds to escape predation and grow new trees). White oak, in contrast, with its seeds sized consistently in the edible range, evolved an irregular masting pattern that took place in the fall, when fewer passenger pigeons would have been present. The study further concluded that this allowed white oaks to be the dominant tree species in regions where passenger pigeons were commonly present in the spring.

1811: 2612:). The passenger pigeon was of particular value on the frontier, and some settlements counted on its meat to support their population. The flavor of the flesh of passenger pigeons varied depending on how they were prepared. In general, juveniles were thought to taste the best, followed by birds fattened in captivity and birds caught in September and October. It was common practice to fatten trapped pigeons before eating them or storing their bodies for winter. Dead pigeons were commonly stored by 2498:, published between 1827 and 1838. Audubon's image has been praised for its artistic qualities, but criticized for its supposed scientific inaccuracies. As Wallace Craig and R. W. Shufeldt (among others) pointed out, the birds are shown perched and billing one above the other, whereas they would instead have done this side by side, the male would be the one passing food to the female, and the male's tail would not be spread. Craig and Shufeldt instead cited illustrations by American artist 200: 2084:. Specifically, the study found that between 13% and 69% of red oak seeds were too large for passenger pigeons to have swallowed, that only a "small proportion" of the seeds of black oaks and American chestnuts were too large for the birds to consume, and that all white oak seeds were sized within an edible range. They also found that seeds would be completely destroyed during digestion, which therefore hindered dispersal of seeds this way. Instead, passenger pigeons may have spread seeds by 1692: 1577: 1397: 1395: 1369: 1368: 1321: 1320: 336: 1446: 1396: 1370: 1322: 2572: 2045: 2864: 1639:, particularly during severe winters. It has been suggested that some of these extralimital records may have been due to the paucity of observers rather than the actual extent of passenger pigeons; North America was then unsettled country, and the bird may have appeared anywhere on the continent except for the far west. There were also records of stragglers in Scotland, Ireland, and France, although these birds may have been escaped captives, or the records incorrect. 2543: 2669: 2171: 1538: 2152: 2891: 1394: 1367: 1319: 2202:. The nestling begged in the nest for a day or two, before climbing from the nest and fluttering to the ground, whereafter it moved around, avoided obstacles, and begged for food from nearby adults. It was another three or four days before it fledged. The entire nesting cycle lasted about 30 days. It is unknown whether colonies re-nested after a successful nesting. The passenger pigeon sexually matured during its first year and bred the following spring. 150: 1603:. Within this range, it constantly migrated in search of food and shelter. It is unclear if the birds favored particular trees and terrain, but they were possibly not restricted to one type, as long as their numbers could be supported. It originally bred from the southern parts of eastern and central Canada south to eastern Kansas, Oklahoma, Mississippi, and Georgia in the United States, but the primary breeding range was in southern Ontario and the 8121: 518: 3030:) during the same period. It has also been suggested that after the population was thinned out, it would be harder for few or solitary birds to locate suitable feeding areas. In addition to the birds killed or driven away by hunting during breeding seasons, many nestlings were also orphaned before being able to fend for themselves. Other, less convincing contributing factors have been suggested at times, including mass drownings, 2227: 173: 8109: 2769:, in 1878 (following one in Pennsylvania a few days earlier), where 50,000 birds were killed each day for nearly five months. The surviving adults attempted a second nesting at new sites, but were killed by professional hunters before they had a chance to raise any young. Scattered nestings were reported into the 1880s, but the birds were now wary, and commonly abandoned their nests if persecuted. 2134: 2097: 1462:). The wings were very long and pointed, and measured 220 mm (8.7 in) from the wing-chord to the primary feathers, and 120 mm (4.7 in) to the secondaries. The tail, which accounted for much of its overall length, was long and wedge-shaped (or graduated), with two central feathers longer than the rest. The body was slender and narrow, and the head and neck were small. 2551:

disturb the adult pigeons, and instead ate only the juveniles as they were afraid that the adults might desert their nesting grounds; in some tribes, disturbing the adult pigeons was considered a crime. Away from the nests, large nets were used to capture adult pigeons, sometimes up to 800 at a time. Low-flying pigeons could be killed by throwing sticks or stones. At one site in

3115:), which would then be transformed into egg and sperm cells, and placed into the eggs of rock pigeons, resulting in rock pigeons bearing passenger pigeon sperm and eggs. The offspring of these would have passenger pigeon traits, and would be further bred to favor unique features of the extinct species. The idea is currently being pursued by the American non-profit organization 2743:

millions of birds in the 1850s. The population must have been decreasing in numbers for many years, though this went unnoticed due to the apparent vast number of birds, which clouded their decline. In 1856 Bénédict Henry Révoil may have been one of the first writers to voice concern about the fate of the passenger pigeon, after witnessing a hunt in 1847:

2530:'s 2014 mural in Cincinnati, which commemorates the 100th anniversary of Martha's death. The centennial of its extinction was used by the "Project Passenger Pigeon" outreach group to spread awareness about human-induced extinction, and to recognize its relevance in the 21st century. It has been suggested that the passenger pigeon could be used as a " 1190:, which means "to pass by" in a fleeting manner. While the pigeon was extant, the name "passenger pigeon" was used interchangeably with "wild pigeon". The bird also gained some less-frequently used names, including blue pigeon, merne rouck pigeon, wandering long-tailed dove, and wood pigeon. In the 18th century, the passenger pigeon was known as 2702:, since entire crops could be destroyed by feeding flocks. The bird was described as a "perfect scourge" by some farming communities, and hunters were employed to "wage warfare" on the birds to save grain, as shown in another newspaper illustration from 1867 captioned as "Shooting wild pigeons in Iowa". When comparing these "pests" to the 1426:. It is a washed brown on the upper parts, wing covert, secondary feathers, and tail (where it would otherwise have been gray), and white on the primary feathers and underparts. The normally black spots are brown, and it is pale gray on the head, lower back, and upper-tail covert feathers, yet the iridescence is unaffected. The brown 465:. The pigeon migrated in enormous flocks, constantly searching for food, shelter, and breeding grounds, and was once the most abundant bird in North America, numbering around 3 billion, and possibly up to 5 billion. A very fast flyer, the passenger pigeon could reach a speed of 100 km/h (62 mph). The bird fed mainly on 1346:. The greater and median wing-covert feathers were pale gray, with a small number of irregular black spots near the end. The primary and secondary feathers of the wing were a blackish-brown with a narrow white edge on the outer side of the secondaries. The two central tail feathers were brownish gray, and the rest were white. 3123:

is unlikely that enough birds could be created for revival to be successful, and it is unclear whether there is enough appropriate habitat left for its reintroduction. Furthermore, the parent pigeons that would raise the cloned passenger pigeons would belong to a different species, with a different way of rearing young.

3103:) was the first extinct animal to be cloned back to life; the clone lived for only seven minutes before dying of lung defects. A hindrance to cloning the passenger pigeon is the fact that the DNA of museum specimens has been contaminated and fragmented, due to exposure to heat and oxygen. American geneticist 2640:", the controlled release of birds from special traps. Competitions could also consist of people standing regularly spaced while trying to shoot down as many birds as possible in a passing flock. The pigeon was considered so numerous that 30,000 birds had to be killed to claim the prize in one competition. 1761:" of 13 million birds is still only about 1/300th of the bird's estimated historic population of approximately 3–5 billion before their "19th century decline and eventual extinction." A similar study inferring human population size from genetics (published in 2008, and using human mitochondrial DNA and 2930:

In 1909, Martha and her two male companions at the Cincinnati Zoo became the only known surviving passenger pigeons. One of these males died around April that year, followed by George, the remaining male, on July 10, 1910. It is unknown whether the remains of George were preserved. Martha soon became

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The Cincinnati Zoo, one of the oldest zoos in the United States, kept passenger pigeons from its beginning in 1875. The zoo kept more than twenty individuals, in a ten-by-twelve-foot cage. Passenger pigeons do not appear to have been kept at the zoo due to their rarity, but to enable guests to have a

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By the time of these last nestings, laws had already been enacted to protect the passenger pigeon, but these proved ineffective, as they were unclearly framed and hard to enforce. H. B. Roney, who witnessed the Petoskey slaughter, led campaigns to protect the pigeon, but was met with resistance,

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was alien to the early colonists, because the number of birds did not appear to diminish, and also because the concept of extinction was yet to be defined. The bird seems to have been slowly pushed westward after the arrival of Europeans, becoming scarce or absent in the east, though there were still

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There were a wide variety of other methods used to capture and kill passenger pigeons. Nets were propped up to allow passenger pigeons entry, then closed by knocking loose the stick that supported the opening, trapping twenty or more pigeons inside. Tunnel nets were also used to great effect, and one

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Generally, the eggs were laid during the first two weeks of April across the pigeon's range. Each female laid its egg immediately or almost immediately after the nest was completed; sometimes the pigeon was forced to lay it on the ground if the nest was not complete. The normal clutch size appears to

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Mast occurs in large quantities in different places at different times, and rarely in consecutive years, which is one of the reasons why the large flocks were constantly on the move. As mast is produced during autumn, there would have to be a large amount of it left by the summer, when the young were

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A study released in 2018 concluded that the "vast numbers" of passenger pigeons present for "tens of thousands of years" would have influenced the evolution of the tree species whose seeds they ate. Those masting trees that produced seeds during the spring nesting season (such as red oaks) evolved so

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The passenger pigeon drank at least once a day, typically at dawn, by fully inserting its bill into lakes, small ponds, and streams. Pigeons were seen perching on top of each other to access water, and if necessary, the species could alight on open water to drink. One of the primary causes of natural

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species, the passenger pigeon chose roosting sites that could provide shelter and enough food to sustain their large numbers for an indefinite period. The time spent at one roosting site may have depended on the extent of human persecution, weather conditions, or other, unknown factors. Roosts ranged

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was described as being 1.5 km (0.93 mi) wide and 500 km (310 mi) long, took 14 hours to pass, and held in excess of 3.5 billion birds. Such a number would likely represent a large fraction of the entire population at the time, or perhaps all of it. Most estimations of numbers were

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The noise produced by flocks of passenger pigeons was described as deafening, audible for miles away, and the bird's voice as loud, harsh, and unmusical. It was also described by some as clucks, twittering, and cooing, and as a series of low notes, instead of an actual song. The birds apparently made

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The general idea of re-creating extinct species has been criticized, since the large funds needed could be spent on conserving currently threatened species and habitats, and because conservation efforts might be viewed as less urgent. In the case of the passenger pigeon, since it was very social, it

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The last recorded nest and egg in the wild were collected in 1895 near Minneapolis. The last wild individual in Louisiana was discovered among a flock of mourning doves in 1896, and subsequently shot. Many late sightings are thought to be false or due to confusion with mourning doves. The last fully

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seeking protection for the passenger pigeon, yet a Select Committee of the Senate filed a report stating that the bird did not need protection, being "wonderfully prolific", and dismissing the suggestion that the species could be destroyed. Public protests against trap-shooting erupted in the 1870s,

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Everything leads to the belief that the pigeons, which cannot endure isolation and are forced to flee or to change their way of living according to the rate at which North America is populated by the European inflow, will simply end by disappearing from this continent, and, if the world does not end

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It would therefore appear that, as far as the continuance of the species and the keeping up the average number of individuals are concerned, large broods are superfluous. On the average all above one become food for hawks and kites, wild cats and weasels, or perish of cold and hunger as winter comes

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The passenger pigeon foraged in flocks of tens or hundreds of thousands of individuals that overturned leaves, dirt, and snow with their bills in search of food. One observer described the motion of such a flock in search of mast as having a rolling appearance, as birds in the back of the flock flew

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produced acorns during the spring, which were devoured by the pigeons. The absence of the passenger pigeon's seed consumption may have contributed to the modern dominance of red oaks. Due to the immense amount of dung present at roosting sites, few plants grew for years after the pigeons left. Also,

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of 41 individuals. This study found evidence that the passenger-pigeon population had been stable for at least the previous 20,000 years. The study also found that the size of the passenger pigeon population over that time period was larger than the found in the 2014 genetic study. However, the 2017

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or "stool pigeons" (sometimes blinded by having their eyelids sewn together) were tied to a stool. When a flock of pigeons passed by, a cord would be pulled that made the stool pigeon flutter to the ground, making it seem as if it had found food, and the flock would be lured into the trap. Salt was

2147:

After observing captive birds, Wallace Craig found that this species did less charging and strutting than other pigeons (as it was awkward on the ground), and thought it probable that no food was transferred during their brief billing (unlike in other pigeons), and he therefore considered Audubon's

2142:

Thither the countless myriads resort, and prepare to fulfill one of the great laws of nature. At this period the note of the Pigeon is a soft coo-coo-coo-coo much shorter than that of the domestic species. The common notes resemble the monosyllables kee-kee-kee-kee, the first being the loudest, the

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bird to nest and raise its young. It is not certain how many times a year the birds bred; once seems most likely, but some accounts suggest more. The nesting period lasted around four to six weeks. The flock arrived at a nesting ground around March in southern latitudes, and some time later in more

2071:

The pigeon could eat and digest 100 g (3.5 oz) of acorns per day. At the historic population of three billion passenger pigeons, this amounted to 210,000,000 L (55,000,000 US gal) of food a day. The pigeon could regurgitate food from its crop when more desirable food became

1337:

in size and coloration. It weighed between 260 and 340 g (9.2 and 12.0 oz). The adult male was about 390 to 410 mm (15.4 to 16.1 in) in length. It had a bluish-gray head, nape, and hindneck. On the sides of the neck and the upper mantle were iridescent display feathers that have

1145:

DNA in old museum specimens is often degraded and fragmentary, and passenger pigeon specimens have been used in various studies to discover improved methods of analyzing and assembling genomes from such material. DNA samples are often taken from the toe pads of bird skins in museums, as this can be

2855:

claimed to have seen a "flock of about a dozen two or three times on the wing" while on retreat at his cabin in Pine Knot, Virginia, and that they lit on a dead tree "in such a characteristically pigeon-like attitude"; this sighting was corroborated by a local gentleman whom he had "rambled around

2443:

people considered the passenger pigeon to be the bird of the chief, as they were served whenever the chieftain gave a feast. The Seneca people believed that a white pigeon was the chief of the passenger pigeon colony, and that a Council of Birds decided that the pigeons had to give their bodies to

2209: 2162:

Nests were built immediately after pair formation and took two to four days to construct; this process was highly synchronized within a colony. The female chose the nesting site by sitting on it and flicking her wings. The male then carefully selected nesting materials, typically twigs, and handed

2060:

When nuts on a tree loosened from their caps, a pigeon would land on a branch and, while flapping vigorously to stay balanced, grab the nut, pull it loose from its cap, and swallow it whole. Collectively, a foraging flock was capable of removing nearly all fruits and nuts from their path. Birds in

1682:

I dismounted, seated myself on an eminence, and began to mark with my pencil, making a dot for every flock that passed. In a short time finding the task which I had undertaken impracticable, as the birds poured in in countless multitudes, I rose and, counting the dots then put down, found that 163

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than those of the male. The lower throat and breast were a buff-gray that developed into white on the belly and undertail-coverts. It was browner on the upperparts and paler buff brown and less rufous on the underparts than the male. The wings, back, and tail were similar in appearance to those of

2112:

The colonies, which were known as "cities", were immense, ranging from 49 ha (120 acres) to thousands of hectares in size, and were often long and narrow in shape (L-shaped), with a few areas untouched for unknown reasons. Due to the topography, they were rarely continuous. Since no accurate

1708:

believed that it accounted for between 25 and 40 percent of the total land bird population in the United States. The passenger pigeon's historic population is roughly the equivalent of the number of birds that overwinter in the United States every year in the early 21st century. Even within their

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was driven by the need to free land for agriculture and expanding towns, but also due to the demand for lumber and fuel. About 728,000 km (180 million acres) were cleared for farming between 1850 and 1910. Though there are still large woodland areas in eastern North America, which support a

2550:

The passenger pigeon was an important source of food for the people of North America. Native Americans ate pigeons, and tribes near nesting colonies would sometimes move to live closer to them and eat the juveniles, killing them at night with long poles. Many Native Americans were careful not to

2423:

of unwanted trees, and the planting and tending of favored trees suppressed the populations of a number of tree species that did not produce nuts, acorns, or fruit, while increasing the populations of numerous tree species that did. In addition, the burning away of forest-floor litter made these

2116:

Courtship took place at the nesting colony. Unlike other pigeons, courtship took place on a branch or perch. The male, with a flourish of the wings, made a "keck" call while near a female. The male then gripped tightly to the branch and vigorously flapped his wings up and down. When the male was

1838:

If the pigeon became alert, it would often stretch out its head and neck in line with its body and tail, then nod its head in a circular pattern. When aggravated by another pigeon, it raised its wings threateningly, but passenger pigeons almost never actually fought. The pigeon bathed in shallow

1687:

These flocks were frequently described as being so dense that they blackened the sky and as having no sign of subdivisions. The flocks ranged from only 1.0 m (3.3 ft) above the ground in windy conditions to as high as 400 m (1,300 ft). These migrating flocks were typically in

2631:

Passenger pigeons were shot with such ease that many did not consider them to be a game bird, as an amateur hunter could easily bring down six with one shotgun blast; a particularly good shot with both barrels of a shotgun at a roost could kill 61 birds. The birds were frequently shot either in

2482:

The passenger pigeon was featured in the writings of many significant early naturalists, as well as accompanying illustrations. Mark Catesby's 1731 illustration, the first published depiction of this bird, is somewhat crude, according to some later commentators. The original watercolor that the

2129:

into and clasped the male's bill, shook for a second, and separated quickly while standing next to each other. The male then scrambled onto the female's back and copulated, which was then followed by soft clucking and occasionally more preening. John James Audubon described the courtship of the

1883:

over less fire-tolerant species, such as red oaks, thus helping to explain the change in the composition of eastern forests since the passenger pigeon's extinction (from white oaks, bur oaks, and black oaks predominating in presettlement forests, to the "dramatic expansion" of red oaks today).

2697:

Hunting of passenger pigeons was documented and depicted in contemporaneous newspapers, wherein various trapping methods and uses were featured. The most often reproduced of these illustrations was captioned "Winter sports in northern Louisiana: shooting wild pigeons", and published in 1875.

2463:, and the dung was used to treat a variety of ailments, including headaches, stomach pains, and lethargy. Though they did not last as long as the feathers of a goose, the feathers of the passenger pigeon were frequently used for bedding. Pigeon feather beds were so popular that for a time in 497:. A slow decline between about 1800 and 1870 was followed by a rapid decline between 1870 and 1890. In 1900, the last confirmed wild bird was shot in southern Ohio. The last captive birds were divided in three groups around the turn of the 20th century, some of which were photographed alive. 3021:

The 2014 genetic study that found natural fluctuations in population numbers prior to human arrival also concluded that the species routinely recovered from lows in the population, and suggested that one of these lows may have coincided with the intensified hunting by humans in the 1800s, a

2109:

northern areas. The pigeon had no site fidelity, often choosing to nest in a different location each year. The formation of a nesting colony did not necessarily take place until several months after the pigeons arrived on their breeding grounds, typically during late March, April, or May.

