144:. Of these three, chlorophyll will probably yield the most accurate measures, as it is the most accurate predictor of biomass. Phosphorus may be a more accurate estimation of a water body's summer trophic status than chlorophyll if the measurements are made during the winter. Finally, the Secchi depth is probably the least accurate measure, but also the most affordable and expedient one. Consequently, citizen monitoring programs and other volunteer or large-scale surveys will often use the Secchi depth. By translating the Secchi transparency values to a log base 2 scale, each successive doubling of biomass is represented as a whole integer index number. The Secchi depth, which measures water transparency, indicates the concentration of dissolved and particulate material in the water, which in turn can be used to derive the biomass. This relationship is expressed in the following equation:
2023:
444:
2719:
31:
2745:
2733:
575:
2351:
591:
aquatic plants dominate, the water tends to be clear. When algae dominate, the water tends to be darker. The algae engage in photosynthesis which supplies oxygen to the fish and biota which inhabit these waters. Occasionally, an excessive algal bloom will occur and can ultimately result in fish death, due to respiration by algae and bottom-living bacteria. The process of
687:
Although there is no absolute consensus as to which nutrients contribute the most to increasing primary productivity, phosphorus concentration is thought to be the main limiting factor in freshwater lakes. This is likely due to the prevalence of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms in these systems, which
119:
in a given water body at the time of measurement. Because they are of public concern, the
Carlson index uses the algal biomass as an objective classifier of a lake or other water body's trophic status. According to the US EPA, the Carlson Index should only be used with lakes that have relatively few
696:
In some coastal marine ecosystems, research has found nitrogen to be the key limiting nutrient, driving primary production independently of phosphorus. Nitrogen fixation cannot adequately supply these marine ecosystems, because the nitrogen fixing microbes are themselves limited by the availability
590:
A eutrophic water body, commonly a lake or pond, has high biological productivity. Due to excessive nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, these water bodies are able to support an abundance of aquatic plants. Usually, the water body will be dominated either by aquatic plants or algae. When
430:
and are relatively clear, while eutrophic lakes tend to host large quantities of organisms, including algal blooms. Each trophic class supports different types of fish and other organisms, as well. If the algal biomass in a lake or other water body reaches too high a concentration (say >80 TSI),
710:
Often, the desired trophic index differs between stakeholders. Water-fowl enthusiasts (e.g. duck hunters) may want a lake to be eutrophic so that it will support a large population of waterfowl. Residents, though, may want the same lake to be oligotrophic, as this is more pleasant for swimming and
509:
Generally, in a holomictic lake, during the fall, the cooling of the epilimnion reduces lake stratification, thereby allowing for mixing to occur. Winds aid in this process. Thus it is the deep mixing of lakes (which occurs most often during the fall and early winter, in holomictic lakes of the
701:
like sunlight and dissolved oxygen. However, marine ecosystems are too broad a range of environments for one nutrient to limit all marine primary productivity. The limiting nutrient may vary in different marine environments according to a variety of factors like depth, distance from shore, or
242:
107:
Carlson's index was proposed by Robert
Carlson in his 1977 seminal paper, "A trophic state index for lakes". It is one of the more commonly used trophic indices and is the trophic index used by the
1642:
Hassler, C. S.; Ridgway, K. R.; Bowie, A. R.; Butler, E. C. V.; Clementson, L. A.; Doblin, M. A.; Davies, D. M.; Law, C.; Ralph, P. J.; Merwe, P. van der; Watson, R.; Ellwood, M. J. (2014-05-07).
552:
Mesotrophic lakes are lakes with an intermediate level of productivity. These lakes are commonly clear water lakes and ponds with beds of submerged aquatic plants and medium levels of nutrients.
476:
deficiency. (This contrasts against eutrophic lakes, which are highly productive due to an ample supply of nutrients, as can arise from human activities such as agriculture in the watershed.)
945:
Sánchez-España, Javier; Mata, M. Pilar; Vegas, Juana; Morellón, Mario; Rodríguez, Juan
Antonio; Salazar, Ángel; Yusta, Iñaki; Chaos, Aida; Pérez-Martínez, Carmen; Navas, Ana (2017-12-01).
