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beginning of the action to the summer of 1930. The overwhelming majority of Libyan contemporary witnesses, however, agree that the first such arrests were made in autumn 1929. Specifically, Badolgio's order resulted in the forced relocation of 100,000 to 110,000 people and their internment in concentration camps - about half of the total population of
Cyrenaica. While only one report of the deportation of a single tribe is available in Italian archives, the oral history of the victims reports in detail on the extent of the action, which covered the entire area from the Marmarica region on the Egyptian border in the east to the Syrte desert in the West concerned. However, the urban population on the coast and residents of the oases inland were not affected. From the assembly points, those who had been rounded up had to set off in columns on foot or by camels, some were also deported from the coast by ships. Such a deportation had hardly any role models in the colonial history of Africa and even put Graziani's rabid counter-guerrilla methods in the shade.
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were expropriated; Hundreds of houses and 70,000 hectares of prime land including the cattle on them changed hands. In addition, Graziani ordered the complete disarmament of the non-combatant population as well as draconian punishments in the event of civilians cooperating with Omar
Mukhtar's adwar combat groups. Anyone who owned a weapon or provided support to the Senussi Order had to face execution. In the colonial administration, Graziani began a purge of Arab employees who were accused of treason. He had the battalions of Libyan colonial troops, which in the past often indirectly supported Omar Mukhtar's resistance, disbanded. All forms of trade with Egypt were banned in order to control the smuggling of goods to the insurgents. Last but not least, Graziani began expanding a road network in the Jebel Akhdar Mountains - a project that none of his predecessors had previously carried out. Simultaneously with these measures, a mass exodus of the Cyrenean population to the surrounding countries began.
1346:. Graziani, notorious for his firmness in fascist principles, had just completed the conquest of Fessan and had made a name for himself as the "butcher of Fessan" in years of guerrilla warfare. Literally interpreting the regime's slogans, he understood the pacification of the country as the submission of “barbarians” to “Romans”. On 27 March 1930 Graziani moved into the Governor's Palace of Benghazi. Colonial Minister De Bono regarded an escalation of violence as inevitable for the “pacification” of the region and on 10 January 1930, in a telegram to Badoglio, suggested the establishment of concentration camps (""campi di concentramento"") for the first time. Badoglio had also come to the conclusion that the "rebels" could not be permanently subjugated to the counter-guerrilla with the methods they had previously used. From then on, both appeared as pioneers and strategists in genocidal warfare within the framework defined by Mussolini, while Graziani fulfilled the role of executor.
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They were then nailed to the wall and died slowly with untold suffering. It is impossible for us to paint the picture of this hideous rotted meat hanging pitifully on the bloody wall. In a corner another body was crucified, but as an officer he was chosen to experience refined sufferings. His eyes were stitched closed. All the bodies were mutilated and castrated; so indescribable was the scene and the bodies appeared swollen as shapeless carrion. But that's not all! In the cemetery of Chui, which served as a refuge from the Turks and to whence soldiers retreated from afar, we could see another show. In front of one door near the
Italian trenches five soldiers had been buried up to their shoulders, their heads emerged from the black sand stained with their blood: heads horrible to see and there you could read all the tortures of hunger and thirst.
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unity of the people and act more efficiently against the armed fighters. Now, after the failure of the military offensive against the resistance movement, the
Italians changed their attitude. It became clear that a clear distinction between the two groups was not possible, since the resistance movement was supported both materially and morally by the "subject population". The civilians paid taxes, donated weapons, clothing or food to Omar Mukhtar's desert warriors or made horses available to them. Since the non-combatant population ensured the reproductive conditions of the adwar system and formed the social basis of the resistance movement, they were now classified as dangerous potential by the colonial administration.
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execution. In the summer heat, a considerable number of the deportees did not survive the rigors of the marches, especially children and the elderly. Anyone who fell to the ground exhausted and could no longer go on was shot by the guards. The high death rate was a deliberate consequence of the marches, and the land that was freed was again passed into the hands of colonists. Of the 600,000 camels, horses, sheep, goats and cattle that were taken on the way, only about 100,000 arrived. The survivors refer to the deportation in Arabic as al-Rihlan ("path of tears").
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course has been set, and we must carry it out to the end, even if the entire population of
Cyrenaica must perish". By 1931, well over half the population of Cyrenaica were confined to 15 concentration camps where many died as result of overcrowding in combination with a lack of water, food and medicine while Badoglio had the Air Force use chemical warfare against the Bedouin rebels in the desert.