1501:) was large relative to the size of the bird, 33.4 mm (1.31 in), with straighter shafts and more robust articular ends than in other pigeons. The furcula had a sharper V-shape and was more robust, with expanded articular ends. The scapula was long, straight, and robust, and its 1393: 1366: 1318: 2410:

For fifteen thousand years or more before the arrival of Europeans in the Americas, passenger pigeons and Native Americans coexisted in the forests of what would later become the eastern part of the continental United States. A study published in 2008 found that, throughout most of the

1409:

to the adult female, but lacked the spotting on the wings, and was a darker brownish-gray on the head, neck, and breast. The feathers on the wings had pale gray fringes (also described as white tips), giving it a scaled look. The secondaries were brownish-black with pale edges, and the

2487:

and John James Audubon both witnessed large pigeon migrations first hand, and published detailed accounts wherein both attempted to deduce the total number of birds involved. The most famous and often reproduced depiction of the passenger pigeon is Audubon's illustration (handcolored

1618:

The passenger pigeon wintered from Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina south to Texas, the Gulf Coast, and northern Florida, though flocks occasionally wintered as far north as southern Pennsylvania and Connecticut. It preferred to winter in large swamps, particularly those with

3006:" against the passenger pigeon, and it has been labeled one of the greatest and most senseless human-induced extinctions in history. As the flocks dwindled in size, the passenger pigeon population decreased below the threshold necessary to propagate the species, an example of the 2568:) in terms of importance for the Native Americans living in the southeastern United States. The bird's fat was stored, often in large quantities, and used as butter. Archaeological evidence supports the idea that Native Americans ate the pigeons frequently prior to colonization. 2764:

By the 1870s, the decrease in birds was noticeable, especially after the last large-scale nestings and subsequent slaughters of millions of birds in 1874 and 1878. By this time, large nestings only took place in the north, around the Great Lakes. The last large nesting was in

1414:

had a rufous wash. The primaries were also edged with a rufous-brown color. The neck feathers had no iridescence. The legs and feet were dull red, and the iris was brownish, and surrounded by a narrow carmine ring. The plumage of the sexes was similar during their first year.

3086:

Today, at least 1,532 passenger pigeon skins (along with 16 skeletons) are in existence, spread across many institutions all over the world. It has been suggested that the passenger pigeon should be revived when available technology allows it (a concept which has been termed

1909:

has been linked to greater vertebrate diversity in forests by creating more niches for animals to fill. To help fill that ecological gap, it has been proposed that modern land managers attempt to replicate some of their effects on the ecosystem by creating openings in forest

2871:

Most captive passenger pigeons were kept for exploitative purposes, but some were housed in zoos and aviaries. Audubon alone claimed to have brought 350 birds to England in 1830, distributing them among various noblemen, and the species is also known to have been kept at

2198:, produced in the crops of the parent birds) exclusively for the first days after hatching. Adult food was gradually introduced after three to six days. After 13 to 15 days, the parents fed the nestling for a last time and then abandoned it, leaving the nesting area 2506:

is the only "serious" artist known to have drawn the species from life. He did so on at least two occasions; in 1903 he drew a bird possibly in one of the three aviaries with surviving birds, and some time before 1914, he drew Martha, the last individual, in the

1338:

variously been described as being a bright bronze, violet or golden-green, depending on the angle of the light. The upper back and wings were a pale or slate gray tinged with olive brown, that turned into grayish-brown on the lower wings. The lower back and

2607:

population (who, as well as hunting the birds, competed with them for mast) caused by European immigration, and the supplementary food (agricultural crops) the immigrants imported (a theory for which Joel Greenberg offered a detailed rebuttal in his book,

452:

bronze feathers on the neck, and black spots on the wings. The female was 380 to 400 mm (15.0 to 15.7 in), and was duller and browner than the male overall. The juvenile was similar to the female, but without iridescence. It mainly inhabited the

2190:. The nestling developed quickly and within 14 days weighed as much as its parents. During this brooding period both parents took care of the nestling, with the male attending in the middle of the day and the female at other times. The nestlings were fed 2706:

of the Great Plains, the valuable resource needed was not the species of animals but the agriculture which was consumed by said animal. The crops that were eaten were seen as marketable calories, proteins, and nutrients all grown for the wrong species.

488:

on a massive scale for many decades. There were several other factors contributing to the decline and subsequent extinction of the species, including shrinking of the large breeding populations necessary for preservation of the species and widespread

2559:

could throw clubs into their midst, which caused the lead pigeons to try to turn aside and in the process created a blockade that resulted in a large mass of flying, easily hit pigeons. Among the game birds, passenger pigeons were second only to the

3041:, and resulted in new laws and practices which prevented many other species from becoming extinct. The rapid decline of the passenger pigeon has influenced later assessment methods of the extinction risk of endangered animal populations. The 2656:

particularly large net was capable of catching 3,500 pigeons at a time. These nets were used by many farmers on their own property as well as by professional trappers. Food would be placed on the ground near the nets to attract the pigeons.

5673:

Hutchinson, Todd F.; Yaussy, Daniel A.; Long, Robert P.; Rebbeck, Joanne; Sutherland, Elaine Kennedy (December 2012). "Long-term (13-year) effects of repeated prescribed fires on stand structure and tree regeneration in mixed-oak forests".

1779:, which theory and previous empirical studies suggested could have a particularly great impact on species with very large and cohesive populations. Natural selection can reduce genetic diversity over extended regions of a genome through ' 1357:-red iris surrounded by a narrow purplish-red eye-ring. The wing of the male measured 196 to 215 mm (7.7 to 8.5 in), the tail 175 to 210 mm (6.9 to 8.3 in), the bill 15 to 18 mm (0.59 to 0.71 in), and the 1900:

they consumed—passenger pigeons are thought to have influenced both the structure of eastern forests and the composition of the species present there. Due to these influences, some ecologists have considered the passenger pigeon a

1378:

The adult female passenger pigeon was slightly smaller than the male at 380 to 400 mm (15.0 to 15.7 in) in length. It was duller than the male overall, and was a grayish-brown on the forehead, crown, and nape down to the

1353:, grading into a paler pink further down, and into white on the abdomen and undertail covert feathers. The undertail coverts also had a few black spots. The bill was black, while the feet and legs were a bright coral red. It had a 864:

doves of the Old World (collectively termed the "typical pigeons and doves"). The authors of the study suggested that the ancestors of the passenger pigeon may have colonized the New World from South East Asia by flying across the

2684:

had opened new opportunities for pigeon hunters. While previously was too difficult to ship masses of pigeons to eastern cities, the access provided by the railroad permitted pigeon hunting to become commercialized. An extensive

2947:

when she died, she proved difficult to stuff, and previously shed feathers were added to the skin. Martha was on display for many years, but after a period in the museum vaults, she was put back on display at the Smithsonian's

2980:

The main reasons for the extinction of the passenger pigeon were the massive scale of hunting, the rapid loss of habitat, and the extremely social lifestyle of the bird, which made it highly vulnerable to the former factors.

2072:

available. A 2018 study found that the dietary range of the passenger pigeon was restricted to certain sizes of seed, due to the size of its gape. This would have prevented it from eating some of the seeds of trees such as

574:

for that bird. There is nothing to suggest Linnaeus ever saw specimens of these birds himself, and his description is thought to be fully derivative of these earlier accounts and their illustrations. In his 1766 edition of

2689:

system was introduced in the 1860s, which improved communication across the United States, making it easier to spread information about the whereabouts of pigeon flocks. After being opened up to the railroads, the town of

1940:, grew exponentially because of the increased availability of the seeds of the oak, beech and chestnut trees. It has been speculated that the extinction of passenger pigeons may have increased the prevalence of tick-borne 2839:. The boy did not recognize the bird as a passenger pigeon, but his parents identified it, and sent it to a taxidermist. The specimen, nicknamed "Buttons" due to the buttons used instead of glass eyes, was donated to the 2773:

and accusations that he was exaggerating the severity of the situation. Few offenders were prosecuted, mainly some poor trappers, but the large enterprises were not affected. In 1857, a bill was brought forth to the

3064:

Men still live who, in their youth, remember pigeons. Trees still live who, in their youth, were shaken by a living wind. But a decade hence only the oldest oaks will remember, and at long last only the hills will

1453:

The passenger pigeon was physically adapted for speed, endurance, and maneuverability in flight, and has been described as having a streamlined version of the typical pigeon shape, such as that of the generalized

1703:

The passenger pigeon was one of the most social of all land birds. Estimated to have numbered three to five billion at the height of its population, it may have been the most numerous bird on Earth; researcher

884:

pigeon was confirmed. In contrast to the 2010 study, these authors suggested that their results could indicate that the ancestors of the passenger pigeon and its Old World relatives may have originated in the

8056: 1933:) around 1905. As many as thirty billion trees are thought to have died as a result in the following decades, but this did not affect the passenger pigeon, which was already extinct in the wild at the time. 1891:

With the large numbers in passenger pigeon flocks, the excrement they produced was enough to destroy surface-level vegetation at long-term roosting sites, while adding high quantities of nutrients to the

2041:

reared. It is unknown how they located this fluctuating food source, but their eyesight and flight powers helped them survey large areas for places that could provide food enough for a temporary stay.

1775:

The 2017 passenger-pigeon genetic study also found that, in spite of its large population size, the genetic diversity was very low in the species. The authors suggested that this was a side-effect of

1308:, and that the Europeans did not adopt native names for the bird, as it reminded them of their domesticated pigeons, instead calling them "wild" pigeons, as they called the native peoples "wild" men. 484:

Passenger pigeons were hunted by Native Americans, but hunting intensified after the arrival of Europeans, particularly in the 19th century. Pigeon meat was commercialized as cheap food, resulting in

1772:(as of 1600 AD, for Africa, Eurasia, and the Americas combined) that was roughly 1/1000 of the census population estimate for the same time and area based on anthropological and historical evidence. 5370: 1737:" of three individual passenger pigeons) suggested that the passenger pigeon population experienced dramatic fluctuations across the last million years, due to their dependence on availability of 2986:

variety of wildlife, it was not enough to support the vast number of passenger pigeons needed to sustain the population. In contrast, very small populations of nearly extinct birds, such as the

1650:

era, during which the pigeon's range extended to several western states that were not a part of its modern range. The abundance of the species in these regions and during this time is unknown.

2117:

close to the female, he then pressed against her on the perch with his head held high and pointing at her. If receptive, the female pressed back against the male. When ready to mate, the pair

2603:

methods practiced by the natives. Yet it has also been suggested that the species was rare prior to 1492, and that the subsequent increase in their numbers may be due to the decrease in the

6723:

One of eastern North America's most iconic animals vanished forever on Sept. 1, 1914. Now, 97 years later, the passenger pigeon has become an icon for something else: manmade extinction.

1768:

inference methods) showed considerable accuracy in reflecting overall patterns of human population growth as compared to data deduced by other means—though the study arrived at a human

2599:

This amounted to about one passenger pigeon per day for each person in the fort. After European colonization, the passenger pigeon was hunted with more intensive methods than the more

1795:, which are some of passenger pigeons' closest living relatives. They also found evidence of lower genetic diversity in regions of the passenger pigeon genome that have lower rates of 1843:

mortality was the weather, and every spring many individuals froze to death after migrating north too early. In captivity, a passenger pigeon was capable of living at least 15 years;

3107:

has proposed that the passenger pigeon genome can be reconstructed by piecing together DNA fragments from different specimens. The next step would be to splice these genes into the

2952:

in 2015. A memorial statue of Martha stands on the grounds of the Cincinnati Zoo, in front of the "Passenger Pigeon Memorial Hut", formerly the aviary wherein Martha lived, now a

2378:, was thought to have been unique to the passenger pigeon, but is now believed to have been a case of a contaminated specimen, as the species is considered to be the still-extant 1442:. This sex-linked mutation is common in female wild birds, but it is thought the white feathers of this specimen are instead the result of bleaching due to exposure to sunlight. 2514:

The bird has been written about (including in poems, songs, and fiction) and illustrated by many notable writers and artists, and is depicted in art to this day, for example in

3803:

Johnson, K. P.; Clayton, D. H.; Dumbacher, J. P.; Fleischer, R. C. (2010). "The flight of the Passenger Pigeon: phylogenetics and biogeographic history of an extinct species".

1611:. Though the western forests were ecologically similar to those in the east, these were occupied by band-tailed pigeons, which may have kept out the passenger pigeons through 3641:

Wilson's American Ornithology: with Notes by Jardine; to which is Added a Synopsis of American Birds, Including those Described by Bonaparte, Audubon, Nuttall, and Richardson

3155:, the species' endling, that he titled "Martha (Last of the Passenger Pigeons)". In connection with the centennial of Martha's death, the song was cited as evidence of her 1863:

the accumulation of flammable debris (such as limbs broken from trees and foliage killed by excrement) at these sites may have increased both the frequency and intensity of

1349:

The tail pattern was distinctive as it had white outer edges with blackish spots that were prominently displayed in flight. The lower throat and breast were richly pinkish-

4953:

Ellsworth, J. W.; McComb, B. C. (2003). "Potential Effects of Passenger Pigeon Flocks on the Structure and Composition of Presettlement Forests of Eastern North America".

666:

for the passenger pigeon, since this was the intended use by the authors on whose work Linnaeus had based his description. This was accepted by the ICZN, which used its

1989:

needed to support nesting and roosting flocks. The passenger pigeon changed its diet depending on the season. In the fall, winter, and spring, it mainly ate beechnuts,

2064:

The passenger pigeon's very elastic mouth and throat and a joint in the lower bill enabled it to swallow acorns whole. It could store large quantities of food in its

2816:, where it remains today. This was not discovered until 2014, when writer Joel Greenberg found out the date of the bird's shooting while doing research for his book 2435:, the souls of the dead changed into passenger pigeons, which were then hunted and eaten. Before hunting the juvenile pigeons, the Seneca people made an offering of 5515:

Przeworski, Molly; Andolfatto, Peter; Venkat, Aarti; Ségurel, Laure; Meyer, Wynn K.; Matute, Daniel R.; Bullaughey, Kevin; Leffler, Ellen M. (September 11, 2012).

2372:

is mainly found on cuckoo-doves, further supports the relation between these pigeons, as the phylogeny of lice broadly mirrors that of their hosts. Another louse,

566:, and was accompanied by the earliest published illustration of the species. Catesby's description was combined with the 1743 description of the mourning dove by 420:, meaning "passing by", due to the migratory habits of the species. The scientific name also refers to its migratory characteristics. The morphologically similar 5312: 554:), wherein he appears to have considered the two identical. This composite description cited accounts of these birds in two pre-Linnean books. One of these was 2968: 1599:

in the east, to the south of Canada in the north, and the north of Mississippi in the southern United States, coinciding with its primary habitat, the eastern

4226: 7188: 6922: 2502:

and Japanese artist K. Hayashi as more accurate depictions of the bird. Illustrations of the passenger pigeon were often drawn after stuffed birds, and

2451:

was the first European to report on passenger pigeons, during his voyage in 1534. The bird was subsequently observed and noted by historical figures such as

2748:

this before a century, I will wager ... that the amateur of ornithology will find no more wild pigeons, except those in the Museums of Natural History.

3045:(IUCN) has used the passenger pigeon as an example in cases where a species was declared "at risk" for extinction even though population numbers are high. 2057:

overhead to the front of the flock, dropping leaves and grass in flight. The flocks had wide leading edges to better scan the landscape for food sources.

1162:(who owned many of the last captive birds around the turn of the 20th century, and kept them with other pigeon species) but the offspring were infertile. 721:. The oldest known fossil of the genus is an isolated humerus (USNM 430960) known from the Lee Creek Mine in North Carolina in sediments belonging to the 5320: 5194: 3498: 655: 448:

in size and coloration. The male was 390 to 410 mm (15.4 to 16.1 in) in length, mainly gray on the upperparts, lighter on the underparts, with

9432: 8025: 6849:

L'histoire notable de la Floride située ès Indes Occidentales: contenant les trois voyages faits en icelle par certains Capitaines et Pilotes françois

5238: 3002:), have been enough to keep those species extant to the present. The combined effects of intense hunting and deforestation has been referred to as a " 2183:

by both parents for 12 to 14 days, with the male incubating it from midmorning to midafternoon and the female incubating it for the rest of the time.

9447: 8254: 6381:

Llamas, B.; Fehren-Schmitz, L.; et al. (2016), "Ancient mitochondrial DNA provides high-resolution time scale of the peopling of the Americas",

2591:

There came to us a manna of wood pigeons in such great numbers, that over a span of about seven weeks, each day we killed more than two hundred with

1627:

trees, were favored roosting sites. There were also sightings of passenger pigeons outside of its normal range, including in several Western states,

1847:, the last known living passenger pigeon, was at least 17 and possibly as old as 29 when she died. It is undocumented how long a wild pigeon lived. 1581: 3601: 1745:" of between 9,000 and 17,000 individuals (or approximately 1/550,000th of the peak total human population size of 7 billion cited in the study). 1182:

habits. The full binomial can thus be translated as "migratory wanderer". The English common name "passenger pigeon" derives from the French word

9262: 8184: 5130: 4415: 1477:

noted several distinct features in a more detailed 2015 description. The pigeon's particularly large breast muscles indicated a powerful flight (

8327: 5070: 3846:

Fulton, T. L.; Wagner, S. M.; Shapiro, B. (2012). "Case Study: Recovery of Ancient Nuclear DNA from Toe Pads of the Extinct Passenger Pigeon".

3042: 2444:

the Seneca because they were the only birds that nested in colonies. The Seneca developed a pigeon dance as a way of showing their gratitude.

9442: 9412: 9327: 8960: 6247:

Abrams, Marc D.; Nowacki, Gregory J. (2008), "Native Americans as active and passive promoters of mast and fruit trees in the eastern USA",

9477: 8813: 8661: 8473: 8421: 8347: 3548:"Miocene and Pliocene birds from the Lee Creek Mine, North Carolina in Geology and Paleontology of the Lee Creek Mine, North Carolina, III" 1858:. This species germinated in the fall, therefore making its seeds almost useless as a food source during the spring breeding season, while 8940: 8892: 8578: 8523: 3022:

combination which would have led to the rapid extinction of the species. A similar scenario may also explain the rapid extinction of the

9482: 8483: 8337: 6114: 6063:"Taxonomy of New World Columbicola (Phthiraptera: Philopteridae) from the Columbiformes (Aves), with descriptions of five new species" 6062: 2624:. In the early 19th century, commercial hunters began netting and shooting the birds to sell as food in city markets, and even as pig 8794: 8718: 7546: 2483:

engraving is based on was bought by the British royal family in 1768, along with the rest of Catesby's watercolors. The naturalists

1717:, noted that "quite a little flock of pigeons bred here last summer," while only seven years later, in 1866, one flock in southern 9236: 6353:

Proceedings Annual Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: a quest for ecological understanding. Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada.