2182:
2674:
521:
down to the depth to which the aforementioned seasonal mixing occurs, but they will be oxygen deficient below this depth. Therefore, oligotrophic lakes often support
150:
640:
The excessive algal blooms can also significantly reduce oxygen levels and prevent life from functioning at lower depths creating dead zones beneath the surface.
711:
boating. Natural resource agencies are generally responsible for reconciling these conflicting uses and determining what a water body's trophic index should be.
2177:
1300:
Schindler, David W.; Hecky, R. E.; Findlay, D. L.; Stainton, M. P.; Parker, B. R.; Paterson, M. J.; Beaty, K. G.; Lyng, M.; Kasian, S. E. M. (2008-08-12).
1419:"Biological Nitrogen Fixation Prevents the Response of a Eutrophic Lake to Reduced Loading of Nitrogen: Evidence from a 46-Year Whole-Lake Experiment"
629:
and low transparency. Hypereutrophic lakes have a visibility depth of less than 3 feet (90 cm), they have greater than 40 micrograms/litre total
91:, and other biologically useful nutrients are the primary determinants of a water body's TSI. Nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus tend to be
2207:
3528:
2781:
95:
in standing water bodies, so increased concentrations tend to result in increased plant growth, followed by corollary increases in subsequent
108:
1699:
3672:
2047:
1417:
Higgins, Scott N.; Paterson, Michael J.; Hecky, Robert E.; Schindler, David W.; Venkiteswaran, Jason J.; Findlay, David L. (2018-09-01).
3742:
1792:
540:
Anoxia is more common in the hypolimnion during the summer when mixing does not occur. In the absence of oxygen from the epilimnion,
3314:
2022:
537:
volume. Hypolimnetic volumes that are anoxic will result in fish congregating in areas where oxygen is sufficient for their needs.
3279:
761:
2197:
1982:
1032:
3752:
3480:
918:
667:
factors can influence a lake or other water body's trophic index. A water body situated in a nutrient-rich region with high
3757:
2212:
56:
The TSI of a water body is rated on a scale from zero to one hundred. Under the TSI scale, water bodies may be defined as:
1302:"Eutrophication of lakes cannot be controlled by reducing nitrogen input: Results of a 37-year whole-ecosystem experiment"
3945:
2310:
2172:
334:
Relationships between
Trophic State Index, chlorophyll, phosphorus, Secchi depth, and trophic class (after Carlson 1996)
3698:
3521:
3362:
2774:
99:. Consequently, trophic index may sometimes be used to make a rough estimate of biological condition of water bodies.
3034:
2202:
53:
they sustain. Although the term "trophic index" is commonly applied to lakes, any surface water body may be indexed.
17:
1837:
1692:
3495:
3777:
3490:
3357:
3069:
1233:
Toor, Gurpal S.; Occhipinti, Marti L.; Yang, Yun-Ya; Majcherek, Tammy; Haver, Darren; Oki, Lorence (2017-06-12).
664:
596:
625:
Hypertrophic or hypereutrophic lakes are very nutrient-rich lakes characterized by frequent and severe nuisance
4338:
4162:
4035:
2664:
1047:"Influence of episodic wind events on thermal stratification and bottom water hypoxia in a Great Lakes estuary"
555:
The term mesotrophic is also applied to terrestrial habitats. Mesotrophic soils have moderate nutrient levels.
1235:"Managing urban runoff in residential neighborhoods: Nitrogen and phosphorus in lawn irrigation driven runoff"
4208:
3807:
3762:
3514:
2767:
1537:"Nutrient limitation of phytoplankton growth in the freshwater tidal zone of a turbid, Mediterranean estuary"
811:
443:
3294:
3640:
2684:
2669:
780:
Note that this use of trophic levels refers to feeding dynamics, and has a much different meaning than the
34:
1644:"Primary productivity induced by iron and nitrogen in the Tasman Sea: an overview of the PINTS expedition"
1121:"Global environmental impacts of agricultural expansion: The need for sustainable and efficient practices"
3997:
2888:
2679:
1685:
530:
479:
Oligotrophic lakes are most common in cold, sparsely developed regions that are underlain by crystalline
329:(also "hypertrophic"). The table below demonstrates how the index values translate into trophic classes.