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The
Italians had originally divided the Libyan population into two groups, on the one hand the armed resistance "rebels", on the other hand the non-fighting, subjugated population (sottomessi), which had surrendered in the eyes of the colonial administration. In doing so, they wanted to undermine the
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wrote to
General Graziani: "As for overall strategy, it is necessary to create a significant and clear separation between the controlled population and the rebel formations. I do not hide the significance and seriousness of this measure, which might be the ruin of the subdued population...But now the
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After a meeting with
Graziani, Marshal Badoglio ordered the complete evacuation of Jabal Achdar on 25 June 1930. Three days later, the Italian army, together with Eritrean colonial troops and Libyan collaborators, began to round up the population and their cattle. Italian archival documents date the
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After the failed negotiations with Omar
Mukhtar, the Italian occupying power renewed its repressive policy against the Cyrenean resistance with arrests and shootings in November 1929. Since Badoglio had not gotten a grip on the guerrillas in Cyrenaica until 1930, Mussolini appointed General Rodolfo
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Guarded by mainly
Eritrean colonial troops, the entire population was forced, together with their belongings and cattle, on death marches that sometimes led over hundreds of kilometers for 20 weeks. Anyone who was picked up on the Jabal Achdar after the forced evacuation had to expect an immediate
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I saw (in Sciara Sciat) in one mosque seventeen Italians, crucified with their bodies reduced to the status of bloody rags and bones, but whose faces still retained traces of their hellish agony. Long rods had been passed through the necks of these wretched men and their arms rested on these rods.
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Above all, one must create a broad and precise territorial division between the rebel formations and the subjugated population. I am aware of the scope and gravity of this measure, which must lead to the annihilation of the so-called subject population. But now the way has been shown to us and we
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During the spring and summer of 1930, Graziani systematically targeted the social environment of the guerrillas. As a first measure, he had the Islamic cultural centers (zâwiyas) closed. The Koran scholars who led them were captured and deported to the Italian prison island of Ustica. Their lands
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At this point, Badoglio took the initiative again and emphatically proposed a new dimension of repressive measures: By deporting the people of the Jabal-Achdar Mountains, he literally wanted to create an empty space around the adwar combat units. On 20 June 1930 he wrote to Graziani in a letter:
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From 1923 to 1924, Italian troops regained all territory north of the Ghadames-Mizda-Beni Ulid region, with four-fifths of the estimated population of Tripolitania and Fezzan within the Italian area. In this period they also regained the northern lowlands of Cyrenaica, but attempts to occupy the
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declared: "In this historic document, Italy apologizes for its killing, destruction and repression of the Libyan people during the period of colonial rule." He went on to say that this was a "complete and moral acknowledgement of the damage inflicted on Libya by Italy during the colonial era."
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of the Italian Army, followed by a court martial and his public execution by hanging at Suluq. Mukhtar's death effectively ended the resistance, and in January 1932, Badoglio proclaimed the end of the campaign. Mukhtar's aides were executed later that year on 24 September 1932.
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1279:, half the population of Cyrenaica, being expelled from their settlements. These 100,000 people, mostly women, children, and the elderly, were forced by Italian authorities to march across the desert to a series of barbed-wire concentration camp compounds erected near
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Attempted negotiations between Italy and Omar Mukhtar broke down and Italy then planned for the complete conquest of Libya. In 1930, Italian forces conquered Fezzan and raised the Italian flag in Tummo, the southernmost region of Fezzan. On 20 June 1930,
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Mukhtar's troops reacted with the raiding of animals and intimidation against the Libyan tribes who had submitted to the Italians, such as on November 29, 1927, when they attacked a Braasa tribe camp near Slonta, which also affected women and children.
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To close rebel supply routes from Egypt, the Italians constructed a 300-kilometre (190 mi) barbed wire fence on the border with Egypt that was patrolled by armoured cars and aircraft. The Italians persecuted the Senussi Order;
80:, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Knowledge.
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combat units were again informed in good time by the local population and by deserters from Italian colonial troops. By dividing them into smaller groups, they were able to escape the Italian columns with slight losses.
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1444:, attended the signing ceremony wearing a historical photograph on his uniform that showed Cyrenaican rebel leader Omar Mukhtar in chains after being captured by Italian authorities during the war. At the ceremony,
1017:, and the mass killing of civilians, while the Senussis were accused of torture and mutilation of captured Italians and refusal to take prisoners since the late 1910s. Italian authorities forcibly expelled 100,000
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as Emir of Cyrenaica and grant him autonomy. In 1922, Tripolitanian leaders offered Idris the position of Emir of Tripolitania; however, before Idris could accept the position, the new Italian government of
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In a carefully prepared and coordinated operation with ten differently composed columns, Graziani tried from 16 June 1930, to encircle and destroy the units of Omar Mukhtar. However, the Senussi
1094:, though the rest of the country remained under nominal Italian rule. Local resistance against Italy continued, such that by 1920, the Italian government was forced to recognize Senussi leader
1226:, cutting off the physical connection formerly held by the rebels between Cyrenaica and Tripolitania. By late 1928, the Italians had taken control of Ghibla, and its tribes were disarmed.
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in the Cyrenaican lowlands. Italian military authorities carried out the forced migration and deportation of the entire population of Jebel Akhdar in Cyrenaica, resulting in 100,000
160:(the man in traditional clothing with a chain on his left arm) after his arrest by Italian armed forces in 1931. Mukhtar was executed in a public hanging shortly afterward.
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estimated between 40,000 and 70,000 total Libyan dead due to forced deportations, starvation and disease inside the concentration camps, and hanging and executions.
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Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article.