6227:"Deciphering The Ecological Impact of the Passenger Pigeon: A Synthesis of Paleogenetics, Paleoecology, Morphology, and Physiology" 2104:

Other than finding roosting sites, the migrations of the passenger pigeon were connected with finding places appropriate for this

9437: 9275: 7653: 3334:

Aldrich, J. W. (1993). "Classification and Distribution". In Baskett, T.S.; Sayre, M.W.; Tomlinson, R.E.; Mirarchi, R.E. (eds.).

428:) was long thought to be its closest relative, and the two were at times confused, but genetic analysis has shown that the genus 4444: 9427: 9407: 4162: 3702:

Shapiro, B.; Sibthorpe, D.; Rambaut, A.; Austin, J.; Wragg, G. M.; Bininda-Emonds, O. R. P.; Lee, P. L. M.; Cooper, A. (2002).

6024:"On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection" 5186: 2843:

by the family in 1915. The reliability of accounts after the Ohio, Illinois, and Indiana birds are in question. Ornithologist

2212:, used the passenger pigeon as an example of an immensely successful species despite laying fewer eggs than most other birds: 7420: 6944: 6899: 6596: 6328: 6300: 5900:

Neumann, T. W. (1985). "Human-wildlife competition and the passenger pigeon: Population growth from system destabilization".

5867: 5047: 4623: 4394: 4362: 4132: 4073: 3863: 3686: 3530: 3347: 9280: 6207: 5429:

Biraben, J. N. (1979). "Essai sur l'évolution du nombre des hommes" [Essay on the evolution of numbers of mankind].

2210:

On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection

9462: 9452: 6023: 8177: 6705: 3380: 502: 3249: 2579:

What may be the earliest account of Europeans hunting passenger pigeons dates to January 1565, when the French explorer

2439:

and brooches to the old passenger pigeons; these were placed in a small kettle or other receptacle by a smoky fire. The

9422: 2949: 2604: 1971: 1253: 2960:, named "Incus," died in Martha's cage in 1918; the stuffed remains of that bird are exhibited in the "Memorial Hut". 2665:

was sometimes burned beneath the nesting tree to suffocate the birds, which fell out of the tree in a weakened state.

2332:

and falcons pursued and preyed upon pigeons in flight, which in turn executed complex aerial maneuvers to avoid them;

7946: 7844: 7328: 2857: 2580: 1418:

Of the hundreds of surviving skins, only one appears to be aberrant in color—an adult female from the collection of

9472: 9467: 9332: 9102: 8125: 6292:

Prehistoric Native Americans and Ecological Change: Human Ecosystems in Eastern North America Since the Pleistocene

5390:"mtDNA variation predicts population size in humans and reveals a major southern Asian chapter in human prehistory" 4787: 4241: 2484: 1553:

croaking noises when building nests, and bell-like sounds when mating. During feeding, some individuals would give

8162: 7198: 3180: 9223: 9127: 1854:

forests of eastern North America. For instance, while the passenger pigeon was extant, forests were dominated by

1722:

based on single migrating colonies, and it is unknown how many of these existed at a given time. American writer

1596: 1423: 683: 184: 7263: 6345: 8170: 8113: 7465: 7341: 4955: 3052:

paid tribute to the vanished species in a monument dedication held by the Wisconsin Society for Ornithology at

820:

A more extensive 2010 study instead showed that the passenger pigeon was most closely related to the New World

689: 9044: 8390: 7968: 3749:

Fulton, T. L.; Wagner, S. M.; Fisher, C.; Shapiro, B. (2012). "Nuclear DNA from the Extinct Passenger Pigeon (

1896:. Because of this—along with the breaking of tree limbs under their collective weight and the great amount of 9314: 5723: 4124: 2029:, and other invertebrates, particularly while breeding. It took advantage of cultivated grains, particularly 1327: 1146:

done without causing significant damage to valuable specimens. The passenger pigeon had no known subspecies.

8033: 2939:, as she had suffered one a few weeks before dying. Her body was frozen into a block of ice and sent to the 9111: 7521: 5638: 5631:"A mammoth undertaking: harnessing insight from functional ecology to shape de-extinction priority setting" 3372:

Linnaeus, 1766, shall be the oldest available name for the Passenger Pigeon, the type species of the genus

2884: 2691: 1905:, with the disappearance of their vast flocks leaving a major gap in the ecosystem. Their role in creating 896:

below follows the 2012 DNA study showing the position of the passenger pigeon among its closest relatives:

6906:

its leader, Rene de Laudonniere, had been there 200 soldiers without relief over a year, since June 1564..

2344:

may therefore be one of the reasons for the extremely social habits and communal breeding of the species.

9166: 9161: 7597: 3613: 3159:

stature—a symbol of the wanton slaughter of these pigeons and the human-caused extinction of the species.

2468: 2392: 1962: 1529:) were short but robust compared to other pigeons. The leg bones were similar to those of other pigeons. 567: 6677: 3318: 2715: 7739: 7381: 7138: 4881: 4876: 4065: 3227: 2953: 2584: 1726:

has suggested that if the birds flew single file, they would have stretched around the Earth 22 times.

1642:

More than 130 passenger pigeon fossils have been found scattered across 25 US states, including in the

1600: 1510: 199: 7657: 6551: 5630: 3468: 3367: 2620:

the bodies; other times, only the breasts of the pigeons were kept, in which case they were typically

1936:

After the disappearance of the passenger pigeon, the population of another acorn feeding species, the

1929:

on which the passenger pigeon fed was itself almost driven to extinction by an imported Asian fungus (

9140: 7694:"Evolution of Avian Conservation Breeding with Insights for Addressing the Current Extinction Crisis" 7302:

Whaples, R. (2015). "A Feathered River Across the Sky: The Passenger Pigeon's Flight to Extinction".

5036:

Sullivan, J.; Sutton, B.; Cronon, W. (April 2004). "The Passenger Pigeon: Once There Were Billions".

4544: 4170: 3522: 3060:, which had been one of the species' social roost sites. Speaking on May 11, 1947, Leopold remarked: 2907: 2787: 2464: 2085: 1769: 1758: 1742: 1478: 498: 7063: 4837: 4645: 4442: 3953: 3493: 3413: 4839:

Ornithological biography, or, an account of the Habits of the Birds of the United States of America

2856:

with in the woods a good deal" and whom he found to be "a singularly close observer." In 1910, the

600: 20: 9306: 7790: 7572: 6317:"7. Effects on Forests: Northeastern United States – I. Frequency and Type of Presettlement Fires" 733:, between 5.3 and 3.6 million years ago. Its closest living relatives were long thought to be the 8156: 8136: 7938: 7371: 6654: 6130: 5902: 5348: 4452: 4204: 2940: 2899: 2840: 2648: 1249: 551: 9358: 7326:

Jackson, J. A.; Jackson, B. (2007). "Extinction: the Passenger Pigeon, last hopes, letting go".

5313:"Four billion passenger pigeons vanished. Their large population may have been what did them in" 1564:

published an account of the gestures and sounds of this species as a series of descriptions and

603:

in 1760. Brisson's description was later shown to have been based on a female passenger pigeon.

9371: 9267: 9148: 9064: 7663: 7304: 6891: 5721:

sites in the eastern United States: Examination of long-term trends and broad-scale patterns".

4237: 3473: 2835:, on March 24, 1900, when a female bird was killed by a boy named Press Clay Southworth with a 2774: 2523: 2415:, Native American land-use practices greatly influenced forest composition. The regular use of 1714: 1505:

end was enlarged. The sternum was very large and robust compared to that of other pigeons; its

9293: 7904: 6936: 6847: 6464: 6316: 4998: 3645: 9366: 9353: 8140: 7928: 7412: 6710: 6369: 6226: 6194: 6019: 5037: 3038: 3023: 2752: 2728: 2720: 2534:" species to spread awareness of other threatened, but less well-known North American birds. 2499: 2356: 2205: 1815: 1796: 1612: 1608: 607: 458: 305: 281: 9345: 6290: 4389:. New York: American Committee for International Wild Life Protection 13. pp. 304–311. 3992: 2827:

For many years, the last confirmed wild passenger pigeon was thought to have been shot near

2186:

Upon hatching, the nestling (or squab) was blind and sparsely covered with yellow, hairlike

2156: 678: 9210: 9153: 7994:"'Bringing Back the Passenger Pigeon' Meeting convened at Harvard Medical School in Boston" 7879: 7853: 7375: 6565: 6390: 6256: 6163: 6085: 5911: 5816: 5732: 5683: 5253: 5139: 4964: 3906: 3812: 3764: 3425: 3053: 2927:, though it has also been claimed she was named after the mother of a zookeeper's friends. 2880: 2848: 2494: 2427:

The passenger pigeon played a religious role for some northern Native American tribes. The

2402: 2010: 1950: 1804: 1784: 1482: 1234: 1214: 1159: 834:) of western North America, which are related to the Southeast Asian species in the genera 131: 2368:

was rediscovered living on band-tailed pigeons. This, and the fact that the related louse

1868: 8: 9457: 9417: 8061: 7998: 7268: 4413:

Hume, J. P.; van Grouw, H. (2014). "Colour aberrations in extinct and endangered birds".

3204: 3116: 2809: 2467:, every dowry included a bed and pillows made of pigeon feathers. In 1822, one family in 2452: 2311: 2164: 2105: 1823: 1723: 1710: 1506: 740:, based on morphological grounds, particularly the physically similar mourning dove (now 635: 506: 139: 9384: 8083: 7857: 7598:"Reward for Wild Pigeons. Ornithologists Offer $ 3,000 for the Discovery of Their Nests" 6569: 6394: 6260: 5915: 5820: 5736: 5687: 5257: 5143: 4968: 3910: 3816: 3768: 3429: 2860:

offered a reward of $ 3,000 for discovering a nest— equivalent to $ 83,325 in 2020.

2792: 2384:

of Australia. There is no record of a wild pigeon dying of either disease or parasites.

1850:

The bird is believed to have played a significant ecological role in the composition of

8266: 7993: 7605: 7503: 7353: 7345: 7193: 6884: 6864: 6556: 6411: 6272: 6147: 6040: 5927: 5840: 5789: 5781: 5655: 5543: 5516: 5492: 5465: 5446: 5287: 5162: 5125: 5064: 5018: 4980: 4833: 4810: 4768: 4669: 4568: 4520: 3973: 3929: 3888: 3674: 3635: 3449: 3299: 3112: 2973: 2852: 2766: 2699: 2397: 2341: 2243: 1937: 1872: 1839:

water, and afterwards lay on each side in turn and raised the opposite wing to dry it.

1792: 1762: 1675: 1557:

when facing a threat, and the rest of the flock would join the sound while taking off.

1466: 1334: 886: 880:

of the passenger pigeon was analyzed for the first time, and its relationship with the

827: 768: 753: 722: 693: 478: 445: 348: 194: 6295:, Cambridge Studies in Ecology (1st ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 5126:"Drastic population fluctuations explain the rapid extinction of the passenger pigeon" 4618:(Revised ed.). Ithaca, New York: Comstock Publishing Associates. pp. 96–97. 2943:

in Washington, where it was skinned, dissected, photographed, and mounted. As she was

9340: 9184: 7942: 7865: 7748: 7445: 7416: 7394: 6940: 6895: 6592: 6474: 6416: 6324: 6296: 6276: 6155: 5931: 5863: 5832: 5699: 5548: 5497: 5411: 5308: 5279: 5167: 5043: 4976: 4744: 4619: 4456: 4390: 4358: 4128: 4116: 4069: 3934: 3869: 3859: 3828: 3802: 3780: 3755: 3726: 3682: 3639: 3526: 3441: 3343: 3291: 3031: 2957: 2924: 2920: 2844: 2832: 2813: 2805: 2757: 2724: 2643: 2628:. Once pigeon meat became popular, commercial hunting started on a prodigious scale. 2621: 2503: 2432: 2081: 2065: 2014: 1967: 1945: 1922: 1851: 1776: 1765: 1753: 1730: 1705: 1565: 1419: 1358: 558:'s description of the passenger pigeon, which was published in his 1731 to 1743 work 474: 470: 454: 7357: 5844: 5793: 5659: 5594:"Experimental investigation of the dietary ecology of the extinct passenger pigeon, 5517:"Revisiting an old riddle: what determines genetic diversity levels within species?" 4984: 4174: 3453: 3013: 2636:

industry. The pigeons were used as living targets in shooting tournaments, such as "

2360:, was originally thought to have lived on just passenger pigeons and to have become 705: 9189: 8677: 8670: 8192: 7861: 7815: 7705: 7493: 7337: 6748: 6682: 6406: 6398: 6264: 6139: 6077: 6035: 5919: 5828: 5824: 5771: 5740: 5691: 5647: 5609: 5538: 5528: 5487: 5477: 5464:

Sackton, Timothy B.; Hartl, Daniel L.; Corbett-Detig, Russell B. (April 10, 2015).

5438: 5401: 5291: 5271: 5261: 5157: 5147: 5010: 4972: 4802: 4760: 4661: 4560: 4512: 4443:

Department of Vertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History (March 2001).

4160: 3965: 3924: 3914: 3851: 3820: 3772: 3718: 3567: 3559: 3433: 3389: 3222: 3104: 3079: 2333: 2077: 1911: 1902: 1876: 1670:, constantly migrating in search of food, shelter, or nesting grounds. In his 1831 1643: 1411: 1277: 1147: 5239:"Natural selection shaped the rise and fall of passenger pigeon genomic diversity" 4196: 3722: 3074: 2474: 2148:

description partially based on analogy with other pigeons as well as imagination.

760:

pigeons that had adapted to the woodlands on the plains of central North America.

622:, due in part to the length of the wings and the wedge shape of the tail. In 1906 477:, and its extreme gregariousness may have been linked with searching for food and 9228: 9176: 8275: 7259: 6932: 6918: 6469: 5744: 5695: 5533: 5482: 4494: 3919: 3609: 3339: 3152: 3148: 2821: 2633: 2527: 2448: 2416: 2251: 2118: 1930: 1906: 1844: 1830: 1810: 1800: 1780: 1658: 1588: 1526: 1265: 1222: 1019: 651: 546: 535: 401: 118: 9319: 3889:"The De Novo Assembly of Mitochondrial Genomes of the Extinct Passenger Pigeon ( 3855: 3824: 3776: 3437: 8587: 8306: 8239: 6015: 5717:

Buchanan, M. L.; Hart, J. L. (2012). "Canopy disturbance history of old-growth

5466:"Natural selection constrains neutral diversity across a wide range of species" 5371:"Billions or bust: New genetic clues to the extinction of the passenger pigeon" 3887:

Hung, C. M.; Lin, R. C.; Chu, J. H.; Yeh, C. F.; Yao, C. J.; Li, S. H. (2013).

2828: 2797: 2613: 2600: 2508: 2428: 2180: 1474: 1343: 1179: 667: 6753: 6736: 6641: 5342: 3547: 2987: 2048:

Internal organs of Martha, the last individual: cr. denotes the crop, gz. the

626:

suggested that because Linnaeus had wholly copied Catesby's text when coining

9401: 9288: 9087: 8827: 8625: 8560: 8408: 7934: 7810: 7795: 7752: 7449: 7409:

A Feathered River Across the Sky: The Passenger Pigeon's Flight to Extinction

6928: 6478: 6268: 5703: 3703: 3563: 3295: 3213: 3092: 3088: 2982: 2637: 2456: 2348: 2267: 2235: 1986: 1926: 1897: 1859: 1738: 1691: 1576: 1561: 1545: 1541: 1518: 1339: 1293: 1281: 960: 866: 846: 776: 734: 710: 541: 530: 501:, thought to be the last passenger pigeon, died on September 1, 1914, at the 490: 466: 435: 421: 413: 335: 325: 160: 69: 7710: 7693: 6081: 5651: 5614: 5593: 5406: 5389: 5266: 5152: 2230:

Immature bird; the young were vulnerable to predators after leaving the nest

1834:

Alert parent bird posing defiantly towards the camera (1896, published 1913)

1445: 8976: 8727: 8691: 8639: 8463: 8443: 6588: 6420: 6402: 6159: 5592:

Novak, B. J.; Estes, J. A.; Shaw, H. E.; Novak, E. V.; Shapiro, B. (2018).

5552: 5501: 5415: 5283: 5171: 4057: 3938: 3873: 3832: 3784: 3730: 3445: 3394: 3156: 3100: 3049: 3007: 2571: 2380: 2374: 2187: 1941: 1880: 1855: 1709:

range, the size of individual flocks could vary greatly. In November 1859,

1592: 1151: 1037: 860: 792: 780: 623: 555: 522: 8152: 5836: 2863: 2406:, 1827–1838. This image has been criticized for its scientific inaccuracy. 2044: 1646:

of California. These records date as far back as 100,000 years ago in the

1292:, meaning "big bread", as it was a source of food for their tribes. Chief 9301: 9249: 9096: 9004: 8969: 8922: 8908: 8901: 8847: 8776: 8755: 8748: 8684: 8618: 8546: 8453: 8315: 6612: 5275: 3144: 2808:, on March 12, 1901, when a male bird was killed, stuffed, and placed in 2668: 2561: 2555:, the pigeons leaving their roost every morning flew low enough that the 2542: 2515: 2326:) that preyed on injured adults and fallen nestlings. Hawks of the genus 2170: 2022: 2018: 2006: 1791:

and faster removal of harmful mutations in passenger pigeons compared to

1647: 1604: 1554: 1537: 1384: 1080: 877: 822: 784: 698: 462: 430: 44: 8132:

Project Passenger Pigeon: Lessons from the Past for a Sustainable Future

7463:

Wetmore, A. (October 1936). "Game Birds of Prairie, Forest and Tundra".

7349: 4091: 3748: 2890: 2151: 1587:

The passenger pigeon was found across most of North America east of the

1465:

The internal anatomy of the passenger pigeon has rarely been described.

1174:, translates as "moving about" or "wandering", while the specific name, 9379: 9241: 9011: 8990: 8854: 8837: 8820: 8632: 8604: 8597: 8553: 8514: 8493: 8371: 8284: 8198: 8145: 7522:"Theodore Roosevelt Signed Archive Passenger Pigeons | Raab Collection" 7507: 6151: 5923: 5862:. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 33–35. 5785: 5450: 5022: 4814: 4772: 4673: 4646:"The expressions of emotion in the pigeons. III. The Passenger Pigeon ( 4572: 4524: 4354: 3977: 3303: 3279: 3108: 3003: 2873: 2739: 1993:, and chestnuts. During the summer, berries and softer fruits, such as 1915: 1788: 1696: 1623:

trees; if swamps were not available, forested areas, particularly with

1513:, which stiffen the ribcage, were very well developed. The wing bones ( 1473:

from that of other pigeons when examining a male skeleton in 1914, but

1297: 1195: 942: 805:

doves were instead shown to be related to the quail-doves of the genus

797: 772: 718: 449: 405: 343:

Distribution map, with former range in orange and breeding zone in red

261: 251: 178: 154: 89: 54: 3571: 3037:

The extinction of the passenger pigeon aroused public interest in the

2347:

Two parasites have been recorded on passenger pigeons. One species of

744:). It was even suggested that the mourning dove belonged to the genus 9021: 8997: 8864: 8769: 8646: 8567: 8539: 8532: 8503: 8364: 8357: 6615: 3057: 2686: 2575:

1881 spread showing methods of trapping pigeons for shooting contests

2460: 2361: 2328: 2283: 2191: 2030: 1994: 1893: 1470: 1455: 1435: 1431: 1246: 986: 893: 836: 813: 807: 783:

et al., museum specimens of the passenger pigeon were included in an

615: 211: 94: 38: 9254: 9058: 7498: 7143:

Collection of Papers Read Before the Bucks County Historical Society

6871:. Vol. XL, no. 6. Ottawa: Graphic Publishers. p. 127. 6380: 6143: 5807:

Blockstein, D. E. (1998). "Lyme Disease and the Passenger Pigeon?".