1535:
Domingues, Rita B.; Anselmo, Tânia P.; Barbosa, Ana B.; Sommer, Ulrich; Galvão, Helena M. (2011-01-20).
128:
Because they tend to correlate, three independent variables can be used to calculate the
Carlson Index:
4062:
3782:
3269:
2986:
2883:
1987:
1536:
1187:
4243:
3855:
3747:
3605:
3590:
3585:
3264:
2976:
2295:
2189:
946:
730:
2759:
1188:"Evidence of sewage-driven eutrophication and harmful algal blooms in Florida's Indian River Lagoon"
994:"Effects of climate change on thermal properties of lakes and reservoirs, and possible implications"
4343:
4333:
4233:
4228:
4198:
4002:
3465:
3347:
2748:
2541:
2536:
1832:
668:
3506:
3137:
502:, whereas lakes that do not have interlayer mixing are permanently stratified and thus are termed
4077:
3940:
3850:
3718:
3600:
3570:
3427:
3392:
3112:
3079:
3054:
2449:
2260:
2154:
1882:
1872:
237:{\displaystyle \left({\frac {1}{z}}\right)\left(\ln {\frac {I_{0}}{I_{z}}}\right)=k_{w}+\alpha C}
50:
4223:
4167:
4102:
3965:
3900:
3835:
3397:
3185:
2893:
2873:
2275:
2265:
1967:
1952:
947:"Anthropogenic and climatic factors enhancing hypolimnetic anoxia in a temperate mountain lake"
892:
Carlson R.E. and J. Simpson (1996) A Coordinator's Guide to
Volunteer Lake Monitoring Methods.
4127:
4072:
3935:
3920:
3703:
3660:
3650:
3645:
3402:
3382:
3238:
3228:
3170:
3165:
3001:
2853:
2694:
2621:
2556:
2421:
2396:
2371:
2255:
2002:
1782:
675:
such as agricultural runoff, residential fertilisers, and sewage will all increase the algal
1473:
1186:
Lapointe, Brian E.; Herren, Laura W.; Debortoli, David D.; Vogel, Margaret A. (2015-03-01).
4253:
4218:
4213:
4137:
4132:
4087:
3985:
3955:
3950:
3802:
3665:
3655:
3200:
3039:
2828:
2429:
2391:
1722:
1598:
1548:
1485:
1430:
1372:
1361:"Response of Reservoir Water Quality to Nutrient Inputs from Streams and In-Lake Fishfarms"
1246:
1199:
1132:
1058:
958:
469:
8:
4303:
4278:
4142:
4112:
4057:
3970:
3860:
3845:
3792:
3625:
3560:
3372:
3304:
2903:
2651:
2305:
2072:
1842:
1802:
750:
79:(TSI 60–100, having the highest amount of biological productivity, "poor" water quality).
69:(TSI 40–60, having a moderate level of biological productivity, "fair" water quality); or
1602:
1552:
1489:
1434:
1376:
1250:
1203:
1136:
1062:
962:
842:
4353:
4314:
4263:
4258:
4067:
4030:
3772:
3728:
3693:
3550:
3475:
3377:
3309:
3299:
3233:
3180:
2991:
2936:
2898:
2823:
2571:
2566:
2434:
2376:
2270:
2119:
2037:
1922:
1902:
1812:
1755:
1624:
1517:
1454:
1396:
1336:
1301:
1277:
1234:
1084:
647:
to occur, which is a decrease in the concentration of a pollutant with an increase in
4203:
4172:
3960:
3787:
3595:
3460:
3437:
3175:
2951:
2863:
2848:
2833:
2813:
2581:
2459:
2406:
2325:
1992:
1957:
1897:
1857:
1827:
1797:
1708:
1663:
1628:
1616:
1564:
1509:
1501:
1458:
1446:
1400:
1388:
1341:
1323:
1282:
1264:
1215:
1168:
1163:
1150:
1120:
1088:
1076:
1015:
974:
924:
914:
720:
698:
676:
672:
116:
92:
63:(TSI 0–40, having the least amount of biological productivity, "good" water quality);
4157:
4020:
4012:
3930:
3812:
3797:
3733:
3713:
3630:
3620:
3615:
3580:
3412:
3352:
3223:
3024:
2966:
2878:
2838:
2689:
2381:
2285:
2237:
2149:
2042:
1740:
1655:
1606:
1556:
1521:
1493:
1438:
1380:
1331:
1313:
1272:
1254:
1207:
1158:
1140:
1102:
1066:
1005:
966:
652:
533:
waters. The oxygen content of these lakes is a function of their seasonally mixed
300:
is the concentration of particulate matter in units for milligrams per cubic meter.