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12,000 Cyrenaicans died in 1931 and all the nomadic peoples of northern Cyrenaica were forcefully removed from the region and relocated to huge
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between 40,000 and 70,000 deaths due to forced deportations, starvation and disease inside the concentration camps, and hanging and executions
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Since 1911, claims had been made of killings of Italian soldiers and civilians by Ottoman and local Muslim guerrillas, such as a slaughter in
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in 1912, but the new colony had swiftly revolted, transferring large swaths of territory to local Libyan rule. Conflict between Italy and the
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Mattioli, Aram (2004). "Die vergessenen Kolonialverbrechen des faschistischen Italien in Libyen 1923–1933.". In Fritz-Bauer-Institut (ed.).
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This article is about the conflict between Italian forces and indigenous rebels in 1923–1932. For the genocide of Libyans in 1929–1934, see
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in total of 31600 colonial troops and some 6000 Libyans who fought during the war and only 1900 Italian troops participated in the war.
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desert separating Tripolitania from Cyrenaica. Using aircraft, motor transport, and good logistical organization, the Italians
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by the spring of 1930, and suspects were hanged or shot in the back, with estimated thirty executions taking place daily.
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In 2008, Italy and Libya reached agreement on a document compensating Libya for damages caused by Italian colonial rule.
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Reports of these killings led to cries for retaliation and revenge in Italy, and in the early 1920s the rise to power of
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and other diseases spread rapidly in the camps as the people were physically weakened due to meagre food rations and
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Content in this edit is translated from the existing German Knowledge article at ]; see its history for attribution.
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practices were forbidden, Senussi estates were confiscated, and preparations were made for Italian conquest of the
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Colonial soldiers in Italian Counter-Insurgency Operations in Libya 1922-32- British Journal of Military History (
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Gooch, John (2005). "Re-conquest and Suppression: Fascist Italy's Pacification of Libya and Ethiopia, 1922–39".
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Cyrenaicans, half the population of Cyrenaica, from their settlements, many of which were then given to Italian
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Rochat, Giorgio (1986) . "The Repression of Resistance in Cyrenaica (1927–1931)". In Santarelli, Enzo (ed.).
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Ali Abdullatif Ahmida (2006). "When the Subaltern Speak: Memory of Genocide in Colonial Libya 1929 to 1933".
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Aram Mattioli, Experimentierfeld der Gewalt. Der Abessinienkrieg und seine internationale Bedeutung 1935–1941
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Grand, Alexander de (May 2004). "Mussolini's Follies: Fascism in Its Imperial and Racist Phase, 1935-1940".
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Adrian Gilbert. Encyclopedia of Warfare: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Routledge, 2000. P221.
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It is noteworthy to remember that most of Italian troops is composed of Italian colonial troops from
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were able to occupy 150,000 square kilometres (58,000 sq mi) of territory in five months
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where Senussi refugees were bombed and strafed by Italian aircraft as they fled into the desert.
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Cultures of Total Annihilation? German, Italian and Japanese Armies during the Second World War.
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Experimentierfeld der Gewalt. Der Abessinienkrieg und seine internationale Bedeutung 1935–1941
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Graziani as the new lieutenant governor of Cyrenaica at the suggestion of Colonial Minister
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Italien und Libyen in der Kolonialzeit: Faschistische Herrschaft und nationaler Widerstand.
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Die vergessenen Kolonialverbrechen des faschistischen Italien in Libyen 1923–1933.
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Melvin E. Page. Colonialism. Santa Barbara, California, USA: ABC-CLIO, 2003. P749.
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have to go to the end, even if the entire population of Cyrenaica should perish "
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region of Cyrenaica. The war led to the mass deaths of the indigenous people of
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1601:"Colonial Soldiers in Italian Counter-Insurgency Operations in Libya, 1922-32"
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Oasis, the last stronghold of the Senussi in Libya. In 1931, Italian forces
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Völkermord und Kriegsverbrechen in der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts.
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Italien und der Abessinienkrieg 1935/36. Kolonialkrieg oder Totaler Krieg?
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Völkermord und Kriegsverbrechen in der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts.
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Völkermord und Kriegsverbrechen in der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts
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Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 203–226, hier p. 15; Amedeo Osti Guerrazzi:
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to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary is
1083:. Conflict between the British and the Senussis continued until 1917.
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Ian F. W. Beckett. The Great War: 1914-1918. Routledge, 2013. P188.
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Mussolini’s War: Fascist Italy from Triumph to Collapse, 1935–1943.
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2554:(in Italian). Rome: Stato Maggiore dell'Esercito ufficio storico.
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Fascist Warfare, 1922–1945: Aggression, Occupation, Annihilation.
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The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7: c. 1905 – c. 1940
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1001:), but was most intense and prolonged in the mountainous
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The war began with Italian forces rapidly occupying the
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The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing
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Fighting took place in all three of Libya's provinces (
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In: Miguel Alonso, Alan Kramer, Javier Rodrigo (Hg.):
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Martino, Antonio de] [from old catalog (27 May 1911).
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Gaston Leroud, Matin Journal edition August 23, 1917
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based in Libya – erupted into major violence during
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Italy had seized military control of Libya from the
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between Italian military forces (composed mainly by
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The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796
2375:Genocide in Libya: Shar, a Hidden Colonial History
2272:Paderborn u. a. 2006, p. 150; Aram Mattioli:
2268:, p. 119–142, here Sp. 125; Giulia Brogini Künzi:
1322:, Mukhtar was wounded and then captured by Libyan
2075:. Milan: Edizioni Mondadori Le Scie. p. 313.