5776: 5759: 5442: 5039:

Hunting for Frogs on Elston, and Other Tales from Field & Street

5014: 4866: 4806: 4764: 4665: 4564: 4516: 4161:

Tatum, J.; Rementer, J.; the Culture Preservation Committee (2010).

3969: 3151:

singer, wrote a song dedicated to the extinction of the species and

2995: 517: 9202: 9081: 8803: 8762: 8741: 8734: 8709: 8698: 8611: 8221: 8120: 3897: 2936: 2681: 2617: 2592: 2556: 2552: 2531: 2489: 2440: 2420: 2412: 2226: 2122: 2073: 1864: 1486: 1427: 1380: 870: 730: 726: 231: 109: 105: 84: 79: 64: 59: 49: 8131: 5628: 2867:

Whitman's aviary with passenger pigeons and other species, 1896/98

2546:

Depiction of a shooting in northern Louisiana, Smith Bennett, 1875

1342:

were a dark blue-gray that became grayish-brown on the upper tail-

9215: 9135: 8233: 7481: 6649: 5860:

The Annihilation of Nature: Human Extinction of Birds and Mammals

5514: 4748: 4503: 2944: 2932: 2911: 2259: 2234:

Nesting colonies attracted large numbers of predators, including

2049: 1718: 1628: 1514: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1439: 1406: 1354: 717:

The passenger pigeon was a member of the pigeon and dove family,

494: 485: 409: 99: 74: 4351:

Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World

2037:, which it ingested either from brackish springs or salty soil. 1198:(in modern Canada), but to the French in Europe it was known as 650:), as it appeared on an earlier page in Linnaeus' book. In 1952 591:

for the mourning dove. In the same edition, Linnaeus also named

9122: 8983: 8949: 8929: 8881: 8291: 8215: 8202: 8194: 8108: 6112: 3850:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 840. pp. 29–35. 2836: 2796:"Buttons", the second to last confirmed wild passenger pigeon, 2662: 2625: 2436: 2319: 2303: 2002: 1749: 1734: 1636: 1502: 1350: 787:

analysis for the first time (in a paper focusing mainly on the

461:

and was also recorded elsewhere, but bred primarily around the

221: 127: 6552:"Published figures and plates of the extinct passenger pigeon" 5758:

Ostfeld, Richard S.; Jones, Clive G.; Wolff, Jerry O. (1996).

3954:"The Passenger Pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) in Confinement" 3198: 3196: 3194: 1752:

of two additional passenger pigeons, as well as analyzing the

9197: 8783: 8227: 8057:"Scientists look to revive the long-extinct passenger pigeon" 7838:

Halliday, T. (1980). "The extinction of the passenger pigeon

3091:"), using genetic material from such specimens. In 2003, the 2703: 2673: 2657: 2351: 2279: 2133: 2096: 2026: 1998: 1990: 1978: 1667: 1620: 851: 7068:

for sporting purposes: overlooked illustrated documentation"

5187:"Humans not solely to blame for passenger pigeon extinction" 4749:"A Pleistocene Record of the Passenger Pigeon in California" 3368:"Proposed use of the plenary powers to secure that the name 763:

The passenger pigeon differed from the species in the genus

16:

Extinct migratory pigeon previously endemic to North America

8915: 8874: 7377:

Our Vanishing Wild Life. Its Extermination and Preservation

6737:"Extinct flagships: linking extinct and threatened species" 6208:"Evidence of Pre-Clovis Sites in the Eastern United States" 5672: 3320:

Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands

3191: 2275: 2195: 2126: 2034: 1632: 1624: 1522: 788: 670:

to designate the species for the respective names in 1955.

560:

Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands

241: 7342:

10.1676/1559-4491(2007)119[767:etpplh]2.0.co;2

6355:, Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research, pp. 261–265 2824:, on April 3, 1902, that was stuffed but later destroyed. 2017:, became the main objects of its consumption. It also ate 1401:

Turntable video of a juvenile female specimen at Naturalis

5629:

McCauley, D. J.; Hardesty-Moore, M.; et al. (2016).

5463: 5344:

Why Billions of Passenger Pigeons Died in Under a Century

5236: 3494:"The names of the passenger pigeon and the mourning dove" 3323:. Vol. 1. London: W. Innys and R. Manby. p. 23. 3280:"A Preliminary List of the Birds of Middle Southern Ohio" 2804:

authenticated record of a wild passenger pigeon was near

2471:, killed 4,000 pigeons in a day solely for this purpose. 2291: 2271: 1982: 544:

and the passenger pigeon in the 1758 edition of his work

521:

Earliest published illustration of the species (a male),

505:. The eradication of the species is a notable example of 5303: 5301: 5237:

Murray, G. G. R.; Soares, A. E. R.; et al. (2017).

4999:"General Notes: Thoreau's Notes on the Passenger Pigeon" 4121:

The Passenger Pigeon: Its Natural History and Extinction

3069: 3034:, and migrations to areas outside their original range. 2820:

Greenberg also pointed out a record of a male shot near

1374:

Turntable video of an adult female specimen at Naturalis

6533: 6531: 6346:"The forest primeval in the northeast -- a great myth?" 4788:"A Second Pleistocene Passenger Pigeon from California" 2431:(or Huron) believed that every twelve years during the 7636: 7634: 7632: 7630: 7628: 7626: 7624: 5857: 5388:

Atkinson, Q. D.; Gray, R. D.; Drummond, A. J. (2008).

5215:

Mann, Charles C. (2011). "The Artificial Wilderness".

4952: 4476: 4474: 3602:"The Biology and Natural History of the Mourning Dove" 3202: 1678:

described a migration he observed in 1813 as follows:

6924:

1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus

6119:(Phthiraptera: Philopteridae), with a description of 5858:

Ceballos, G.; Ehrlich, A. H.; Ehrlich, P. R. (2015).

5298: 5217:

1491: New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus

5178: 4842:. Vol. 1. Edinburgh: A. Black. pp. 319–327. 4549:) lately living in the Cincinnati Zoological Gardens" 4545:"Anatomical and other notes on the Passenger Pigeon ( 4052: 4050: 4048: 4046: 4044: 4042: 4040: 4038: 4036: 4034: 4032: 4030: 4028: 4026: 4024: 1383:, and the feathers on the sides of the neck had less 756:. The passenger pigeon was supposedly descended from 630:, this name should apply to the passenger pigeon, as 9017: 8870: 8860: 8843: 8833: 8809: 8593: 8499: 8489: 8479: 8469: 8459: 8449: 8439: 8353: 8343: 8333: 8323: 8153:

360 Degree View of Martha, the Last Passenger Pigeon

6616:"Lyrics to "Martha (Last of the Passenger Pigeons)"" 6528: 5387: 5219:(2nd ed.). New York: Vintage. pp. 365–367. 5098: 5096: 5094: 5092: 5090: 5088: 5086: 5084: 5082: 5080: 5035: 4290: 4288: 4286: 4284: 4282: 4280: 4278: 4276: 4274: 4022: 4020: 4018: 4016: 4014: 4012: 4010: 4008: 4006: 4004: 2710: 1748:

For a 2017 genetic study, the authors sequenced the

1509:

was 25 mm (0.98 in) deep. The overlapping

1239: 7737:Shell, H. R. (May 2004). "The Face of Extinction". 7621: 6113:Price, R. D.; Clayton, D. H.; Adams, R. J. (2000). 6060: 5716: 5591: 5321:

American Association for the Advancement of Science

5195:

American Association for the Advancement of Science

5124:Hung, C. M.; Shaner, P. J. L.; et al. (2014). 4471: 4300: 3845: 3499:

Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington

3469:"Mr. Swainson on several new groups in Ornithology" 2364:with them. This was proven inaccurate in 1999 when 656:

International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature

7258: 6883: 6678:"13 Memories of Martha, the Last Passenger Pigeon" 6585:Charles R. Knight: The Artist Who Saw Through Time 4880:. Philadelphia: The Birds of North America, Inc., 4865: 3997:. New York: The Outing Publishing Co. p. 188. 3753:) Confirms a Single Origin of New World Pigeons". 3228:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22690733A152593137.en 1787:'. The authors found evidence of a faster rate of 469:, and also fruits and invertebrates. It practiced 416:. Its common name is derived from the French word 7842:and its relevance to contemporary conservation". 7436:Reeve, S. (March 2001). "Going Down in History". 5757: 5123: 5077: 4271: 4001: 3407: 3405: 3327: 2956:. Incidentally, the last specimen of the extinct 2851:, in April 1905. On May 18, 1907, U.S. President 2478:Painting of a male, K. Hayashi, c. 1900 1966:Taxidermied specimens mounted as if foraging for 9399: 7962: 7960: 7958: 7799:. El Paso, Texas. September 14, 1914. p. 6. 6288: 6115:"Pigeon Lice Down Under: Taxonomy of Australian 5998: 5996: 5994: 5981: 5979: 5977: 5975: 5962: 5960: 5947: 5945: 5943: 5941: 5572: 5570: 5568: 5566: 5564: 5562: 4910: 4908: 4906: 4904: 4902: 4900: 3669: 3667: 3665: 3663: 3661: 3659: 3657: 3655: 2583:wrote of killing close to 10,000 of them around 2033:, when it found them. It was especially fond of 1814:Juvenile (left), male (center), female (right), 1582:Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University 1302: 767:in being larger, lacking a facial stripe, being 8019: 8017: 7482:"A History of the Passenger Pigeon in Missouri" 7064:"Large-scale live capture of Passenger Pigeons 7000: 6998: 6985: 6983: 6970: 6968: 6817: 6815: 6766: 6764: 6473:. Vol. 51, no. 25. pp. 169–176. 5883: 5881: 5879: 5131:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4925: 4923: 4859: 4857: 4855: 4853: 4851: 4849: 4727: 4725: 4723: 4721: 4719: 4706: 4704: 4702: 4689: 4687: 4685: 4683: 4588: 4586: 4584: 4582: 4321: 4319: 4317: 4315: 3681:. London: T & AD Poyser. pp. 144–146. 3644:. Boston: Otis, Broaders, and Company. p. 3583: 3581: 3516: 2738:The notion that the species could be driven to 8274: 7675: 7673: 7325: 6465:"Once there were billions, now there are none" 6446: 6444: 6431: 6429: 6319:. In Kozlowski, T. T.; Ahlgren, C. E. (eds.). 6289:Delcourt, Paul A.; Delcourt, Hazel R. (2004), 6186: 6184: 6070:Annals of the Entomological Society of America 4609: 4607: 4605: 4603: 4601: 4348: 3701: 3402: 3361: 3359: 3181:"†Ectopistes Swainson 1827 (passenger pigeon)" 3043:International Union for Conservation of Nature 3017:Pigeons being shot to save crops in Iowa, 1867 2100:Nesting captive bird, wary of the photographer 1150:occurred between the passenger pigeon and the 8178: 7955: 7907:. Wisconsin Historical Society. December 2003 7139:"The last of the Wild Pigeon in Bucks County" 7136: 7118: 7057: 7055: 7053: 7051: 7049: 6776: 6675: 6343: 6246: 6014: 5991: 5972: 5957: 5938: 5710: 5622: 5559: 4897: 4639: 4637: 4635: 4412: 4227:"The St. Jérôme Dictionary of Miami-Illinois" 3991:Atkinson, G. E. (1907). Mershon, W. B (ed.). 3886: 3652: 3414:"The scientific name of the Passenger Pigeon" 1944:in modern times as white-footed mice are the 1799:. This is expected if natural selection, via 1405:The juvenile passenger pigeon was similar in 1326:Turntable video of an adult male specimen at 1270: 8014: 7283: 7237: 7225: 7213: 7165: 7153: 7106: 7094: 7082: 7072:Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club 7034: 7022: 7010: 6995: 6980: 6965: 6953: 6827: 6812: 6800: 6788: 6761: 6516: 6504: 6108: 6106: 5876: 5232: 5230: 5228: 5226: 5119: 5117: 5115: 5113: 5111: 4948: 4946: 4944: 4942: 4940: 4938: 4920: 4846: 4716: 4699: 4680: 4579: 4416:Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club 4344: 4342: 4340: 4338: 4336: 4334: 4312: 4142: 3578: 1544:documenting male vocalizations, compiled by 1286: 1258: 1227: 1184: 7969:"How to bring extinct animals back to life" 7771: 7759: 7718: 7670: 7646: 7254: 7252: 6845: 6676:Harvey, C.; Newbern, E. (August 29, 2014). 6441: 6426: 6344:Thompson, D. Q. & Smith, R. H. (1971), 6181: 6054: 4598: 4538: 4536: 4534: 4408: 4406: 4380: 4378: 4376: 4374: 4259: 4225:Costa, D. J. (2005). Wolfart, H. C. (ed.). 4109: 3673: 3546:Ray, Clayton E.; Bohaska, David J. (2001). 3356: 3336:Ecology and management of the Mourning Dove 2676:pigeons for luring wild birds, c. 1870 2387: 2121:each other. This was followed by the birds 1571: 1361:was 26 to 28 mm (1.0 to 1.1 in). 8314: 8185: 8171: 7691: 7652: 7182: 7180: 7046: 6706:"Ode to Martha, the last passenger pigeon" 6492: 6240: 6199: 6002: 5985: 5966: 5951: 5887: 5806: 5576: 5069:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4914: 4863: 4731: 4710: 4693: 4632: 4592: 4325: 3798: 3796: 3794: 3628: 3587: 3545: 3411: 2221: 610:moved the passenger pigeon from the genus 334: 171: 148: 117: 9433:Native birds of the Eastern United States 8419: 7709: 7497: 7406: 6890:. Sarasota, FL: Pineapple Press. p. 6846:Laudonnière, René de Goulaine de (1853). 6752: 6734: 6697: 6410: 6374: 6365: 6337: 6323:. New York: Academic Press. p. 226. 6218: 6190: 6103: 6039: 6028:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 5775: 5613: 5587: 5585: 5542: 5532: 5491: 5481: 5405: 5381: 5368: 5265: 5223: 5208: 5161: 5151: 5108: 4935: 4331: 4203:. Department of American Indian Studies, 4167:Culture and History of the Delaware Tribe 3928: 3918: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3552:Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology 3393: 3277: 3226: 2282:that preyed on nestlings and adults, and 1607:states south through states north of the 1469:found little to differentiate the bird's 1300:stated that his people called the pigeon 1202:. In modern French, the bird is known as 779:. In a 2002 study by American geneticist 9448:Species made extinct by human activities 7919: 7837: 7811:"Martha – Passenger Pigeon Memorial Hut" 7777: 7765: 7724: 7679: 7479: 7370: 7289: 7249: 7243: 7231: 7219: 7171: 7159: 7124: 7112: 7100: 7088: 7040: 7028: 7016: 7004: 6989: 6974: 6959: 6881: 6863:MacNamara, Charles. Miller, G.A. (ed.). 6833: 6821: 6806: 6794: 6782: 6770: 6703: 6549: 6522: 6510: 6498: 6450: 6435: 6282: 6205: 5184: 5029: 4929: 4785: 4542: 4531: 4492: 4403: 4387:Extinct and Vanishing Birds of the World 4384: 4371: 4265: 4234:Papers of the 36th Algonquian Conference 4148: 4115: 3990: 3984: 3521:(Third ed.). Stanford, California: 3517:Schenk, E. T.; McMasters, J. H. (1956). 3466: 3073: 3012: 2967: 2896:The Folly of 1857 and the Lesson of 1912 2889: 2862: 2791: 2751: 2714: 2667: 2642: 2570: 2541: 2473: 2391: 2225: 2169: 2150: 2132: 2095: 2043: 1961: 1829: 1809: 1690: 1657: 1575: 1536: 1444: 1390: 1363: 1315: 704: 688: 677: 516: 8054: 7925: 7783: 7698:Journal of Fish and Wildlife Management 7571:Stukel, E. D. (January–February 2005). 7462: 7321: 7319: 7301: 7189:"Why the Passenger Pigeon Went Extinct" 7177: 6669: 6642:"Martha: Last of the Passenger Pigeons" 6639: 6308: 5899: 5428: 5340: 5307: 5042:. Chicago, Illinois. pp. 210–213. 4991: 4832: 4349:Gibbs, D.; Barnes, E.; Cox, J. (2001). 3791: 3365: 3333: 3316: 2847:claimed that he saw a pair flying near 1757:study's "conservative" estimate of an " 1653: 1560:In 1911, American behavioral scientist 434:is more closely related to it than the 9400: 8023: 7730: 7640: 7609:. Boston, Massachusetts. April 4, 1910 7570: 7429: 7186: 6839: 6657:from the original on December 11, 2021 6582: 6537: 6314: 5582: 5351:from the original on December 11, 2021 5102: 4828: 4826: 4824: 4743: 4613: 4480: 4306: 4294: 4089: 4056: 3737: 3634: 3599: 1662:Live male in Whitman's aviary, 1896/98 9063: 9062: 8406: 8252: 8166: 8084:"The Great Passenger Pigeon Comeback" 7966: 7736: 7435: 6921:(2005). "The Artificial Wilderness". 6875: 6862: 6852:. Paris: Chez P. Jannet. p. 136. 6640:Gebhart, Parrish (October 17, 2010). 6359: 6224: 6061:Clayton, D. H.; Price, R. D. (1999). 5422: 5369:Achenbach, Joel (November 16, 2017). 4643: 4438: 4436: 4434: 4432: 4430: 4224: 4218: 3951: 3805:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 3491: 3070:Potential resurrection of the species 2266:) that preyed on eggs and nestlings, 9443:Extinct animals of the United States 9413:NatureServe presumed extinct species 7316: 7061: 6917: 6462: 6212:Paleoamerican Origins: Beyond Clovis 5214: 4495:"Osteology of the Passenger Pigeon ( 2963: 2931:a celebrity due to her status as an 2698:Passenger pigeons were also seen as 662:for the mourning dove, and the name 126:Live female in 1896/98, kept in the 9478:Species endangered by deforestation 8253: 7803: 7262:; Dobkin, D. S.; Wheye, D. (1988). 4821: 3381:Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 3214:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2125:, in which the female inserted its 1733:and on "sequences from most of the 13: 8137:The Demise of the Passenger Pigeon 7577:South Dakota Game Fish & Parks 6735:Kyne, P. M.; Adams, V. M. (2016). 6704:McLendon, R. (September 1, 2011). 6611: 6041:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1858.tb02500.x 5602:Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 4427: 4240:. pp. 107–133. Archived from 3893:) with Next Generation Sequencing" 3600:Miller, W. J. (January 16, 1969). 2950:National Museum of Natural History 1972:American Museum of Natural History 1695:Illustration of migrating flocks, 1041:(turtle doves and collared doves) 19:For the 2010 mumblecore film, see 14: 9494: 9483:Species endangered by use as food 8407: 8101: 7329:The Wilson Journal of Ornithology 4874:. In Poole, A.; Gill, F. (eds.). 2818:A Feathered River Across the Sky. 2781: 2711:Decline and conservation attempts 2672:Trapper Albert Cooper with blind 2167:for the duration of the nesting. 1674:, American naturalist and artist 696:, a species in the related genus 562:, which referred to this bird as 9043: 8389: 8119: 8107: 8076: 8048: 7986: 7897: 7872: 7831: 7685: 7590: 7564: 7539: 7514: 7473: 7456: 7400: 7364: 7295: 7130: 6911: 6856: 6728: 6633: 6605: 6576: 6543: 4977:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2003.00230.x 3138: 2610:A Feathered River Across the Sky 2137:Nest and egg in Whitman's aviary 1925:trees that provided much of the 1532: 658:(ICZN) secure the specific name 198: 42: 7880:"Passenger Pigeon/Allee effect" 7551:www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org 6456: 6008: 5893: 5851: 5800: 5751: 5666: 5508: 5457: 5394:Molecular Biology and Evolution 5362: 5334: 4779: 4737: 4486: 4189: 4163:"Extinct Birds the Lenape Knew" 4154: 4083: 3945: 3880: 3839: 3695: 3606:Should Doves be Hunted in Iowa? 3593: 3539: 3510: 3485: 3203:BirdLife International (2019). 3126: 2091: 1729:A 2014 genetic study (based on 1481:for downstroke and the smaller 1434:, due to incomplete synthesis ( 1424:Natural History Museum at Tring 684:Field Museum of Natural History 682:Mounted male passenger pigeon, 9438:Extinct birds of North America 6463:Edey, M. (December 22, 1961). 5829:10.1126/science.279.5358.1831c 3460: 3310: 3271: 3242: 3173: 2879:The Chicago group was kept by 2858:American Ornithologists' Union 1430:is a result of a reduction in 1311: 791:), and it was found to be the 587:for the passenger pigeon, and 1: 9428:Pleistocene first appearances 9408:IUCN Red List extinct species 7931:: And Sketches Here and There 6869:The Canadian Field-Naturalist 6564:(5) (5th ed.): 458–481. 5724:Forest Ecology and Management 5676:Forest Ecology and Management 4125:University of Wisconsin Press 3723:10.1126/science.295.5560.1683 3166: 3078:Taxidermied male and female, 2595:in the woods around our fort. 2208:, in his historic 1858 paper 2130:passenger pigeon as follows: 1449:Skeleton of a male bird, 1914 1328:Naturalis Biodiversity Center 8026:"Bringing them back to life" 7866:10.1016/0006-3207(80)90046-4 7791:"Last Passenger Pigeon Dies" 6206:Goodyear, Albert C. (2005), 5745:10.1016/j.foreco.2011.11.034 5696:10.1016/j.foreco.2012.08.036 5534:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001388 5483:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002112 3920:10.1371/journal.pone.0056301 2885:Wisconsin Historical Society 1165: 775:neck feathers and a smaller 673: 642:should take precedence over 583:, and instead used the name 579:, Linnaeus dropped the name 7: 9463:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus 9453:Bird extinctions since 1500 7905:"Passenger Pigeon Monument" 6882:McCarthy, Kevin M. (1994). 6865:"Champlain as a Naturalist" 5185:Williams, S. C. P. (2014). 4096:Online Etymology Dictionary 3856:10.1007/978-1-61779-516-9_4 3825:10.1016/j.ympev.2010.05.010 3777:10.1016/j.aanat.2011.02.017 3438:10.1126/science.48.1244.445 3254:. NatureServe Explorer 2.0" 2469:Chautauqua County, New York 1867:, which would have favored 752:by some authors, including 512: 10: 9499: 4882:Cornell Lab of Ornithology 4877:The Birds of North America 4864:Blockstein, D. E. (2002). 4201:Ojibwe People's Dictionary 4066:Princeton University Press 3412:Oberholser, H. C. (1918). 2954:National Historic Landmark 2785: 2537: 18: 9423:Extinct animals of Canada 9071: 9041: 8959: 8939: 8891: 8793: 8717: 8708: 8660: 8577: 8522: 8513: 8430: 8415: 8402: 8387: 8305: 8265: 8261: 8248: 8210: 7884:kevintshoemaker.github.io 7547:"TR Center - ImageViewer" 6754:10.1017/S0030605316000041 5872:– via Open Edition. 4171:Delaware Tribe of Indians 3523:Stanford University Press 3278:Henninger, W. F. (1902). 3221:: e.T22690733A152593137. 3097:Capra pyrenaica pyrenaica 2788:Martha (passenger pigeon) 2680:By the mid-19th century, 2647:Pigeon net in Canada, by 1770:effective population size 1759:effective population size 1743:effective population size 1666:The passenger pigeon was 1580:Specimen in flying pose, 1489:bone (which connects the 1483:musculus supracoracoideus 1479:musculus pectoralis major 1333:The passenger pigeon was 1095: 1077: 1070: 1034: 1016: 1009: 983: 957: 939: 932: 925: 918: 911: 904: 795:of the cuckoo-dove genus 533:coined the binomial name 444:The passenger pigeon was 354: 347: 342: 333: 311: 304: 195:Scientific classification 193: 169: 146: 137: 125: 116: 30: 8205:and their extinct allies 7407:Greenberg, Joel (2014). 6550:Shufeldt, R. W. (1921). 6269:10.1177/0959683608095581 5341:SciShow (July 2, 2018), 4786:Chandler, R. M. (1982). 4543:Shufeldt, R. W. (1915). 4493:Shufeldt, R. W. (1914). 4449:Encyclopedia Smithsonian 4385:Greenway, J. C. (1967). 4064:. Princeton and Oxford: 3564:10.5479/si.00810266.90.1 3467:Swainson, W. J. (1827). 3258:explorer.natureserve.org 3131: 2388:Relationship with humans 2296:Urocyon cinereoargenteus 2194:(a substance similar to 1672:Ornithological Biography 1572:Distribution and habitat 1217:, the pigeon was called 601:Mathurin Jacques Brisson 507:anthropogenic extinction 21:Passenger Pigeons (film) 9473:Birds described in 1766 9468:1914 in the environment 8157:Smithsonian Institution 7939:Oxford University Press 7926:Leopold, Aldo (1989) . 7845:Biological Conservation 7711:10.3996/062010-JFWM-017 7382:Charles Scribner's Sons 6131:Journal of Parasitology 5652:10.1111/1365-2435.12728 5615:10.3389/fevo.2018.00020 5267:10.1126/science.aao0960 5153:10.1073/pnas.1401526111 4453:Smithsonian Institution 4205:University of Minnesota 2941:Smithsonian Institution 2904:Our vanishing wild life 2841:Ohio Historical Society 2649:James Pattison Cockburn 2222:Predators and parasites 1957: 1303: 1287: 1271: 1259: 1240: 1213:In the Native American 854:is also related to the 826:pigeons, including the 713:is not closely related. 709:The physically similar 552:biological nomenclature 550:(the starting point of 9385:Ectopistes-migratorius 9128:ectopistes-migratorius 9103:Ectopistes migratorius 9073:Ectopistes migratorius 8126:Ectopistes migratorius 8114:Ectopistes migratorius 7840:Ectopistes migratorius 7305:The Independent Review 7264:"The Passenger Pigeon" 7137:Paxson, H. D. (1917). 7066:Ectopistes migratorius 6886:Twenty Florida Pirates 6403:10.1126/sciadv.1501385 6315:Little, Silas (1974). 6225:Novak, Ben J. (2016), 6020:Wallace, Alfred Russel 5596:Ectopistes migratorius 4869:Ectopistes migratorius 4648:Ectopistes migratorius 4547:Ectopistes migratorius 4497:Ectopistes migratorius 4445:"The Passenger Pigeon" 4238:University of Manitoba 3891:Ectopistes migratorius 3751:Ectopistes migratorius 3677:; Walters, M. (2012). 