1611:
1586:
1497:
970:
49:) is a classification system designed to rate water bodies based on the amount of
4293:
4152:
4122:
4117:
4107:
4040:
4025:
3905:
3885:
3767:
3635:
3541:
3432:
3342:
3284:
2868:
2794:
2659:
2626:
2487:
2439:
2315:
2290:
2099:
2052:
1977:
1822:
1807:
1259:
503:
499:
451:
447:
30:
498:
Lakes that have intermixing of their layers are classified into the category of
288:
is a coefficient for the attenuation of light by water and dissolved substances,
4348:
4273:
4097:
4050:
3980:
3975:
3870:
3737:
3610:
3417:
3407:
3387:
3190:
3155:
3094:
2971:
2926:
2818:
2523:
2477:
2472:
2444:
2411:
2280:
2139:
2067:
2057:
1907:
1852:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1560:
1106:
1071:
1046:
740:
725:
603:
592:
569:
492:
1442:
1384:
1211:
1010:
993:
911:
Freshwater ecology : concepts and environmental applications of limnology
4327:
4298:
3274:
3248:
3205:
3195:
3150:
3117:
3009:
2843:
2798:
2737:
2631:
2596:
2497:
2492:
2467:
1997:
1962:
1937:
1787:
1750:
1667:
1620:
1568:
1505:
1450:
1392:
1327:
1268:
1219:
1154:
1080:
1019:
978:
928:
756:
745:
648:
541:
427:
96:
1474:"Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Eutrophication in the Coastal Marine Environment"
1418:
1318:
1145:
904:
902:
4283:
4268:
3925:
3895:
3840:
3723:
3688:
3565:
3064:
2723:
2502:
2482:
2386:
2124:
2007:
1927:
1887:
1877:
1847:
1345:
1286:
1172:
626:
432:
140:
1643:
1513:
1360:
294:
is treated as a constant with the units of square meters per milligram and
3575:
3122:
3084:
3059:
3049:
3014:
2961:
2941:
2636:
2611:
2606:
2576:
2359:
2335:
2300:
2109:
2012:
1932:
1892:
1745:
899:
735:
644:
630:
534:
130:
309:
A lake is usually classified as being in one of three possible classes:
4288:
3865:
3830:
3470:
3422:
3367:
3337:
3243:
3160:
3104:
2981:
2931:
2616:
2551:
2340:
2320:
2104:
2077:
1862:
1775:
809:
634:
526:
511:
491:
production, these lakes consequently have very clear waters, with high
465:
88:
2732:
992:
Sahoo, G. B.; Schladow, S. G.; Reuter, J. E.; Coats, R. (2010-07-09).
679:, and can easily cause an oligotrophic lake to become hypereutrophic.
574:
4193:
4147:
3875:
3319:
3289:
3089:
3044:
3019:
2956:
2946:
2921:
2913:
2858:
2789:
2641:
2546:
2330:
2094:
2087:
2062:
1972:
1677:
671:
may be naturally eutrophic. Nutrients carried into water bodies from
655:
and is due to a decreased concentration from increased algal uptake.