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741:Soviet–Czechoslovakia Treaty of Mutual Assistance
201:Defeat of the Cyrenaican and Tripolitanian rebels
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2499:Omar Al-Mukhtar: The Italian Reconquest of Libya
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2552:Libia 1922-1931 le operazioni militari italiane
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1929:Gerwarth, Robert; Manela, Erez (3 July 2014).
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1768:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 44–.
508:) and indigenous rebels associated with the
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1572:Mohamed Fekini and the Fight to Free Libya
1539:. New York: Houghton Mifflin. p. 497.
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2312:. St. Martin's Press, 1996. 1996 Pp. 129.
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1851:"Tripoli italiana, la guerra italo-turca"
1655:(New York: Roy Publishers, 1953), p. 126.
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735:Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance
3054:Genocide of indigenous peoples in Africa
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2372:Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif (6 August 2020).
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1955:
1916:
1863:
1556:
1534:
882:Hungarian invasion of Carpatho-Ukraine
204:Stabilization of Italian rule in Libya
2562:
2421:
2392:
2156:
2136:
2037:
1887:
1711:http://countrystudies.us/libya/21.htm
1455:
1722:
1605:British Journal for Military History
1497:Italian concentration camps in Libya
1492:Battle and massacre at Shar al-Shatt
1118:–– Gaston Leroud, correspondent for
1103:initiated a campaign of reconquest.
1015:execution of surrendering combatants
38:
1818:Benito Mussolini: the first fascist
876:German occupation of Czechoslovakia
24:
2550:Saini Fasanotti, Federica (2012).
2276:In: Fritz-Bauer-Institut (Hrsg.):
1625:Libyan Air Wars: Part 1: 1973-1985
858:Undeclared German–Czechoslovak War
25:
3100:
3039:African resistance to colonialism
2588:
1628:. Helion and Company. p. 5.
1575:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 5.
770:Remilitarization of the Rhineland
516:, was captured and executed. The
172:26 January 1923 – 24 January 1932
2923:Italian Libyan Colonial Division
2849:Muslim Association of the Lictor
2634:
2310:Libya: the struggle for survival
1665:Stewart, C. C. (1986). "Islam".
459:
452:
445:
436:
429:
419:
412:
405:
386:
379:
369:
354:
342:
331:
318:
301:
292:
281:
262:
250:
235:
150:
43:
2455:(in German). Frankfurt am Main.
2327:
2295:
2280:Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 218.
2239:
2228:, pp. 3, 26, 77 & 81;
2219:
2191:
2166:
2150:
2126:
2091:
2064:
1993:
1961:
1922:
1878:
1869:
1842:
1820:. Pearson Longman. p. 109.
1782:
1755:
1653:Oasis Kingdom: The Libyan Story
1067:– a Muslim political-religious
705:Nazis' rise to power in Germany
547:Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye
3084:Italy–Libya military relations
2999:Italian colonisation in Africa
2973:Royal Corps of Colonial Troops
2681:Allied administration of Libya
2334:Oxford Business Group (2008).
1971:. Zenith Imprint, 2003. p. 83.
1703:
1685:
1658:
1642:
1615:
1592:
1543:
1366:Deportations and death marches
1318:On September 1931, during the
669:Japanese invasion of Manchuria
526:Events leading to World War II
108:You may also add the template
13:
1:
2882:Giovanni Innocenzo Martinelli
2794:Tripoli-Castel Benito Airport
2656:Italian colonization of Libya
2395:Contemporary European History
1709:The Second Italo-Senussi War
1517:
1397:
1028:
888:German ultimatum to Lithuania
834:Polish ultimatum to Lithuania
494:Italian colonization of Libya
27:Conflict in Libya (1923–1932)
2524:. Kent, England: Croom Helm.
2424:Journal of Strategic Studies
1816:Cardoza, Anthony L. (2006).
1535:Duggan, Christopher (2007).
1431:
788:Italo-German "Axis" protocol
753:Anglo-German Naval Agreement
7:
3079:Italian war crimes in Libya
2727:Southern Military Territory
2691:Italian refugees from Libya
1762:John Gooch (19 June 2014).
1475:
1466:, and the 1981 Libyan film
918:Italian invasion of Albania
912:British guarantee to Poland
10:
3105:
3049:Ethnic cleansing in Africa
2824:Tripoli International Fair
2501:. London. pp. 35–116.
2365:
1967:David Miller, Chris Foss.
1795:. OUP Oxford. p. 17.
1569:; Anthony Shugaar (2011).
1502:Second Italo-Ethiopian War
1401:
1334:
1141:
1032:
764:Second Italo-Ethiopian War
488:, also referred to as the
72:Machine translation, like
31:
2915:
2789:Railway stations in Libya
2735:
2699:
2643:
2632:
2596:
2436:10.1080/01402390500441024
2407:10.1017/S0960777304001602
2071:Domenico Quirico (2002).
1945:– via Google Books.