3474:The Zoological Journal 3395:10.5962/bhl.part.10238 3252:Ectopistes migratorius 3207:Ectopistes migratorius 3099:, a subspecies of the 3083: 3067: 3018: 3000:Porphyrio hochstetteri 2977: 2915: 2868: 2800: 2775:Ohio State Legislature 2761: 2750: 2735: 2677: 2652: 2597: 2587:in a matter of weeks: 2576: 2547: 2524:National Medal of Arts 2479: 2407: 2231: 2219: 2175: 2174:Live nestling or squab 2159: 2145: 2138: 2101: 2053: 1975: 1835: 1819: 1715:Concord, Massachusetts 1700: 1685: 1663: 1584: 1549: 1450: 1402: 1375: 1330: 1228: 1185: 714: 702: 686: 526: 493:, which destroyed its 397:Ectopistes migratorius 318:Ectopistes migratorius 9367:Paleobiology Database 9354:Paleobiology Database 8141:National Public Radio 7929:A Sand County Almanac 7796:El Paso Morning Times 7480:McKinley, D. (1960). 6711:Mother Nature Network 6082:10.1093/aesa/92.5.675 5407:10.1093/molbev/msm277 5311:(November 16, 2017). 3616:on September 20, 2012 3519:Procedure in Taxonomy 3077: 3062: 3039:conservation movement 3024:Rocky Mountain locust 3016: 2971: 2893: 2866: 2795: 2755: 2745: 2729:William Butts Mershon 2721:Louis Agassiz Fuertes 2718: 2692:Plattsburgh, New York 2671: 2646: 2589: 2574: 2545: 2500:Louis Agassiz Fuertes 2477: 2395: 2375:Campanulotes defectus 2357:Columbicola extinctus 2229: 2214: 2206:Alfred Russel Wallace 2173: 2154: 2140: 2136: 2099: 2047: 1965: 1869:fire-tolerant species 1833: 1816:Louis Agassiz Fuertes 1813: 1797:genetic recombination 1694: 1680: 1661: 1613:competitive exclusion 1609:Appalachian Mountains 1579: 1540: 1448: 1400: 1373: 1325: 1276:, or "lost dove", in 1210:, among other names. 876:In a 2012 study, the 708: 692: 681: 608:William John Swainson 520: 459:eastern North America 374:Ectopistes migratoria 8116:at Wikimedia Commons 8055:Landers, J. (2013). 8036:on December 12, 2016 7062:Hume, J. P. (2015). 5815:(5358): 1831c–1831. 4956:Conservation Biology 4357:. pp. 318–319. 4062:The Passenger Pigeon 3994:The Passenger Pigeon 3704:"Flight of the Dodo" 3366:Hemming, F. (1952). 3317:Catesby, M. (1729). 3117:Revive & Restore 3111:of rock pigeons (or 3054:Wyalusing State Park 2992:Strigops habroptilus 2881:Charles Otis Whitman 2849:Independence, Kansas 2733:The Passenger Pigeon 2495:The Birds of America 2465:Saint-Jérôme, Quebec 2403:The Birds of America 2312:American black bears 1951:Borrelia burgdorferi 1805:background selection 1785:background selection 1654:Ecology and behavior 1215:Algonquian languages 1160:Charles Otis Whitman 1156:Streptopelia risoria 1084:(New World pigeons) 1023:(Old World pigeons) 869:, or perhaps across 750:E. carolinensis 589:C. carolinensis 570:, who used the name 564:Palumbus migratorius 8062:The Washington Post 8030:National Geographic 8024:Zimmer, C. (2013). 7999:Long Now Foundation 7858:1980BCons..17..157H 7692:D'Elia, J. (2010). 7666:. pp. 167–170. 7664:Hutchinson & Co 7526:The Raab Collection 7466:National Geographic 7269:Stanford University 7201:on January 21, 2015 7187:Yeoman, B. (2014). 6583:Milner, R. (2012). 6570:1921SciMo..12..458S 6395:2016SciA....2E1385L 6321:Fire and Ecosystems 6261:2008Holoc..18.1123A 5916:1985HumEc..13..389N 5821:1998Sci...279.1831B 5737:2012ForEM.267...28B 5688:2012ForEM.286...87H 5375:The Washington Post 5258:2017Sci...358..951M 5144:2014PNAS..11110636H 5138:(29): 10636–10641. 4969:2003ConBi..17.1548E 4614:Fuller, E. (2001). 4090:Harper, D. (2012). 3911:2013PLoSO...856301H 3817:2010MolPE..57..455J 3769:2012AnAAA.194...52F 3430:1918Sci....48..445O 3284:The Wilson Bulletin 3113:band-tailed pigeons 2900:William T. Hornaday 2898:", frontispiece to 2810:Millikin University 2719:Male and female by 2566:Meleagris gallopavo 2453:Samuel de Champlain 2381:Campanulotes flavus 2244:long-tailed weasels 2106:communally breeding 1907:forest disturbances 1824:communally roosting 1793:band-tailed pigeons 1724:Christopher Cokinos 1711:Henry David Thoreau 1485:for upstroke). The 1254:indigenous American 1158:) in the aviary of 636:Harry C. Oberholser 529:Swedish naturalist 297:E. migratorius 140:Conservation status 8267:Mesitornithiformes 8002:. February 7, 2013 7967:Lewis, T. (2013). 7819:. Cincinnati, Ohio 7606:The New York Times 7573:"Passenger Pigeon" 7127:, pp. 177–179 6785:, pp. 133–134 6557:Scientific Monthly 6540:, pp. 124–147 6513:, pp. 132–133 5924:10.1007/BF01531152 5760:"Of Mice and Mast" 5639:Functional Ecology 5433:. French Edition. 5317:Science & AAAS 5309:Pennisi, Elizabeth 5191:Science & AAAS 4867:"Passenger Pigeon 4644:Craig, W. (1911). 4483:, pp. 162–168 4309:, pp. 150–161 4177:on October 6, 2012 4151:, pp. 252–253 3952:Deane, R. (1908). 3492:Bangs, O. (1906). 3370:Columba migratoria 3338:. Harrisburg, PA: 3084: 3028:Melanoplus spretus 3019: 2978: 2974:Smithsonian Museum 2916: 2869: 2853:Theodore Roosevelt 2801: 2767:Petoskey, Michigan 2762: 2736: 2700:agricultural pests 2678: 2653: 2577: 2548: 2480: 2408: 2398:John James Audubon 2342:predator satiation 2338:Accipiter cooperii 2232: 2176: 2160: 2157:Muséum de Toulouse 2139: 2102: 2088:, or after dying. 2054: 1976: 1938:white-footed mouse 1836: 1820: 1789:adaptive evolution 1701: 1676:John James Audubon 1664: 1585: 1550: 1511:uncinate processes 1467:Robert W. Shufeldt 1451: 1403: 1376: 1335:sexually dimorphic 1331: 1284:called the pigeon 1256:languages include 889:of the New World. 887:Neotropical region 828:band-tailed pigeon 769:sexually dimorphic 754:Thomas Mayo Brewer 748:and was listed as 723:Yorktown Formation 715: 703: 694:Band-tailed pigeon 687: 654:proposed that the 648:E. canadensis 644:C. migratoria 640:C. canadensis 593:C. canadensis 585:C. migratoria 527: 479:predator satiation 446:sexually dimorphic 366:Columba canadensis 358:Columba migratoria 9395: 9394: 9341:Open Tree of Life 9065:Taxon identifiers 9056: 9055: 9052: 9051: 9039: 9038: 9035: 9034: 9031: 9030: 8656: 8655: 8398: 8397: 8385: 8384: 8381: 8380: 8301: 8300: 8139:(as broadcast on 8112:Media related to 7643:, pp. 92–121 7422:978-1-62040-534-5 7395:Project Gutenberg 6946:978-1-4000-4006-3 6901:978-1-56164-050-8 6598:978-0-8109-8479-0 6330:978-0-12-424255-5 6302:978-0-521-66270-3 6091:on April 25, 2012 5869:978-1-4214-1718-9 5252:(6365): 951–954. 5049:978-0-226-77993-5 4625:978-0-8014-3954-4 4459:on March 13, 2012 4396:978-0-486-21869-4 4364:978-1-873403-60-0 4134:978-1-930665-96-5 4075:978-0-691-16295-9 3865:978-1-61779-515-2 3756:Annals of Anatomy 3688:978-1-4081-5725-1 3608:. Ames, IA: Ames 3532:978-0-8047-3867-5 3349:978-0-8117-1940-7 3032:Newcastle disease 2964:Extinction causes 2958:Carolina parakeet 2937:apoplectic stroke 2921:George Washington 2845:Alexander Wetmore 2833:Pike County, Ohio 2814:Decatur, Illinois 2806:Oakford, Illinois 2758:Charles R. Knight 2518:'s 2002 painting 2504:Charles R. Knight 2433:Feast of the Dead 2366:C. extinctus 2082:American chestnut 1923:American chestnut 1777:natural selection 1754:mitochondrial DNA 1731:coalescent theory 1706:Arlie W. Schorger 1601:deciduous forests 1566:musical notations 1420:Walter Rothschild 1398: 1371: 1323: 1252:. Other names in 1142: 1141: 1133: 1132: 1124: 1123: 1115: 1114: 1059: 1058: 1050: 1049: 998: 997: 972: 971: 597:Turtur canadensis 475:communal breeding 471:communal roosting 455:deciduous forests 384: 383: 378: 370: 362: 285: 188: 164: 9490: 9388: 9387: 9375: 9374: 9362: 9361: 9349: 9348: 9336: 9335: 9323: 9322: 9320:NHMSYS0021109673 9310: 9309: 9297: 9296: 9284: 9283: 9271: 9270: 9258: 9257: 9245: 9244: 9232: 9231: 9219: 9218: 9206: 9205: 9193: 9192: 9180: 9179: 9170: 9169: 9157: 9156: 9144: 9143: 9141:D397FE255A606DE8 9131: 9130: 9118: 9117: 9107: 9106: 9105: 9092: 9091: 9090: 9060: 9059: 9047: 9019: 8872: 8862: 8845: 8835: 8811: 8715: 8714: 8595: 8520: 8519: 8501: 8491: 8481: 8471: 8461: 8451: 8441: 8428: 8427: 8417: 8416: 8404: 8403: 8393: 8355: 8345: 8335: 8325: 8312: 8311: 8272: 8271: 8263: 8262: 8250: 8249: 8187: 8180: 8173: 8164: 8163: 8124:Data related to 8123: 8111: 8095: 8094: 8092: 8090: 8080: 8074: 8073: 8071: 8069: 8052: 8046: 8045: 8043: 8041: 8032:. Archived from 8021: 8012: 8011: 8009: 8007: 7990: 7984: 7983: 7981: 7979: 7964: 7953: 7952: 7923: 7917: 7916: 7914: 7912: 7901: 7895: 7894: 7892: 7890: 7876: 7870: 7869: 7835: 7829: 7828: 7826: 7824: 7816:Roadside America 7807: 7801: 7800: 7787: 7781: 7775: 7769: 7763: 7757: 7756: 7734: 7728: 7722: 7716: 7715: 7713: 7689: 7683: 7677: 7668: 7667: 7650: 7644: 7638: 7619: 7618: 7616: 7614: 7602: 7594: 7588: 7587: 7585: 7583: 7568: 7562: 7561: 7559: 7557: 7543: 7537: 7536: 7534: 7532: 7518: 7512: 7511: 7501: 7477: 7471: 7470: 7460: 7454: 7453: 7433: 7427: 7426: 7404: 7398: 7392: 7390: 7388: 7368: 7362: 7361: 7323: 7314: 7313: 7299: 7293: 7287: 7281: 7280: 7278: 7276: 7256: 7247: 7241: 7235: 7229: 7223: 7217: 7211: 7210: 7208: 7206: 7197:. Archived from 7194:Audubon Magazine 7184: 7175: 7169: 7163: 7157: 7151: 7150: 7134: 7128: 7122: 7116: 7110: 7104: 7098: 7092: 7086: 7080: 7079: 7059: 7044: 7038: 7032: 7026: 7020: 7014: 7008: 7002: 6993: 6987: 6978: 6972: 6963: 6957: 6951: 6950: 6915: 6909: 6908: 6889: 6879: 6873: 6872: 6860: 6854: 6853: 6843: 6837: 6831: 6825: 6819: 6810: 6804: 6798: 6792: 6786: 6780: 6774: 6768: 6759: 6758: 6756: 6732: 6726: 6725: 6720: 6718: 6701: 6695: 6694: 6692: 6690: 6683:Audubon Magazine 6673: 6667: 6666: 6664: 6662: 6646: 6637: 6631: 6630: 6628: 6626: 6609: 6603: 6602: 6580: 6574: 6573: 6547: 6541: 6535: 6526: 6520: 6514: 6508: 6502: 6496: 6490: 6489: 6487: 6485: 6460: 6454: 6448: 6439: 6433: 6424: 6423: 6414: 6383:Science Advances 6378: 6372: 6363: 6357: 6356: 6350: 6341: 6335: 6334: 6312: 6306: 6305: 6286: 6280: 6279: 6255:(7): 1123–1137, 6244: 6238: 6237: 6236:, pp. 10–11 6231: 6222: 6216: 6215: 6203: 6197: 6188: 6179: 6178: 6176: 6174: 6169:on June 10, 2010 6168: 6162:. Archived from 6127: 6110: 6101: 6100: 6098: 6096: 6090: 6084:. Archived from 6067: 6058: 6052: 6051: 6050: 6048: 6043: 6012: 6006: 6000: 5989: 5983: 5970: 5964: 5955: 5949: 5936: 5935: 5897: 5891: 5885: 5874: 5873: 5855: 5849: 5848: 5804: 5798: 5797: 5779: 5755: 5749: 5748: 5714: 5708: 5707: 5670: 5664: 5663: 5646:(5): 1008–1009. 5635: 5626: 5620: 5619: 5617: 5589: 5580: 5574: 5557: 5556: 5546: 5536: 5512: 5506: 5505: 5495: 5485: 5461: 5455: 5454: 5426: 5420: 5419: 5409: 5385: 5379: 5378: 5366: 5360: 5359: 5358: 5356: 5338: 5332: 5331: 5329: 5327: 5305: 5296: 5295: 5269: 5243: 5234: 5221: 5220: 5212: 5206: 5205: 5203: 5201: 5182: 5176: 5175: 5165: 5155: 5121: 5106: 5105:, pp. 50–69 5100: 5075: 5074: 5068: 5060: 5058: 5056: 5033: 5027: 5026: 5009:(1): 111. 1911. 4995: 4989: 4988: 4963:(6): 1548–1558. 4950: 4933: 4927: 4918: 4912: 4895: 4893: 4891: 4889: 4873: 4861: 4844: 4843: 4830: 4819: 4818: 4792: 4783: 4777: 4776: 4741: 4735: 4729: 4714: 4708: 4697: 4691: 4678: 4677: 4641: 4630: 4629: 4611: 4596: 4590: 4577: 4576: 4540: 4529: 4528: 4490: 4484: 4478: 4469: 4468: 4466: 4464: 4455:. Archived from 4440: 4425: 4424: 4410: 4401: 4400: 4382: 4369: 4368: 4346: 4329: 4323: 4310: 4304: 4298: 4297:, pp. 72–88 4292: 4269: 4263: 4257: 4256: 4254: 4252: 4247:on June 11, 2016 4246: 4231: 4222: 4216: 4215: 4213: 4211: 4193: 4187: 4186: 4184: 4182: 4173:. Archived from 4158: 4152: 4146: 4140: 4138: 4113: 4107: 4106: 4104: 4102: 4092:"Passenger (n.)" 4087: 4081: 4079: 4054: 3999: 3998: 3988: 3982: 3981: 3949: 3943: 3942: 3932: 3922: 3884: 3878: 3877: 3843: 3837: 3836: 3800: 3789: 3788: 3746: 3735: 3734: 3708: 3699: 3693: 3692: 3671: 3650: 3649: 3632: 3626: 3625: 3623: 3621: 3612:. Archived from 3597: 3591: 3585: 3576: 3575: 3543: 3537: 3536: 3514: 3508: 3507: 3489: 3483: 3482: 3464: 3458: 3457: 3409: 3400: 3399: 3397: 3363: 3354: 3353: 3331: 3325: 3324: 3314: 3308: 3307: 3275: 3269: 3268: 3266: 3264: 3246: 3240: 3239: 3237: 3235: 3230: 3200: 3189: 3188: 3177: 3160: 3142: 3105:George M. Church 3080:Laval University 2906:(1913), showing 2756:Life drawing by 2581:René Laudonnière 2485:Alexander Wilson 2447:French explorer 2396:Billing pair by 2370:C. angustus 2316:Ursus americanus 2256:Martes americana 2252:American martens 1914:to provide more 1903:keystone species 1801:selective sweeps 1781:selective sweeps 1644:La Brea Tar Pits 1412:tertial feathers 1399: 1372: 1324: 1306: 1290: 1274: 1262: 1243: 1231: 1208:pigeon migrateur 1204:tourte voyageuse 1188: 1178:, indicates its 1170:The genus name, 1104:passenger pigeon 1073: 1072: 1012: 1011: 935: 934: 928: 927: 921: 920: 914: 913: 907: 906: 900: 899: 832:P. fasciata 742:Z. macroura 725:, dating to the 632:E. macroura 628:C. macroura 581:C. macroura 572:C. macroura 426:Zenaida macroura 388:passenger pigeon 376: 368: 360: 338: 320: 316: 280: 273: 203: 202: 182: 175: 174: 158: 152: 151: 121: 104: 41: 34:Temporal range: 31:Passenger pigeon 28: 27: 9498: 9497: 9493: 9492: 9491: 9489: 9488: 9487: 9398: 9397: 9396: 9391: 9383: 9378: 9370: 9365: 9357: 9352: 9344: 9339: 9331: 9326: 9318: 9313: 9305: 9300: 9292: 9287: 9279: 9274: 9266: 9261: 9253: 9248: 9240: 9235: 9227: 9222: 9214: 9209: 9201: 9196: 9188: 9183: 9175: 9173: 9165: 9160: 9152: 9147: 9139: 9134: 9126: 9121: 9115: 9110: 9101: 9100: 9095: 9086: 9085: 9080: 9067: 9057: 9048: 9027: 8955: 8935: 8887: 8789: 8704: 8652: 8573: 8509: 8424: 8411: 8394: 8377: 8297: 8276:Mesitornithidae 8257: 8255:Pteroclimesites 8244: 8206: 8191: 8104: 8099: 8098: 8088: 8086: 8082: 8081: 8077: 8067: 8065: 8053: 8049: 8039: 8037: 8022: 8015: 8005: 8003: 7992: 7991: 7987: 7977: 7975: 7965: 7956: 7949: 7941:. p. 109. 7924: 7920: 7910: 7908: 7903: 7902: 7898: 7888: 7886: 7878: 7877: 7873: 7836: 7832: 7822: 7820: 7809: 7808: 7804: 7789: 7788: 7784: 7776: 7772: 7764: 7760: 7740:Natural History 7735: 7731: 7723: 7719: 7690: 7686: 7678: 7671: 7651: 7647: 7639: 7622: 7612: 7610: 7600: 7596: 7595: 7591: 7581: 7579: 7569: 7565: 7555: 7553: 7545: 7544: 7540: 7530: 7528: 7520: 7519: 7515: 7499:10.2307/4082414 7478: 7474: 7461: 7457: 7434: 7430: 7423: 7405: 7401: 7386: 7384: 7372:Hornaday, W. T. 7369: 7365: 7324: 7317: 7300: 7296: 7288: 7284: 7274: 7272: 7257: 7250: 7242: 7238: 7230: 7226: 7218: 7214: 7204: 7202: 7185: 7178: 7170: 7166: 7158: 7154: 7135: 7131: 7123: 7119: 7111: 7107: 7099: 7095: 7087: 7083: 7060: 7047: 7039: 7035: 7027: 7023: 7015: 7011: 7003: 6996: 6988: 6981: 6973: 6966: 6958: 6954: 6947: 6933:Alfred A. Knopf 6916: 6912: 6902: 6880: 6876: 6861: 6857: 6844: 6840: 6832: 6828: 6820: 6813: 6805: 6801: 6793: 6789: 6781: 6777: 6769: 6762: 6733: 6729: 6716: 6714: 6702: 6698: 6688: 6686: 6674: 6670: 6660: 6658: 6644: 6638: 6634: 6624: 6622: 6610: 6606: 6599: 6591:. p. 138. 6581: 6577: 6548: 6544: 6536: 6529: 6521: 6517: 6509: 6505: 6497: 6493: 6483: 6481: 6461: 6457: 6449: 6442: 6434: 6427: 6379: 6375: 6364: 6360: 6348: 6342: 6338: 6331: 6313: 6309: 6303: 6287: 6283: 6245: 6241: 6229: 6223: 6219: 6204: 6200: 6189: 6182: 6172: 6170: 6166: 6144:10.2307/3284803 6125: 6111: 6104: 6094: 6092: 6088: 6065: 6059: 6055: 6046: 6044: 6016:Darwin, Charles 6013: 6009: 6003:Blockstein 2002 6001: 5992: 5986:Blockstein 2002 5984: 5973: 5967:Blockstein 2002 5965: 5958: 5952:Blockstein 2002 5950: 5939: 5898: 5894: 5888:Blockstein 2002 5886: 5877: 5870: 5856: 5852: 5805: 5801: 5777:10.2307/1312946 5756: 5752: 5715: 5711: 5671: 5667: 5633: 5627: 5623: 5590: 5583: 5577:Blockstein 2002 5575: 5560: 5527:(9): e1001388. 5513: 5509: 5476:(4): e1002112. 5462: 5458: 5443:10.2307/1531855 5427: 5423: 5386: 5382: 5367: 5363: 5354: 5352: 5339: 5335: 5325: 5323: 5306: 5299: 5241: 5235: 5224: 5213: 5209: 5199: 5197: 5183: 5179: 5122: 5109: 5101: 5078: 5062: 5061: 5054: 5052: 5050: 5034: 5030: 5015:10.2307/4071503 4997: 4996: 4992: 4951: 4936: 4928: 4921: 4915:Blockstein 2002 4913: 4898: 4887: 4885: 4862: 4847: 4831: 4822: 4807:10.2307/1367681 4790: 4784: 4780: 4765:10.2307/1363481 4742: 4738: 4732:Blockstein 2002 4730: 4717: 4711:Blockstein 2002 4709: 4700: 4694:Blockstein 2002 4692: 4681: 4666:10.2307/4071160 4642: 4633: 4626: 4612: 4599: 4593:Blockstein 2002 4591: 4580: 4565:10.2307/4071611 4541: 4532: 4517:10.2307/4071953 4491: 4487: 4479: 4472: 4462: 4460: 4441: 4428: 4411: 4404: 4397: 4383: 4372: 4365: 4347: 4332: 4326:Blockstein 2002 4324: 4313: 4305: 4301: 4293: 4272: 4264: 4260: 4250: 4248: 4244: 4229: 4223: 4219: 4209: 4207: 4195: 4194: 4190: 4180: 4178: 4159: 4155: 4147: 4143: 4135: 4123:. Madison, WI: 4117:Schorger, A. W. 4114: 4110: 4100: 4098: 4088: 4084: 4076: 4055: 4002: 3989: 3985: 3970:10.2307/4070695 3950: 3946: 3885: 3881: 3866: 3844: 3840: 3801: 3792: 3747: 3738: 3706: 3700: 3696: 3689: 3672: 3653: 3633: 3629: 3619: 3617: 3610:Audubon Society 3598: 3594: 3588:Blockstein 2002 3586: 3579: 3558:(90): 299–300. 3544: 3540: 3533: 3515: 3511: 3490: 3486: 3465: 3461: 3410: 3403: 3376:Swainson, 1827" 3364: 3357: 3350: 3340:Stackpole Books 3332: 3328: 3315: 3311: 3276: 3272: 3262: 3260: 3248: 3247: 3243: 3233: 3231: 3201: 3192: 3179: 3178: 3174: 3169: 3164: 3163: 3143: 3139: 3134: 3129: 3072: 2966: 2914:of the species. 