461:
1659:
4248:
4177:
3708:
3536:
3215:
3127:
3074:
3029:
2591:
2401:
1947:
1942:
1867:
484:
473:
84:
913:. Whiles, Matt R. (2nd ed.). Burlington, MA: Academic Press.
510:
monomictic subtype) that allows oxygen to be transported from the
27:
Measure of the ability of water to sustain biological productivity
4238:
4045:
3915:
3910:
3537:
3485:
3145:
2790:
2601:
2561:
2531:
2509:
2129:
1917:
1817:
583:
579:
480:
2350:
1720:
816:
Learn More About
Trophic State Index (TSI) - Lake.WaterAtlas.org
2586:
1912:
944:
688:
can compensate for a lack of readily available fixed nitrogen.
518:
455:
1587:"Why does N-limitation persist in the world's marine waters?"
1534:
1416:
1299:
488:
1185:
321:. Lakes with extreme trophic indices may also be considered
2082:
1232:
522:
1035:. Fondriest Environmental Products, access date 2024-2-14.
2144:
2134:
1641:
435:
may occur as decomposing biomass deoxygenates the water.
991:
1045:
Weinke, Anthony D.; Biddanda, Bopaiah A. (2019-12-01).
876:
Carlson, R.E. (1977) A trophic state index for lakes.
259:
is the intensity of light striking the water's surface,
998:
578:
Algal bloom in a village river in the mountains near
517:
In this way, oligotrophic lakes can have significant
153:
426:
Oligotrophic lakes generally host very little or no
1472:Ryther, John H.; Dunstan, William M. (1971-03-12).
940:
938:
468:" or "hipotrophic" to describe lakes that have low
236:
4325:
935:
908:
102:
1306:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1125:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
805:
803:
801:
120:rooted plants and non-algal turbidity sources.
1044:
3522:
2775:
1983:Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems
1693:
1471:
888:
886:
872:
870:
868:
851:United States Environmental Protection Agency
810:University of South Florida Water Institute.
558:
109:United States Environmental Protection Agency
798:
2048:Freshwater environmental quality parameters
3743:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
3529:
3515:
2782:
2768:
1700:
1686:
1359:An, Kwang-Guk; Kim, Dong-Su (2003-10-01).
883:
865:
304:
1610:
1335:
1317:
1276:
1258:
1162:
1144:
1070:
1009:
250:= the depth at which the disk disappears,
3641:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
3280:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
762:List of biological development disorders
658:
573:
442:
29:
3673:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
837:
835:
833:
753:, a similar measure used in New Zealand
643:Likewise, large algal blooms can cause
14:
4326:
3481:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
1707:
1118:
894:North American Lake Management Society
633:and greater than 100 micrograms/litre
544:can cause hypoxia in the hypolimnion.
3510:
2763:
2236:
2235:
1719:
1681:
1584:
1580:
1578:
1412:
1410:
1358:
705:
3496:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
1541:Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science
830:
691:
3946:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
2311:Oceanic physical-biological process
2173:List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)
682:
24:
3699:Ecological effects of biodiversity
1575:
1407:
115:is defined as the total weight of
25:
4365:
3035:Generalist and specialist species
123:
3758:Occupancy–abundance relationship
2744:
2743:
2731:
2717:
2349:
2021:
1838:Colored dissolved organic matter
843:"Carlson's Trophic State Index.
702:availability of organic matter.
3778:Relative abundance distribution
3491:Plant defense against herbivory
3358:Competitive exclusion principle
3070:Mesopredator release hypothesis
2183:Latin America and the Caribbean
1635:
1528:
1465:
1352:
1293:
1226:
1179:
1112:
1095:
1051:Journal of Great Lakes Research
1038:
620:
609:meaning "well-nourished", from
597:human impact on the environment
438:
3363:Consumer–resource interactions
2665:Ecological values of mangroves
2208:North Pacific Subtropical Gyre
1648:Marine and Freshwater Research
1365:Water, Air, and Soil Pollution
1026:
985:
774:
547:
450:, an oligotrophic lake in the
13:
1:
4209:Biological data visualization
4036:Environmental niche modelling
3763:Population viability analysis
1612:10.1016/j.marchem.2018.09.001
1585:Paerl, Hans W. (2018-10-20).