1932:Empires at War: 1911-1923
1792:Empires at War: 1911-1923
1442:Libya's ruler at the time
1039:Italian invasion of Libya
693:Defense of the Great Wall
675:Pacification of Manchukuo
469:
451:Mohammed ben Hassel
311:
226:
164:
149:
141:
136:
58:the corresponding article
3089:Second Italo-Senussi War
3044:Violence against Muslims
2666:Second Italo-Senussi War
2112:10.1179/007516306X142924
812:Second Sino-Japanese War
776:Arab revolt in Palestine
723:Inner Mongolian Campaign
624:Second Italo-Senussi War
486:Second Italo-Senussi War
137:Second Italo-Senussi War
2878:Pidgin Italian of Libya
2671:Western Desert campaign
2522:Libya: A Modern History
2474:Mattioli, Aram (2005).
1487:Pacification of Algeria
1460:The 1936 Italian movie
942:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact
936:Battles of Khalkhin Gol
119:For more guidance, see
2948:Italian African Police
2844:Sciara Sciatt massacre
2784:Italian Libya Railways
2676:North African campaign
2336:The Report: Libya 2008
1723:Mann, Michael (2006).
1446:Italian Prime Minister
1387:
1320:Battle of Uadi Bu Taga
1215:
1203:
1188:
1171:
1158:
1146:
1132:National Fascist Party
1124:
1092:Tripolitanian Republic
610:Occupation of the Ruhr
592:Franco-Polish alliance
312:Commanders and leaders
2529:Wright, John (2012).
2520:Wright, John (1983).
2180:Hamburg 1995, S. 78;
2135:, pp. 59 a. 79;
1373:
1234:were met with strong
1209:
1194:
1177:
1164:
1154:
1112:
1033:Further information:
846:Battle of Lake Khasan
759:December 9th Movement
559:Polish–Lithuanian War
490:Pacification of Libya
470:Casualties and losses
156:Senussi rebel leader
121:Knowledge:Translation
92:copyright attribution
18:Pacification of Libya
3074:Wars involving Italy
2864:Auto-Saharan Company
2748:Italian Tripolitania
2322:Saini Fasanotti 2012
2260:Palgrave Macmillan,
1697:www.regioesercito.it
1599:Nir Arielli (2015).
1047:Italian Tripolitania
894:Slovak–Hungarian War
541:Treaty of Versailles
478:40,000–70,000 deaths
298:Tripolitanian rebels
182:Italian Tripolitania
3064:Mass murder in 1932
3059:Mass murder in 1923
2933:2nd Libyan Division
2928:1st Libyan Division
2777:Fascist imperialism
2184:, pp. 45, 47;
2172:Abdulhakim Nagiah:
2073:Lo squadrone bianco
1649:Nina Consuelo Epton
1482:Battles for Murzuch
1463:Lo squadrone bianco
1273:concentration camps
1238:resistance, led by
926:Apr.–Aug. 1939
908:Mar.–Aug. 1939
902:Mar.–Apr. 1939
848:July–Aug. 1938
794:Anti-Comintern Pact
681:January 28 incident
411:Fadil Bu Umar
2819:Tripoli Grand Prix
2814:Arch of the Fileni
2809:Via della Vittoria
2532:A History of Libya
2354:has generic name (
1469:Lion of the Desert
1456:In popular culture
1257:Italian Somaliland
1255:, as well as from
1230:forested hills of
1216:
1204:
1189:
1172:
1165:Omar Mukhtar with
1159:
948:Invasion of Poland
938:May–Sep. 1939
870:First Vienna Award
747:He–Umezu Agreement
269:Italian Somaliland
100:interlanguage link
2981:
2980:
2854:Arab Lictor Youth
2839:Italo-Turkish War
2760:Italian Cyrenaica
2717:Benghazi Province
2712:Misurata Province
2651:Italo-Turkish War
2542:978-1-84904-227-7
2385:978-1-000-16936-2
2266:978-3-030-27647-8
2188:, pp. 138 ff
1958:, pp. 32–33.
1942:978-0-19-100694-4
1802:978-0-19-100694-4
1775:978-0-521-19307-8
1681:on 6 August 2017.
1553:o. O. 2020, S. 9.
1507:Italo-Turkish War
1449:Silvio Berlusconi
1061:Italo-Turkish War
1051:Italian Cyrenaica
1035:Italo-Turkish War
987:
986:
782:Spanish Civil War
717:Italo-Soviet Pact
687:Geneva Conference
586:Treaty of Rapallo
580:Treaty of Trianon
553:Polish–Soviet War
482:
481:
222:
221:
186:Italian Cyrenaica
132:
131:
65:
16:(Redirected from
3096:
2943:Ascari del Cielo
2887:Adriano Visconti
2799:Italian Benghazi
2743:Italian settlers
2736:Related articles
2707:Tripoli Province
2638:
2611:Rodolfo Graziani
2583:
2576:
2569:
2560:
2559:
2555:
2546:
2525:
2516:
2510:
2502:
2493:
2487:
2479:
2470:
2464:
2456:
2447:
2430:(6): 1005–1032.