2822:Laurel, Indiana 2790: 2784: 2713: 2634:sports shooting 2605:Native American 2540: 2528:John A. Ruthven 2449:Jacques Cartier 2417:prescribed burn 2390: 2248:Neogale frenata 2224: 2155:Preserved egg, 2094: 1970:acorns, at the 1960: 1946:reservoir hosts 1931:chestnut blight 1656: 1589:Rocky Mountains 1574: 1535: 1527:carpometacarpus 1391: 1364: 1344:covert feathers 1316: 1314: 1272:putchee nashoba 1168: 1143: 1134: 1125: 1116: 1060: 1051: 999: 973: 946:(cuckoo-doves) 676: 652:Francis Hemming 638:suggested that 577:Systema Naturae 547:Systema Naturae 515: 402:extinct species 329: 322: 314: 313: 300: 279: 271: 197: 189: 176: 172: 165: 153: 149: 142: 112: 103: 102: 97: 92: 87: 82: 77: 72: 67: 62: 57: 52: 47: 36: 35: 32: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 9496: 9486: 9485: 9480: 9475: 9470: 9465: 9460: 9455: 9450: 9445: 9440: 9435: 9430: 9425: 9420: 9415: 9410: 9393: 9392: 9390: 9389: 9376: 9363: 9350: 9337: 9324: 9311: 9298: 9285: 9272: 9259: 9246: 9233: 9220: 9207: 9194: 9181: 9171: 9158: 9145: 9132: 9119: 9108: 9093: 9077: 9075: 9069: 9068: 9054: 9053: 9050: 9049: 9042: 9040: 9037: 9036: 9033: 9032: 9029: 9028: 9026: 9025: 9015: 9008: 9001: 8994: 8987: 8980: 8973: 8965: 8963: 8957: 8956: 8954: 8953: 8945: 8943: 8937: 8936: 8934: 8933: 8926: 8919: 8912: 8905: 8897: 8895: 8889: 8888: 8886: 8885: 8878: 8868: 8858: 8851: 8841: 8831: 8824: 8817: 8807: 8799: 8797: 8791: 8790: 8788: 8787: 8780: 8773: 8766: 8759: 8752: 8745: 8738: 8731: 8723: 8721: 8712: 8706: 8705: 8703: 8702: 8695: 8688: 8681: 8674: 8666: 8664: 8658: 8657: 8654: 8653: 8651: 8650: 8643: 8636: 8629: 8622: 8615: 8608: 8601: 8591: 8583: 8581: 8575: 8574: 8572: 8571: 8564: 8557: 8550: 8543: 8536: 8528: 8526: 8517: 8511: 8510: 8508: 8507: 8497: 8487: 8477: 8467: 8457: 8447: 8436: 8434: 8432:incertae sedis 8425: 8420: 8413: 8412: 8400: 8399: 8396: 8395: 8388: 8386: 8383: 8382: 8379: 8378: 8376: 8375: 8368: 8361: 8351: 8341: 8331: 8320: 8318: 8309: 8307:Pterocliformes 8303: 8302: 8299: 8298: 8296: 8295: 8288: 8280: 8278: 8269: 8259: 8258: 8246: 8245: 8243: 8242: 8240:Columbimorphae 8236: 8230: 8224: 8218: 8211: 8208: 8207: 8190: 8189: 8182: 8175: 8167: 8161: 8160: 8150: 8134: 8129: 8128:at Wikispecies 8117: 8103: 8102:External links 8100: 8097: 8096: 8075: 8047: 8013: 7985: 7954: 7947: 7918: 7896: 7871: 7852:(2): 157–162. 7830: 7802: 7782: 7770: 7758: 7729: 7717: 7704:(2): 189–210. 7684: 7669: 7654:Rothschild, W. 7645: 7620: 7589: 7563: 7538: 7513: 7492:(4): 399–420. 7472: 7469:. p. 495. 7455: 7428: 7421: 7413:Bloomsbury USA 7399: 7363: 7336:(4): 767–772. 7315: 7294: 7282: 7260:Ehrlich, P. R. 7248: 7236: 7224: 7212: 7176: 7164: 7152: 7129: 7117: 7105: 7093: 7081: 7045: 7033: 7021: 7009: 6994: 6979: 6964: 6952: 6945: 6910: 6900: 6874: 6855: 6838: 6826: 6811: 6799: 6787: 6775: 6760: 6747:(3): 471–476. 6727: 6696: 6668: 6632: 6620:Johnherald.com 6604: 6597: 6575: 6542: 6527: 6515: 6503: 6491: 6455: 6440: 6425: 6373: 6366:Greenberg 2014 6358: 6336: 6329: 6307: 6301: 6281: 6239: 6217: 6198: 6191:Greenberg 2014 6180: 6138:(5): 948–950. 6102: 6076:(5): 675–685. 6053: 6007: 5990: 5971: 5956: 5937: 5910:(4): 389–410. 5892: 5875: 5868: 5850: 5799: 5750: 5731:(267): 28–39. 5709: 5665: 5621: 5581: 5558: 5507: 5456: 5421: 5400:(2): 468–474. 5380: 5361: 5333: 5297: 5222: 5207: 5177: 5107: 5076: 5048: 5028: 4990: 4934: 4919: 4896: 4845: 4834:Audubon, J. J. 4820: 4778: 4736: 4715: 4698: 4679: 4660:(4): 408–427. 4631: 4624: 4597: 4578: 4530: 4511:(3): 358–362. 4485: 4470: 4426: 4402: 4395: 4370: 4363: 4330: 4311: 4299: 4270: 4258: 4217: 4188: 4153: 4141: 4133: 4108: 4082: 4074: 4000: 3983: 3964:(2): 181–183. 3944: 3879: 3864: 3838: 3790: 3736: 3717:(5560): 1683. 3694: 3687: 3651: 3627: 3592: 3577: 3538: 3531: 3525:. p. 89. 3509: 3484: 3459: 3401: 3355: 3348: 3342:. p. 48. 3326: 3309: 3270: 3241: 3190: 3171: 3170: 3168: 3165: 3162: 3161: 3136: 3135: 3133: 3130: 3128: 3125: 3071: 3068: 2972:Martha at the 2965: 2962: 2798:Cincinnati Zoo 2783: 2782:Last survivors 2780: 2712: 2709: 2539: 2536: 2509:Cincinnati Zoo 2492:) in his book 2429:Wyandot people 2389: 2386: 2236:American minks 2223: 2220: 2093: 2090: 1959: 1956: 1655: 1652: 1597:Atlantic coast 1573: 1570: 1534: 1531: 1475:Julian P. Hume 1313: 1310: 1167: 1164: 1140: 1139: 1136: 1135: 1131: 1130: 1127: 1126: 1122: 1121: 1118: 1117: 1113: 1112: 1109: 1108: 1094: 1091: 1090: 1087: 1086: 1076: 1071: 1069: 1066: 1065: 1062: 1061: 1057: 1056: 1053: 1052: 1048: 1047: 1044: 1043: 1033: 1030: 1029: 1026: 1025: 1015: 1010: 1008: 1005: 1004: 1001: 1000: 996: 995: 992: 991: 982: 979: 978: 975: 974: 970: 969: 966: 965: 956: 953: 952: 949: 948: 938: 933: 931: 926: 924: 919: 917: 912: 910: 905: 903: 898: 873:in the north. 675: 672: 668:plenary powers 568:George Edwards 514: 511: 503:Cincinnati Zoo 382: 381: 380: 379: 377:Swainson, 1827 371: 369:Linnaeus, 1766 363: 361:Linnaeus, 1766 352: 351: 345: 344: 340: 339: 331: 330: 323: 309: 308: 302: 301: 293: 291: 287: 286: 269: 265: 264: 259: 255: 254: 249: 245: 244: 239: 235: 234: 229: 225: 224: 219: 215: 214: 209: 205: 204: 191: 190: 170: 167: 166: 147: 144: 143: 138: 135: 134: 123: 122: 114: 113: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 58: 53: 48: 43: 33: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9495: 9484: 9481: 9479: 9476: 9474: 9471: 9469: 9466: 9464: 9461: 9459: 9456: 9454: 9451: 9449: 9446: 9444: 9441: 9439: 9436: 9434: 9431: 9429: 9426: 9424: 9421: 9419: 9416: 9414: 9411: 9409: 9406: 9405: 9403: 9386: 9381: 9377: 9373: 9368: 9364: 9360: 9355: 9351: 9347: 9342: 9338: 9334: 9329: 9325: 9321: 9316: 9312: 9308: 9303: 9299: 9295: 9290: 9286: 9282: 9277: 9273: 9269: 9264: 9260: 9256: 9251: 9247: 9243: 9238: 9234: 9230: 9225: 9221: 9217: 9212: 9208: 9204: 9199: 9195: 9191: 9186: 9182: 9178: 9172: 9168: 9163: 9159: 9155: 9150: 9146: 9142: 9137: 9133: 9129: 9124: 9120: 9113: 9109: 9104: 9098: 9094: 9089: 9083: 9079: 9078: 9076: 9074: 9070: 9066: 9061: 9046: 9024: 9023: 9016: 9014: 9013: 9009: 9007: 9006: 9002: 9000: 8999: 8995: 8993: 8992: 8988: 8986: 8985: 8981: 8979: 8978: 8974: 8972: 8971: 8967: 8966: 8964: 8962: 8958: 8952: 8951: 8947: 8946: 8944: 8942: 8938: 8932: 8931: 8927: 8925: 8924: 8920: 8918: 8917: 8913: 8911: 8910: 8906: 8904: 8903: 8899: 8898: 8896: 8894: 8890: 8884: 8883: 8879: 8877: 8876: 8869: 8867: 8866: 8859: 8857: 8856: 8852: 8850: 8849: 8842: 8840: 8839: 8832: 8830: 8829: 8825: 8823: 8822: 8818: 8816: 8815: 8808: 8806: 8805: 8801: 8800: 8798: 8796: 8792: 8786: 8785: 8781: 8779: 8778: 8774: 8772: 8771: 8767: 8765: 8764: 8760: 8758: 8757: 8753: 8751: 8750: 8746: 8744: 8743: 8739: 8737: 8736: 8732: 8730: 8729: 8725: 8724: 8722: 8720: 8716: 8713: 8711: 8707: 8701: 8700: 8696: 8694: 8693: 8689: 8687: 8686: 8682: 8680: 8679: 8675: 8673: 8672: 8668: 8667: 8665: 8663: 8659: 8649: 8648: 8644: 8642: 8641: 8637: 8635: 8634: 8630: 8628: 8627: 8626:Reinwardtoena 8623: 8621: 8620: 8616: 8614: 8613: 8609: 8607: 8606: 8602: 8600: 8599: 8592: 8590: 8589: 8585: 8584: 8582: 8580: 8576: 8570: 8569: 8565: 8563: 8562: 8558: 8556: 8555: 8551: 8549: 8548: 8544: 8542: 8541: 8537: 8535: 8534: 8530: 8529: 8527: 8525: 8521: 8518: 8516: 8512: 8506: 8505: 8498: 8496: 8495: 8488: 8486: 8485: 8478: 8476: 8475: 8468: 8466: 8465: 8458: 8456: 8455: 8448: 8446: 8445: 8438: 8437: 8435: 8433: 8429: 8426: 8423: 8418: 8414: 8410: 8409:Columbiformes 8405: 8401: 8392: 8374: 8373: 8369: 8367: 8366: 8362: 8360: 8359: 8352: 8350: 8349: 8342: 8340: 8339: 8332: 8330: 8329: 8322: 8321: 8319: 8317: 8313: 8310: 8308: 8304: 8294: 8293: 8289: 8287: 8286: 8282: 8281: 8279: 8277: 8273: 8270: 8268: 8264: 8260: 8256: 8251: 8247: 8241: 8237: 8235: 8231: 8229: 8225: 8223: 8219: 8217: 8213: 8212: 8209: 8204: 8200: 8196: 8188: 8183: 8181: 8176: 8174: 8169: 8168: 8165: 8158: 8154: 8151: 8148: 8147: 8142: 8138: 8135: 8133: 8130: 8127: 8122: 8118: 8115: 8110: 8106: 8105: 8085: 8079: 8064: 8063: 8058: 8051: 8035: 8031: 8027: 8020: 8018: 8001: 8000: 7995: 7989: 7974: 7970: 7963: 7961: 7959: 7950: 7948:0-19-505928-X 7944: 7940: 7936: 7932: 7930: 7922: 7906: 7900: 7889:September 25, 7885: 7881: 7875: 7867: 7863: 7859: 7855: 7851: 7847: 7846: 7841: 7834: 7818: 7817: 7812: 7806: 7798: 7797: 7792: 7786: 7779: 7778:Schorger 1955 7774: 7767: 7766:Schorger 1955 7762: 7754: 7750: 7746: 7742: 7741: 7733: 7726: 7725:Schorger 1955 7721: 7712: 7707: 7703: 7699: 7695: 7688: 7681: 7680:Schorger 1955 7676: 7674: 7665: 7661: 7660: 7659:Extinct Birds 7655: 7649: 7642: 7637: 7635: 7633: 7631: 7629: 7627: 7625: 7608: 7607: 7599: 7593: 7578: 7574: 7567: 7552: 7548: 7542: 7527: 7523: 7517: 7509: 7505: 7500: 7495: 7491: 7487: 7483: 7476: 7468: 7467: 7459: 7451: 7447: 7443: 7439: 7432: 7424: 7418: 7414: 7410: 7403: 7396: 7383: 7379: 7378: 7373: 7367: 7359: 7355: 7351: 7347: 7343: 7339: 7335: 7331: 7330: 7322: 7320: 7311: 7307: 7306: 7298: 7292:, p. 146 7291: 7290:Schorger 1955 7286: 7271: 7270: 7265: 7261: 7255: 7253: 7246:, p. 145 7245: 7244:Schorger 1955 7240: 7234:, p. 167 7233: 7232:Schorger 1955 7228: 7222:, p. 142 7221: 7220:Schorger 1955 7216: 7200: 7196: 7195: 7190: 7183: 7181: 7174:, p. 141 7173: 7172:Schorger 1955 7168: 7162:, p. 173 7161: 7160:Schorger 1955 7156: 7148: 7144: 7140: 7133: 7126: 7125:Schorger 1955 7121: 7115:, p. 170 7114: 7113:Schorger 1955 7109: 7103:, p. 172 7102: 7101:Schorger 1955 7097: 7091:, p. 169 7090: 7089:Schorger 1955 7085: 7077: 7073: 7069: 7067: 7058: 7056: 7054: 7052: 7050: 7043:, p. 198 7042: 7041:Schorger 1955 7037: 7031:, p. 192 7030: 7029:Schorger 1955 7025: 7019:, p. 193 7018: 7017:Schorger 1955 7013: 7007:, p. 186 7006: 7005:Schorger 1955 7001: 6999: 6992:, p. 144 6991: 6990:Schorger 1955 6986: 6984: 6977:, p. 131 6976: 6975:Schorger 1955 6971: 6969: 6962:, p. 130 6961: 6960:Schorger 1955 6956: 6948: 6942: 6938: 6934: 6930: 6926: 6925: 6920: 6914: 6907: 6903: 6897: 6893: 6888: 6887: 6878: 6870: 6866: 6859: 6851: 6850: 6842: 6836:, p. 134 6835: 6834:Schorger 1955 6830: 6824:, p. 168 6823: 6822:Schorger 1955 6818: 6816: 6809:, p. 139 6808: 6807:Schorger 1955 6803: 6797:, p. 137 6796: 6795:Schorger 1955 6791: 6784: 6783:Schorger 1955 6779: 6773:, p. 129 6772: 6771:Schorger 1955 6767: 6765: 6755: 6750: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6731: 6724: 6713: 6712: 6707: 6700: 6685: 6684: 6679: 6672: 6656: 6652: 6651: 6643: 6636: 6621: 6617: 6614: 6608: 6600: 6594: 6590: 6586: 6579: 6571: 6567: 6563: 6559: 6558: 6553: 6546: 6539: 6534: 6532: 6525:, p. 132 6524: 6523:Schorger 1955 6519: 6512: 6511:Schorger 1955 6507: 6500: 6499:Schorger 1955 6495: 6480: 6476: 6472: 6471: 6466: 6459: 6453:, p. 136 6452: 6451:Schorger 1955 6447: 6445: 6438:, p. 135 6437: 6436:Schorger 1955 6432: 6430: 6422: 6418: 6413: 6408: 6404: 6400: 6396: 6392: 6388: 6384: 6377: 6371: 6367: 6362: 6354: 6347: 6340: 6332: 6326: 6322: 6318: 6311: 6304: 6298: 6294: 6293: 6285: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6250: 6243: 6235: 6234:UC Santa Cruz 6228: 6221: 6213: 6209: 6202: 6196: 6192: 6187: 6185: 6165: 6161: 6157: 6153: 6149: 6145: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6132: 6124: 6122: 6118: 6109: 6107: 6087: 6083: 6079: 6075: 6071: 6064: 6057: 6042: 6037: 6033: 6029: 6025: 6021: 6017: 6011: 6004: 5999: 5997: 5995: 5987: 5982: 5980: 5978: 5976: 5968: 5963: 5961: 5953: 5948: 5946: 5944: 5942: 5933: 5929: 5925: 5921: 5917: 5913: 5909: 5905: 5904: 5903:Human Ecology 5896: 5889: 5884: 5882: 5880: 5871: 5865: 5861: 5854: 5846: 5842: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5822: 5818: 5814: 5810: 5803: 5795: 5791: 5787: 5783: 5778: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5754: 5746: 5742: 5738: 5734: 5730: 5726: 5725: 5720: 5713: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5669: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5645: 5641: 5640: 5632: 5625: 5616: 5611: 5607: 5603: 5599: 5597: 5588: 5586: 5578: 5573: 5571: 5569: 5567: 5565: 5563: 5554: 5550: 5545: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5511: 5503: 5499: 5494: 5489: 5484: 5479: 5475: 5471: 5467: 5460: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5425: 5417: 5413: 5408: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5384: 5376: 5372: 5365: 5350: 5346: 5345: 5337: 5322: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5304: 5302: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5276:11250/2480523 5273: 5268: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5240: 5233: 5231: 5229: 5227: 5218: 5211: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5181: 5173: 5169: 5164: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5132: 5127: 5120: 5118: 5116: 5114: 5112: 5104: 5099: 5097: 5095: 5093: 5091: 5089: 5087: 5085: 5083: 5081: 5072: 5066: 5051: 5045: 5041: 5040: 5032: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4994: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4957: 4949: 4947: 4945: 4943: 4941: 4939: 4932:, p. 205 4931: 4930:Schorger 1955 4926: 4924: 4916: 4911: 4909: 4907: 4905: 4903: 4901: 4884:. p. 611 4883: 4879: 4878: 4872: 4870: 4860: 4858: 4856: 4854: 4852: 4850: 4841: 4840: 4835: 4829: 4827: 4825: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4789: 4782: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4740: 4733: 4728: 4726: 4724: 4722: 4720: 4712: 4707: 4705: 4703: 4695: 4690: 4688: 4686: 4684: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4649: 4640: 4638: 4636: 4627: 4621: 4617: 4616:Extinct Birds 4610: 4608: 4606: 4604: 4602: 4594: 4589: 4587: 4585: 4583: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4548: 4539: 4537: 4535: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4505: 4500: 4498: 4489: 4482: 4477: 4475: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4439: 4437: 4435: 4433: 4431: 4422: 4418: 4417: 4409: 4407: 4398: 4392: 4388: 4381: 4379: 4377: 4375: 4366: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4345: 4343: 4341: 4339: 4337: 4335: 4327: 4322: 4320: 4318: 4316: 4308: 4303: 4296: 4291: 4289: 4287: 4285: 4283: 4281: 4279: 4277: 4275: 4268:, p. 255 4267: 4266:Schorger 1955 4262: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4228: 4221: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4192: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4157: 4150: 4149:Schorger 1955 4145: 4136: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4112: 4097: 4093: 4086: 4077: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4053: 4051: 4049: 4047: 4045: 4043: 4041: 4039: 4037: 4035: 4033: 4031: 4029: 4027: 4025: 4023: 4021: 4019: 4017: 4015: 4013: 4011: 4009: 4007: 4005: 3996: 3995: 3987: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3948: 3940: 3936: 3931: 3926: 3921: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3905:(2): e56301. 3904: 3900: 3899: 3894: 3892: 3883: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3842: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3799: 3797: 3795: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3757: 3752: 3745: 3743: 3741: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3705: 3698: 3690: 3684: 3680: 3679:Extinct Birds 3676: 3670: 3668: 3666: 3664: 3662: 3660: 3658: 3656: 3647: 3643: 3642: 3637: 3636:Brewer, T. M. 3631: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3596: 3589: 3584: 3582: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3542: 3534: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3513: 3505: 3501: 3500: 3495: 3488: 3480: 3476: 3475: 3470: 3463: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3424:(1244): 445. 