1498:10.1126/science.171.3975.1008
971:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2017.10.049
818:. University of South Florida
791:
277:and is considered a constant,
103:Carlson's Trophic State Index
3694:Density-dependent inhibition
2685:Marine conservation activism
2670:Fisheries and climate change
1260:10.1371/journal.pone.0179151
1119:Tilman, David (1999-05-25).
563:
369:Oligotrophic or hipotrophic
7:
4163:Liebig's law of the minimum
3998:Resource selection function
2889:Metabolic theory of ecology
2680:Human impact on marine life
2557:Davidson Seamount § Ecology
1793:Aquatic population dynamics
812:"Trophic State Index (TSI)"
714:
595:can occur naturally and by
529:, which require cold, well-
487:bedrock. Due to their low
10:
4370:
4063:Niche apportionment models
3783:Relative species abundance
2987:Primary nutritional groups
2884:List of feeding behaviours
1561:10.1016/j.ecss.2010.10.033
1072:10.1016/j.jglr.2019.09.025
878:Limnology and Oceanography
567:
559:Eutrophic and hypertrophic
419:
402:
385:
368:
4312:
4244:Ecosystem based fisheries
4186:
4086:
4011:
3884:
3856:Interspecific competition
3821:
3748:Minimum viable population
3681:
3606:Maximum sustainable yield
3591:Intraspecific competition
3586:Effective population size
3549:
3466:Anti-predator adaptations
3451:
3330:
3257:
3214:
3136:
3103:
3000:
2977:Photosynthetic efficiency
2912:
2806:
2711:
2650:
2522:
2458:
2420:
2367:
2358:
2347:
2296:Marine primary production
2248:
2244:
2231:
2190:List of marine ecoregions
2165:
2030:
2019:
1733:
1729:
1715:
1443:10.1007/s10021-017-0204-2
1212:10.1016/j.hal.2015.01.004
1011:10.1007/s00477-010-0414-z
909:Dodds, Walter K. (2010).
731:Nonpoint source pollution
602:Eutrophic comes from the
417:0.5— < 0.25
4234:Ecological stoichiometry
4199:Alternative stable state
2542:Coastal biogeomorphology
2537:Marine coastal ecosystem
767:
669:net primary productivity
4078:Ontogenetic niche shift
3941:Ideal free distribution
3851:Ecological facilitation
3601:Malthusian growth model
3571:Consumer-resource model
3428:Paradox of the plankton
3393:Energy systems language
3113:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
3080:Optimal foraging theory
3055:Heterotrophic nutrition
2450:Paradox of the plankton
2261:Diel vertical migration
2155:Freshwater swamp forest
1873:GIS and aquatic science
1721:General components and
1385:10.1023/A:1025602213674
1319:10.1073/pnas.0805108105
1146:10.1073/pnas.96.11.5995
305:Trophic classifications
51:biological productivity
4224:Ecological forecasting
4168:Marginal value theorem
3966:Landscape epidemiology
3901:Cross-boundary subsidy
3836:Biological interaction
3186:Microbial intelligence
2874:Green world hypothesis
2276:Large marine ecosystem
1968:Shoaling and schooling
617:meaning "to nourish".
587:
458:
238:
38:
37:, an oligotrophic lake
4339:Environmental science
4229:Ecological humanities
4128:Ecological energetics
4073:Niche differentiation
3936:Habitat fragmentation
3704:Ecological extinction
3651:Small population size
3403:Feed conversion ratio
3383:Ecological succession
3315:San Francisco Estuary
3229:Ecological efficiency
3171:Microbial cooperation
2695:Marine protected area
2622:Salt pannes and pools
2397:Marine larval ecology
2372:Census of Marine Life
2256:Deep scattering layer
2213:San Francisco Estuary
2178:Africa and Madagascar
2003:Underwater camouflage
1783:Aquatic biomonitoring
1723:freshwater ecosystems
659:Trophic index drivers
651:. This is opposed to
577:
446:
239:
35:Lake George, New York
33:
4254:Evolutionary ecology
4219:Ecological footprint
4214:Ecological economics
4138:Ecological threshold
4133:Ecological indicator
4003:Source–sink dynamics
3956:Land change modeling
3951:Insular biogeography
3803:Species distribution
3542:Modelling ecosystems
3201:Microbial metabolism
3040:Intraguild predation
2829:Biogeochemical cycle
2795:Modelling ecosystems
2430:Marine bacteriophage
2392:Marine invertebrates
951:Journal of Hydrology
845:Aquatic Biodiversity
514:to the hypolimnion.