2418:
2389:
2360:
2359:
2353:
2349:
2347:
2339:
2331:
2325:
2319:
2313:
2299:
2293:
2287:
2281:
2243:
2237:
2223:
2217:
2211:
2205:
2204:, pp. 69 ff
2195:
2189:
2170:
2164:
2159:, p. 1019;
2154:
2148:
2139:, p. 1017;
2130:
2124:
2123:
2095:
2089:
2088:, pp. 35–36
2083:
2077:
2076:
2068:
2062:
2056:
2041:
2035:
2026:
2020:
2003:
1997:
1991:
1985:
1972:
1965:
1959:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1926:
1920:
1914:
1903:
1900:
1885:
1882:
1876:
1873:
1867:
1861:
1855:
1854:
1846:
1840:
1839:
1831:
1822:
1821:
1813:
1807:
1806:
1786:
1780:
1779:
1759:
1753:
1750:
1741:
1740:
1720:
1714:
1707:
1701:
1700:
1689:
1683:
1682:
1680:
1673:
1662:
1656:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1619:
1613:
1612:
1596:
1590:
1589:
1563:
1554:
1547:
1541:
1540:
1532:
1410:chemical weapons
1385:
1130:, leader of the
1128:Benito Mussolini
1101:Benito Mussolini
1088:Treaty of Acroma
1043:Senussi campaign
1011:chemical weapons
979:
972:
965:
864:Munich Agreement
800:Suiyuan campaign
648:Great Depression
636:Locarno Treaties
523:
522:
464:
463:
462:
456:
450:
449:
448:
441:
440:
439:
433:
424:
423:
422:
416:
410:
409:
408:
401:
391:
390:
389:
383:
374:
373:
372:
361:Rodolfo Graziani
359:
358:
347:
346:
336:
335:
325:Benito Mussolini
323:
322:
306:
305:
304:
297:
296:
295:
286:
285:
284:
267:
266:
265:
255:
254:
253:
245:
241:
239:
238:
197:Italian victory
166:
165:
154:
134:
133:
111:
105:
78:Google Translate
63:
47:
46:
39:
21:
3104:
3103:
3099:
3098:
3097:
3095:
3094:
3093:
3069:Senussi dynasty
3034:1930s conflicts
3029:1920s conflicts
2994:Interwar period
2984:
2983:
2982:
2977:
2916:Colonial troops
2911:
2907:Lorenzo Bandini
2902:Franco Califano
2897:Claudio Gentile
2892:Rossana PodestĂ
2731:
2695:
2644:General History
2639:
2630:
2616:Italo Gariboldi
2592:
2587:
2543:
2504:
2503:
2481:
2480:
2458:
2457:
2386:
2368:
2363:
2351:
2350:
2341:
2340:
2332:
2328:
2320:
2316:
2300:
2296:
2288:
2284:
2244:
2240:
2230:Mattioli (2005)
2224:
2220:
2212:
2208:
2196:
2192:
2171:
2167:
2155:
2151:
2143:, p. 215;
2131:
2127:
2100:Italian Studies
2096:
2092:
2084:
2080:
2069:
2065:
2057:
2044:
2036:
2029:
2021:
2006:
1998:
1994:
1986:
1975:
1966:
1962:
1954:
1950:
1943:
1927:
1923:
1915:
1906:
1901:
1888:
1883:
1879:
1874:
1870:
1862:
1858:
1847:
1843:
1832:
1825:
1814:
1810:
1803:
1787:
1783:
1776:
1760:
1756:
1751:
1744:
1737:
1721:
1717:
1708:
1704:
1691:
1690:
1686:
1678:
1671:
1663:
1659:
1647:
1643:
1636:
1620:
1616:
1597:
1593:
1583:
1567:Angelo Del Boca
1564:
1557:
1548:
1544:
1533:
1524:
1520:
1478:
1458:
1438:Muammar Gaddafi
1434:
1422:Angelo Del Boca
1406:
1404:Libyan genocide
1400:
1386:
1383:
1378:Mattioli (2005)
1368:
1339:
1337:Libyan genocide
1333:
1265:Pietro Badoglio
1253:Italian Eritrea
1210:Inmates at the
1149:
1144:
1053:
1031:
983:
954:
953:
814: 1937–1945
784: 1936–1939
778: 1936–1939
766: 1935–1936
725: 1933–1936
689: 1932–1934
677: 1931–1942
664:
663:
654:
653:
626: 1923–1932
612: 1923–1925
575:
574:
565:
564:
561: 1919–1920
555: 1919–1920
536:
535:
518:Libyan genocide
514:Omar al-Mukhtar
498:colonial troops
460:
458:
457:
446:
444:
443:
437:
435:
434:
420:
418:
417:
406:
404:
403:
397:
387:
385:
384:
376:Omar al-Mukhtar
370:
368:
365:
353:
349:Pietro Badoglio
341:
340:
330:
317:
302:
300:
299:
293:
291:
290:
282:
280:
263:
261:
257:Italian Eritrea
251:
249:
236:
234:
215:Omar al-Mukhtar
208:Libyan genocide
188:
158:Omar al-Mukhtar
155:
144:interwar period
128:
127:
126:
109:
103:
66:
48:
44:
37:
34:Libyan genocide
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3102:
3092:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3024:1930s in Libya
3021:
3019:1920s in Libya
3016:
3014:1930s in Italy
3011:
3009:1920s in Italy
3006:
3001:
2996:
2979:
2978:
2976:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2919:
2917:
2913:
2912:
2910:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2894:
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2884:
2879:
2876:
2874:Postage stamps
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2780:
2779:
2772:Italian Empire
2769:
2768:
2767:
2757:
2756:
2755:
2745:
2739:
2737:
2733:
2732:
2730:
2729:
2724:
2722:Derna Province
2719:
2714:
2709:
2703:
2701:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2647:
2645:
2641:
2640:
2633:
2631:
2629:
2628:
2626:Giovanni Messe
2623:
2621:Ettore Bastico
2618:
2613:
2608:
2602:
2600:
2594:
2593:
2586:
2585:
2578:
2571:
2563:
2557:
2556:
2547:
2541:
2526:
2517:
2494:
2471:
2448:
2419:
2401:(2): 127–147.