3423: 3419: 3415: 3408: 3406: 3396: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3382: 3377: 3375: 3371: 3362: 3360: 3351: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3330: 3322: 3321: 3313: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3274: 3259: 3255: 3253: 3245: 3229: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3215: 3210: 3208: 3199: 3197: 3195: 3186: 3182: 3176: 3172: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3141: 3137: 3124: 3120: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3093:Pyrenean ibex 3090: 3089:de-extinction 3081: 3076: 3066: 3061: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3046: 3044: 3040: 3035: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3015: 3011: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2984: 2983:Deforestation 2975: 2970: 2961: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2928: 2926: 2923:and his wife 2922: 2913: 2910:in life, the 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2892: 2888: 2886: 2882: 2877: 2875: 2865: 2861: 2859: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2825: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2799: 2794: 2789: 2779: 2776: 2770: 2768: 2759: 2754: 2749: 2744: 2741: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2717: 2708: 2705: 2701: 2695: 2693: 2688: 2683: 2675: 2670: 2666: 2664: 2659: 2650: 2645: 2641: 2639: 2638:trap-shooting 2635: 2629: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2606: 2602: 2596: 2594: 2588: 2586: 2585:Fort Caroline 2582: 2573: 2569: 2567: 2563: 2558: 2554: 2544: 2535: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2520:Falling Bough 2517: 2512: 2510: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2496: 2491: 2486: 2476: 2472: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2457:Cotton Mather 2454: 2450: 2445: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2425: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2405: 2404: 2399: 2394: 2385: 2383: 2382: 2377: 2376: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2358: 2353: 2350: 2345: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2334:Cooper's hawk 2331: 2330: 2325: 2324:Puma concolor 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2300:Vulpes vulpes 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2268:birds of prey 2265: 2264:Procyon lotor 2261: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2240:Neogale vison 2237: 2228: 2218: 2213: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2184: 2182: 2172: 2168: 2166: 2158: 2153: 2149: 2144: 2135: 2131: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2114: 2110: 2107: 2098: 2089: 2087: 2086:regurgitation 2083: 2079: 2075: 2069: 2067: 2062: 2058: 2051: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1985:produced the 1984: 1980: 1973: 1969: 1964: 1955: 1953: 1952: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1934: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1919: 1917: 1913: 1908: 1904: 1899: 1895: 1889: 1885: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1852:pre-Columbian 1848: 1846: 1840: 1832: 1828: 1825: 1817: 1812: 1808: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1773: 1771: 1767: 1764: 1760: 1755: 1751: 1746: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1727: 1725: 1720: 1716: 1713:, writing in 1712: 1707: 1698: 1693: 1689: 1684: 1679: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1660: 1651: 1649: 1645: 1640: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1616: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1583: 1578: 1569: 1567: 1563: 1562:Wallace Craig 1558: 1556: 1547: 1546:Wallace Craig 1543: 1542:Musical notes 1539: 1533:Vocalizations 1530: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1463: 1461: 1460:Columba livia 1457: 1447: 1443: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1416: 1413: 1408: 1389: 1386: 1382: 1362: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1347: 1345: 1341: 1336: 1329: 1309: 1307: 1305: 1299: 1295: 1294:Simon Pokagon 1291: 1289: 1283: 1282:Seneca people 1279: 1275: 1273: 1267: 1263: 1261: 1255: 1251: 1248: 1244: 1242: 1236: 1232: 1230: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1211: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1187: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1163: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1148:Hybridization 1138: 1137: 1129: 1128: 1120: 1119: 1111: 1110: 1107: 1105: 1101: 1100: 1093: 1092: 1089: 1088: 1085: 1083: 1082: 1075: 1074: 1068: 1067: 1064: 1063: 1055: 1054: 1046: 1045: 1042: 1040: 1039: 1032: 1031: 1028: 1027: 1024: 1022: 1021: 1014: 1013: 1007: 1006: 1003: 1002: 994: 993: 990: 989: 988: 981: 980: 977: 976: 968: 967: 964: 963: 962: 961:Reinwardtoena 955: 954: 951: 950: 947: 945: 944: 937: 936: 930: 929: 923: 922: 916: 915: 909: 908: 902: 901: 897: 895: 890: 888: 883: 879: 874: 872: 868: 867:Pacific Ocean 863: 862: 857: 853: 849: 848: 847:Reinwardtoena 843: 839: 838: 833: 829: 825: 824: 818: 816: 815: 810: 809: 804: 800: 799: 794: 790: 786: 782: 778: 774: 771:, and having 770: 766: 761: 759: 755: 751: 747: 743: 739: 737: 732: 729:stage of the 728: 724: 720: 712: 711:mourning dove 707: 701: 700: 695: 691: 685: 680: 671: 669: 665: 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 641: 637: 633: 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 604: 602: 599:, as used by 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 573: 569: 565: 561: 557: 553: 549: 548: 543: 542:mourning dove 540:for both the 539: 537: 532: 531:Carl Linnaeus 524: 519: 510: 508: 504: 500: 496: 492: 491:deforestation 487: 482: 480: 476: 472: 468: 464: 460: 456: 451: 447: 442: 440: 438: 433: 432: 427: 423: 422:mourning dove 419: 415: 414:North America 411: 407: 403: 399: 398: 393: 389: 375: 372: 367: 364: 359: 356: 355: 353: 350: 346: 341: 337: 332: 327: 321: 319: 310: 307: 306:Binomial name 303: 299: 298: 292: 289: 288: 283: 278: 277: 270: 267: 266: 263: 260: 257: 256: 253: 252:Columbiformes 250: 247: 246: 243: 240: 237: 236: 233: 230: 227: 226: 223: 220: 217: 216: 213: 210: 207: 206: 201: 196: 192: 186: 181: (1914) 180: 168: 162: 157: (1914) 156: 145: 141: 136: 133: 132:C. O. Whitman 129: 124: 120: 115: 111: 107: 101: 96: 91: 86: 81: 76: 71: 66: 61: 56: 51: 46: 40: 29: 26: 22: 9072: 9020: 9010: 9003: 8996: 8989: 8982: 8977:Drepanoptila 8975: 8968: 8948: 8928: 8921: 8914: 8907: 8900: 8880: 8873: 8863: 8853: 8846: 8836: 8826: 8819: 8812: 8802: 8782: 8775: 8768: 8761: 8754: 8747: 8740: 8733: 8728:Gallicolumba 8726: 8697: 8692:Paraclaravis 8690: 8683: 8676: 8669: 8645: 8640:Streptopelia 8638: 8631: 8624: 8617: 8610: 8603: 8596: 8586: 8566: 8559: 8552: 8545: 8538: 8531: 8502: 8492: 8482: 8472: 8464:Dysmoropelia 8462: 8452: 8444:Arenicolumba 8442: 8431: 8370: 8363: 8356: 8346: 8336: 8328:Archaeoganga 8326: 8290: 8283: 8144: 8087:. Retrieved 8078: 8066:. Retrieved 8060: 8050: 8038:. Retrieved 8034:the original 8029: 8004:. Retrieved 7997: 7988: 7976:. Retrieved 7972: 7927: 7921: 7909:. Retrieved 7899: 7887:. Retrieved 7883: 7874: 7849: 7843: 7839: 7833: 7823:February 29, 7821:. 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New York: 6584: 6578: 6561: 6555: 6545: 6518: 6506: 6501:, p. 12 6494: 6482:. Retrieved 6468: 6458: 6386: 6382: 6376: 6361: 6352: 6339: 6320: 6310: 6291: 6284: 6252: 6249:The Holocene 6248: 6242: 6233: 6220: 6211: 6201: 6171:. Retrieved 6164:the original 6135: 6129: 6120: 6117:Campanulotes 6116: 6093:. Retrieved 6086:the original 6073: 6069: 6056: 6045:, retrieved 6034:(9): 46–62, 6031: 6027: 6010: 6005:, p. 14 5988:, p. 13 5969:, p. 12 5954:, p. 11 5907: 5901: 5895: 5859: 5853: 5812: 5808: 5802: 5767: 5763: 5753: 5728: 5722: 5719:Quercus alba 5718: 5712: 5679: 5675: 5668: 5643: 5637: 5624: 5605: 5601: 5595: 5579:, p. 15 5524: 5521:PLOS Biology 5520: 5510: 5473: 5470:PLOS Biology 5469: 5459: 5437:(1): 13–25. 5434: 5430: 5424: 5397: 5393: 5383: 5374: 5364: 5355:February 15, 5353:, retrieved 5343: 5336: 5324:. Retrieved 5316: 5249: 5245: 5216: 5210: 5198:. Retrieved 5190: 5180: 5135: 5129: 5055:February 29, 5053:. Retrieved 5038: 5031: 5006: 5002: 4993: 4960: 4954: 4917:, p. 10 4886:. Retrieved 4875: 4868: 4838: 4798: 4794: 4781: 4759:(1): 12–14. 4756: 4752: 4739: 4657: 4653: 4647: 4615: 4559:(1): 29–41. 4556: 4552: 4546: 4508: 4502: 4496: 4488: 4461:. Retrieved 4457:the original 4448: 4420: 4414: 4386: 4350: 4302: 4261: 4249:. Retrieved 4242:the original 4236:. Winnipeg: 4233: 4220: 4208:. Retrieved 4200: 4191: 4179:. Retrieved 4175:the original 4166: 4156: 4144: 4120: 4111: 4099:. Retrieved 4095: 4085: 4061: 3993: 3986: 3961: 3957: 3947: 3902: 3896: 3890: 3882: 3847: 3841: 3811:(1): 455–8. 3808: 3804: 3760: 3754: 3750: 3714: 3710: 3697: 3678: 3640: 3630: 3618:. Retrieved 3614:the original 3605: 3595: 3555: 3551: 3541: 3518: 3512: 3503: 3497: 3487: 3478: 3472: 3462: 3421: 3417: 3385: 3379: 3373: 3369: 3335: 3329: 3319: 3312: 3290:(3): 77–93. 3287: 3283: 3273: 3261:. Retrieved 3257: 3251: 3244: 3234:November 19, 3232:. Retrieved 3218: 3212: 3206: 3184: 3175: 3140: 3127:Bibliography 3121: 3101:Spanish ibex 3096: 3085: 3063: 3050:Aldo Leopold 3047: 3036: 3027: 3020: 3008:Allee effect 2999: 2991: 2979: 2929: 2917: 2903: 2895: 2878: 2870: 2826: 2817: 2802: 2771: 2763: 2746: 2737: 2732: 2725:frontispiece 2696: 2679: 2654: 2630: 2609: 2598: 2590: 2578: 2565: 2549: 2519: 2513: 2493: 2481: 2446: 2426: 2409: 2401: 2379: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2355: 2349:phtilopterid 2346: 2337: 2327: 2323: 2315: 2307: 2299: 2295: 2287: 2263: 2255: 2247: 2239: 2233: 2215: 2204: 2199: 2185: 2177: 2161: 2146: 2141: 2115: 2111: 2103: 2092:Reproduction 2070: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2039: 2023:caterpillars 1977: 1949: 1942:lyme disease 1935: 1920: 1890: 1886: 1865:forest fires 1849: 1841: 1837: 1821: 1774: 1747: 1728: 1702: 1686: 1681: 1671: 1665: 1641: 1617: 1593:Great Plains 1586: 1559: 1551: 1464: 1459: 1452: 1417: 1404: 1377: 1348: 1332: 1301: 1285: 1269: 1257: 1238: 1226: 1218: 1212: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1191: 1183: 1175: 1171: 1169: 1155: 1152:Barbary dove 1144: 1103: 1098: 1097: 1096: 1079: 1078: 1038:Streptopelia 1036: 1035: 1018: 1017: 985: 984: 959: 958: 941: 940: 891: 881: 875: 861:Streptopelia 859: 855: 845: 841: 835: 831: 821: 819: 812: 806: 802: 796: 793:sister taxon 781:Beth Shapiro 764: 762: 757: 749: 745: 741: 735: 716: 699:Patagioenas 697: 663: 659: 647: 643: 639: 631: 627: 624:Outram Bangs 619: 611: 605: 596: 592: 588: 584: 580: 576: 571: 563: 559: 556:Mark Catesby 545: 534: 528: 523:Mark Catesby 483: 443: 436: 429: 425: 417: 396: 395: 391: 387: 385: 373: 365: 357: 317: 312: 296: 295: 275: 274: 37:5.33–0 25: 9302:NatureServe 9250:iNaturalist 9097:Wikispecies 9005:Lopholaimus 8970:Cryptophaps 8961:Ptilinopini 8923:Phapitreron 8909:Chalcophaps 8902:Alectroenas 8848:Natunaornis 8777:Petrophassa 8756:Leucosarcia 8749:Henicophaps 8685:Metriopelia 8619:Patagioenas 8547:Leptotrygon 8454:Bountyphaps 8316:Pteroclidae 8068:November 6, 8040:October 29, 7911:January 22, 7641:Fuller 2014 7312:(3): 443–6. 6935:. pp. 6919:Mann, C. C. 6538:Fuller 2014 6389:(4): 1–10, 6193:, pp. 6173:December 3, 6095:December 3, 6047:January 14, 5890:, p. 7 5103:Fuller 2014 4734:, p. 6 4713:, p. 5 4696:, p. 3 4595:, p. 8 4481:Fuller 2014 4328:, p. 2 4307:Fuller 2014 4295:Fuller 2014 3848:Ancient DNA 3763:(1): 52–7. 3675:Hume, J. P. 3590:, p. 4 3145:John Herald 3048:Naturalist 2601:sustainable 2562:wild turkey 2516:Walton Ford 2288:Canis lupus 2011:pokeberries 1995:blueberries 1648:Pleistocene 1605:Great Lakes 1591:, from the 1555:alarm calls 1385:iridescence 1312:Description 1304:O-me-me-wog 1176:migratorius 1081:Patagioenas 882:Patagioenas 878:nuclear DNA 823:Patagioenas 785:ancient DNA 664:migratorius 614:to the new 595:, based on 463:Great Lakes 431:Patagioenas 392:wild pigeon 185:NatureServe 9458:Game birds 9418:Columbidae 9402:Categories 9380:Xeno-canto 9012:Ptilinopus 8991:Gymnophaps 8855:Otidiphaps 8838:Microgoura 8821:Didunculus 8814:Deliaphaps 8662:Claravinae 8633:Spilopelia 8605:Macropygia 8598:Ectopistes 8554:Starnoenas 8515:Columbinae 8494:Primophaps 8474:Lithophaps 8422:Colombidae 8372:Syrrhaptes 8348:Leptoganga 8285:Mesitornis 8199:sandgrouse 8193:Genera of 8146:Day to Day 8089:August 10, 7978:August 25, 7662:. London: 7205:August 26, 7149:: 367–382. 7078:: 174–184. 6613:Herald, J. 6368:, p. 6121:C. durdeni 5770:(5): 323. 5764:BioScience 5682:: 87–100. 5431:Population 4801:(2): 242. 4745:Howard, H. 4423:: 168–193. 4355:Pica Press 4353:. Sussex: 4080:pp. 30-47. 4058:Fuller, E. 3572:10088/2006 3374:Ectopistes 3167:References 3109:stem cells 3004:Blitzkrieg 2994:) and the 2874:London Zoo 2786:See also: 2740:extinction 2593:arquebuses 2308:Lynx rufus 2270:, such as 2165:monogamous 2080:, and the 2015:bunchberry 2007:mulberries 1916:understory 1881:white oaks 1877:black oaks 1871:, such as 1856:white oaks 1766:coalescent 1697:Frank Bond 1438:) of this 1298:Potawatomi 1196:New France 1172:Ectopistes 1099:Ectopistes 943:Macropygia 842:Macropygia 798:Macropygia 773:iridescent 746:Ectopistes 719:Columbidae 634:. In 1918 620:Ectopistes 450:iridescent 276:Ectopistes 262:Columbidae 9022:Tongoenas 8998:Hemiphaga 8941:Treronini 8893:Turturini 8865:Pezophaps 8770:Pampusana 8678:Columbina 8647:Turacoena 8579:Columbini 8568:Zentrygon 8540:Leptotila 8533:Geotrygon 8524:Zenaidini 8504:Rupephaps 8365:Pterocles 8358:Linxiavis 8214:Kingdom: 8006:April 10, 7753:0028-0712 7747:(4): 72. 7582:August 7, 7556:March 12, 7531:March 12, 7450:0016-741X 6625:April 28, 6479:0024-3019 6277:128836416 6214:: 103–112 5932:153426755 5704:0378-1127 5065:cite book 4463:April 22, 4251:April 23, 4197:"Omiimii" 4181:April 23, 4101:April 23, 3620:April 23, 3388:: 80–84. 3296:0043-5643 3263:March 31, 3149:bluegrass 3058:Wisconsin 2687:telegraph 2682:railroads 2461:dysentery 2362:coextinct 2329:Accipiter 2192:crop milk 2181:incubated 2078:black oak 2031:buckwheat 1894:ecosystem 1471:osteology 1456:rock dove 1436:oxidation 1432:eumelanin 1381:scapulars 1247:Kaskaskia 1180:migratory 1166:Etymology 987:Turacoena 894:cladogram 837:Turacoena 814:Leptotila 808:Geotrygon 674:Evolution 616:monotypic 606:In 1827, 408:that was 290:Species: 218:Kingdom: 212:Eukaryota 177:Presumed 9307:2.104865 9294:22690733 9268:10458355 9216:45509400 9154:22690733 9149:BirdLife 9082:Wikidata 8804:Caloenas 8763:Ocyphaps 8742:Geophaps 8735:Geopelia 8710:Raphinae 8699:Uropelia 8671:Claravis 8612:Nesoenas 8484:Microena 8338:Gerandia 8222:Chordata 8220:Phylum: 8216:Animalia 7973:NBC News 7935:New York 7656:(1907). 7374:(1913). 7358:85830808 7350:20456089 7275:March 3, 6929:New York 6717:March 3, 6689:March 3, 6655:Archived 6484:June 16, 6421:27051878 6160:11128516 6022:(1858), 5845:45065236 5794:89496723 5660:19791653 5553:22984349 5502:25859758 5416:18093996 5349:archived 5326:March 4, 5284:29146814 5200:June 17, 5172:24979776 4985:55427679 4888:March 3, 4836:(1835). 4747:(1937). 4210:March 2, 4119:(1955). 4060:(2014). 3939:23437111 3898:PLOS One 3874:22237518 3833:20478386 3785:21482085 3731:11872833 3638:(1840). 3506:: 43–44. 3454:28529631 3446:17752099 2829:Sargents 2731:'s 1907 2618:pickling 2557:Cherokee 2553:Oklahoma 2532:flagship 2490:aquatint 2441:Ho-Chunk 2421:girdling 2413:Holocene 2260:raccoons 2200:en masse 2074:red oaks 2003:cherries 1912:canopies 1873:bur oaks 1860:red oaks 1763:Bayesian 1487:coracoid 1428:mutation 1250:Illinois 1186:passager 871:Beringia 811:and the 731:Pliocene 727:Zanclean 660:macroura 538:macroura 513:Taxonomy 418:passager 400:) is an 349:Synonyms 326:Linnaeus 282:Swainson 258:Family: 232:Chordata 228:Phylum: 222:Animalia 208:Domain: 161:IUCN 3.1 110:Holocene 106:Zanclean 9242:2495898 9136:Avibase 9088:Q191968 8795:Raphini 8719:Phabini 8588:Columba 8561:Zenaida 8238:Clade: 8234:Neoaves 8232:Clade: 8226:Class: 8203:mesites 8195:pigeons 7854:Bibcode 7508:4082414 6937:315–318 6650:YouTube 6645:(video) 6566:Bibcode 6412:4820370 6391:Bibcode 6257:Bibcode 6152:3284803 5912:Bibcode 5837:9537894 5817:Bibcode 5809:Science 5786:1312946 5733:Bibcode 5684:Bibcode 5544:3439417 5493:4393120 5451:1531855 5292:4779202 5254:Bibcode 5246:Science 5163:4115547 5140:Bibcode 5023:4071503 5003:The Auk 4965:Bibcode 4815:1367681 4773:1363481 4674:4071160 4654:The Auk 4650:Linn.)" 4573:4071611 4553:The Auk 4525:4071953 4504:The Auk 4139:p. 251. 3978:4070695 3958:The Auk 3930:3577829 3907:Bibcode 3813:Bibcode 3765:Bibcode 3711:Science 3426:Bibcode 3418:Science 3304:4153807 3082:Library 2945:molting 2933:endling 2912:endling 2614:salting 2538:Hunting 2526:winner 2400:, from 2320:cougars 2318:), and 2304:bobcats 2258:), and 2123:billing 2119:preened 2050:gizzard 1979:Beeches 1968:pin oak 1918:light. 1750:genomes 1719:Ontario 1668:nomadic 1629:Bermuda 1595:to the 1515:humerus 1499:sternum 1495:furcula 1491:scapula 1440:pigment 1407:plumage 1355:carmine 1296:of the 1288:jahgowa 1278:Choctaw 1245:by the 1233:by the 1229:omiimii 1221:by the 1200:tourtre 1020:Columba 856:Columba 850:. This 817:doves. 803:Zenaida 765:Zenaida 758:Zenaida 736:Zenaida 612:Columba 536:Columba 495:habitat 486:hunting 437:Zenaida 410:endemic 328:, 1766) 315:† 294:† 268:Genus: 248:Order: 238:Class: 183: ( 179:Extinct 159: ( 155:Extinct 9359:368079 9346:506098 9333:187118 9281:177132 9224:EURING 9203:paspig 9177:paspig 9167:493867 9123:ARKive 9116:paspig 8984:Ducula 8950:Treron 8930:Turtur 8882:Trugon 8875:Raphus 8292:Monias 7945: 7751: 7506: 7448: 7419: 7356: 7348: 6943: 6898: 6595: 6477: 6419: 6409: 6327: 6299: 6275: 6158: 6150: 5930: 5866: 5843: 5835: 5792: 5784: 5702: 5658: 5551: 5541: 5500: 5490: 5449: 5414: 5290: 5282: 5170: 5160: 5046: 5021: 4983: 4813: 4795:Condor 4771: 4753:Condor 4672: 4622: 4571: 4523: 4393: 4361: 4131: 4072: 3976: 3937: 3927: 3872: 3862: 3831: 3783: 3729: 3685: 3529: 3481:: 362. 3452: 3444: 3346: 3302: 3294: 3157:iconic 3153:Martha 2996:takahē 2988:kākāpō 2976:, 2015 2925:Martha 2908:Martha 2837:BB gun 2760:, 1903 2663:Sulfur 2651:, 1829 2626:fodder 2622:smoked 2522:, and 2437:wampum 2419:, the 2284:wolves 2280:eagles 2278:, and 2076:, the 2052:, 1915 2027:snails 2013:, and 1999:grapes 1991:acorns 1879:, and 1845:Martha 1818:, 1910 1783:' or ' 1735:genome 1699:, 1920 1637:Mexico 1635:, and 1548:, 1911 1519:radius 1503:distal 1497:, and 1359:tarsus 1351:rufous 1280:. 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