2390:
2384:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2361:
2326:
2324:, p. 272.
2314:
2294:
2282:
2238:
2232:, p. 49;
2218:
2206:
2200:, p. 49;
2190:
2165:
2149:
2125:
2106:(2): 175–190.
2090:
2078:
2063:
2042:
2027:
2004:
1992:
1973:
1960:
1948:
1941:
1935:. OUP Oxford.
1921:
1904:
1886:
1877:
1868:
1856:
1841:
1823:
1808:
1801:
1781:
1774:
1754:
1742:
1735:
1715:
1702:
1684:
1657:
1641:
1634:
1614:
1591:
1581:
1555:
1542:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1515:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1477:
1474:
1457:
1454:
1433:
1430:
1402:Main article:
1399:
1396:
1381:
1367:
1364:
1344:Emilio De Bono
1335:Main article:
1332:
1329:
1185:Amedeo D'aosta
1148:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1136:Italian Empire
1077:British forces
1057:Ottoman Empire
1030:
1027:
985:
984:
982:
981:
974:
967:
959:
956:
955:
952:
951:
950:Sep. 1939
945:
944:Aug. 1939
939:
933:
927:
921:
920:Apr. 1939
915:
914:Mar. 1939
909:
903:
897:
896:Mar. 1939
891:
890:Mar. 1939
885:
884:Mar. 1939
879:
878:Mar. 1939
873:
872:Nov. 1938
867:
866:Sep. 1938
861:
860:Sep. 1938
855:
854:Aug. 1938
852:Bled Agreement
849:
843:
837:
836:Mar. 1938
831:
830:Mar. 1938
825:
815:
809:
806:Xi'an Incident
803:
797:
791:
785:
779:
773:
767:
761:
756:
750:
744:
738:
732:
726:
720:
714:
708:
702:
699:Battle of Rehe
696:
690:
684:
678:
672:
665:
661:
660:
659:
656:
655:
652:
651:
645:
639:
633:
627:
621:
613:
607:
604:Corfu incident
601:
595:
589:
583:
576:
572:
571:
570:
567:
566:
563:
562:
556:
550:
544:
537:
533:
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531:
528:
527:
480:
479:
476:
472:
471:
467:
466:
465:Seif en Nasser
366:
364:
363:
351:
338:Emilio De Bono
327:
314:
313:
309:
308:
278:
277:
276:
271:
259:
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224:
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84:
81:
70:
67:
53:
52:
51:
49:
42:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3101:
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3042:
3040:
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3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3004:Italian Libya
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2991:
2989:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2938:Maletti Group
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
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2918:
2914:
2908:
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2847:
2845:
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2837:
2835:
2834:Frontier Wire
2832:
2830:
2829:Imperial Line
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
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2661:Italian Libya
2659:
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2590:Italian Libya
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2378:. Routledge.
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2357:
2352:|author=
2345:
2338:. p. 17.
2337:
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2323:
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2307:
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2298:
2292:, p. 77.
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2259:
2255:
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2216:, p. 71.
2215:
2210:
2203:
2199:
2198:Mattioli 2005
2194:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2169:
2163:, p. 217
2162:
2161:Mattioli 2004
2158:
2153:
2147:, p. 150
2146:
2142:
2141:Mattioli 2004
2138:
2134:
2129:
2121:
2117:
2113:
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2105:
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2094:
2087:
2082:
2074:
2067:
2061:, p. 496
2060:
2055:
2053:
2051:
2049:
2047:
2040:, p. 131
2039:
2034:
2032:
2024:
2019:
2017:
2015:
2013:
2011:
2009:
2001:
1996:
1989:
1984:
1982:
1980:
1978:
1970:
1964:
1957:
1952:
1944:
1938:
1934:
1933:
1925:
1918:
1913:
1911:
1909:
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1872:
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1713:retrvd 2-1-20
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1120:Matin-Journal
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906:Danzig Crisis
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598:March on Rome
596:
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511:
510:Senussi Order
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
477:
474:
473:
468:
455:
442:Salem en Nebi
432:
427:
415:
402:
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394:
393:Yusuf Burahil
382:
377:
367:
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352:
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334:
329:
328:
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307:Fezzan rebels
289:
288:Senussi Order
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274:Italian Libya
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71:
69:
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61:
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54:You can help
50:
41:
40:
35:
30:
19:
2869:Fourth Shore
2859:Fort Capuzzo
2665:
2551:
2531:
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2498:
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2427:
2423:
2398:
2394:
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2317:
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2302:Geoff Simons
2297:
2285:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2241:
2236:, p. 99
2221:
2209:
2193:
2177:
2173:
2168:
2152:
2128:
2103:
2099:
2093:
2081:
2072:
2066:
2025:, p. 35
1995:
1990:, p. 34
1968:
1963:
1951:
1931:
1924:
1919:, p. 33
1880:
1871:
1859:
1844:
1835:
1817:
1811:
1791:
1784:
1764:
1757:
1725:
1718:
1705:
1696:
1687:
1676:the original
1667:
1660:
1652:
1644:
1624:
1617:
1608:
1604:
1594:
1586:
1571:
1550:
1549:John Gooch:
1545:
1536:
1467:
1461:
1459:
1435:
1426:
1414:Knud Holmboe
1407:
1392:
1388:
1374:
1369:
1358:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1340:
1317:
1313:seized Kufra
1293:
1270:
1261:
1250:
1246:Omar Mukhtar
1232:Jebel Akhtar
1228:
1217:
1178:
1166:
1125:
1119:
1114:
1113:
1108:Sciara Sciat
1105:
1085:
1054:
1003:Jebel Akhdar
991:Tripolitania
988:
819:
711:Tanggu Truce
623:
615:
500:from Libya,
489:
485:
483:
475:2,582 deaths
426:Omar Shegewi
398:
232:
227:Belligerents
196:
142:Part of the
96:edit summary
87:
55:
29:
2606:Italo Balbo
2306:Tam Dalyell
2290:Ahmida 2020
2246:Ahmida 2020
2234:Rochat 1986
2226:Ahmida 2020
2214:Rochat 1986
2202:Rochat 1986
2186:Wright 2012
2182:Rochat 1986
2145:Wright 2012
2133:Ahmida 2020
2086:Wright 1983
2059:Duggan 2007
2023:Wright 1983
1988:Wright 1983
1956:Wright 1983
1917:Wright 1983
1864:Wright 1983
1611:(2): 47–66.
1418:mustard gas
1096:Sayid Idris
1073:World War I
1059:during the
662: 1930s
573: 1920s
534: 1910s
2988:Categories
2804:Via Balbia
2157:Gooch 2005
2137:Gooch 2005
2038:Grand 2004
1518:References
1398:War crimes
1200:light tank
1029:Background
840:May Crisis
824: 1937
808: 1936
802: 1936
796: 1936
790: 1936
772: 1936
755: 1935
749: 1935
743: 1935
737: 1935
731: 1934
719: 1933
713: 1933
707: 1933
701: 1933
695: 1933
683: 1932
671: 1931
650: 1929
644: 1929
642:Young Plan
638: 1925
632: 1924
630:Dawes Plan
620: 1925
617:Mein Kampf
606: 1923
600: 1922
594: 1921
588: 1920
582: 1920
549: 1919
543: 1919
2765:Governors
2753:Governors
2700:Provinces
2598:Governors
2535:. Hurst.
2507:cite book
2484:cite book
2478:. ZĂĽrich.
2461:cite book
2444:153977503
2415:154458385
2344:cite book
2120:161690236
1432:Aftermath
1236:guerrilla
1197:Fiat 3000
1180:Meharists
1168:Mujahidin
1007:Cyrenaica
999:Cyrenaica
828:Anschluss
114:talk page
60:in German
1476:See also
1382:—
1281:Benghazi
1277:Bedouins
1065:Senussis
1023:settlers
822:incident
177:Location
90:provide
2366:Sources
1512:Jaghbub
1324:Savaris
1305:Senussi
1301:mosques
1240:Senussi
1183:led by
1142:History
1019:Bedouin
506:Somalia
502:Eritrea
399:†
112:to the
94:in the
2968:Spahis
2963:Savari
2958:Zaptié
2539:
2442:
2413:
2382:
2264:
2118:
1939:
1799:
1772:
1733:
1632:
1579:
1359:adwar
1297:zawias
1285:Typhus
1243:sheikh
1122:(1917)
1069:tariqa
1049:, and
997:, and
995:Fezzan
504:, and
428:
395:
378:
240:
193:Result
2953:Bands
2440:S2CID
2411:S2CID
2116:S2CID
1679:(PDF)
1672:(PDF)
1309:Kufra
1220:Sirte
1081:Egypt
820:Panay
243:Italy
74:DeepL
2537:ISBN
2513:link
2490:link
2467:link
2380:ISBN
2356:help
2262:ISBN
1937:ISBN
1797:ISBN
1770:ISBN
1731:ISBN
1630:ISBN
1577:ISBN
1299:and
1195:The
818:USS
484:The
169:Date
88:must
86:You
2432:doi
2403:doi
2108:doi
1147:War
76:or
62:.
2990::
2509:}}
2505:{{
2486:}}
2482:{{
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2459:{{
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2428:28
2426:.
2409:.
2399:13
2397:.
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2346:}}
2342:{{
2304:,
2114:.
2104:61
2102:.
2045:^
2030:^
2007:^
1976:^
1907:^
1889:^
1826:^
1745:^
1695:.
1651:,
1607:.
1603:.
1585:.
1558:^
1525:^
1440:,
1248:.
1110::
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1037:,
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1778:.
1739:.
1699:.
1638:.
1609:1
1214:.
978:e
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20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