470:primary productivity
340:Trophic State Index
151:
131:chlorophyll pigments
4304:Theoretical ecology
4279:Natural environment
4143:Ecosystem diversity
4113:Ecological collapse
4103:Bateman's principle
4058:Limiting similarity
3971:Landscape limnology
3793:Species homogeneity
3631:Population modeling
3626:Population dynamics
3443:Trophic state index
2306:Ocean fertilization
2115:Trophic state index
2073:Lake stratification
1803:Aquatic respiration
1603:2018MarCh.206....1P
1553:2011ECSS...91..282D
1490:1971Sci...171.1008R
1484:(3975): 1008–1013.
1435:2018Ecosy..21.1088H
1377:2003WASP..149...27A
1312:(32): 11254–11258.
1251:2017PLoSO..1279151T
1204:2015HAlga..43...82L
1137:1999PNAS...96.5995T
1063:2019JGLR...45.1103W
963:2017JHyd..555..832S
751:Trophic level index
343:Chlorophyll (μg/L)
336:
43:Trophic State Index
4315:Outline of ecology
4264:Industrial ecology
4259:Functional ecology
4123:Ecological deficit
4068:Niche construction
4031:Ecosystem engineer
3808:Species–area curve
3729:Introduced species
3544:: Other components
3476:Deimatic behaviour
3378:Ecological network
3310:North Pacific Gyre
3295:hydrothermal vents
3234:Ecological pyramid
3181:Microbial food web
2992:Primary production
2937:Foundation species
2572:Intertidal wetland
2567:Intertidal ecology
2435:Marine prokaryotes
2377:Deep-sea community
2271:Iron fertilization
2194:Specific examples
2120:Upland and lowland
2038:Freshwater biology
1903:Microbial food web
1813:Aquatic toxicology
1756:Aquatic adaptation
1709:Aquatic ecosystems
706:Management targets
588:
459:
428:aquatic vegetation
346:Phosphorus (μg/L)
332:
234:
93:limiting resources
83:The quantities of
39:
4321:
4320:
4204:Balance of nature
3961:Landscape ecology
3846:Community ecology
3788:Species diversity
3724:Indicator species
3719:Gradient analysis
3596:Logistic function
3504:
3503:
3461:Animal coloration
3438:Trophic mutualism
3176:Microbial ecology
2967:Photoheterotrophs
2952:Myco-heterotrophy
2864:Ecosystem ecology
2849:Carrying capacity
2814:Abiotic component
2757:
2756:
2738:Oceans portal
2707:
2706:
2703:
2702:
2582:Hydrothermal vent
2518:
2517:
2407:Seashore wildlife
2238:Marine ecosystems
2227:
2226:
2223:
2222:
1993:Thermal pollution
1958:Ramsar Convention
1898:Microbial ecology
1858:Fisheries science
1798:Aquatic predation
1131:(11): 5995–6000.
920:978-0-12-374724-2
721:Biomass (ecology)
692:Marine ecosystems
673:non-point sources
663:Both natural and
613:meaning good and
424:
423:
349:Secchi depth (m)
323:hyperoligotrophic
205:
166:
18:Oligotrophic lake
16:(Redirected from
4361:
4021:Ecological niche
3993:selection theory
3813:Umbrella species
3798:Species richness
3734:Invasive species
3714:Flagship species
3621:Population cycle
3616:Overexploitation
3581:Ecological yield
3531:
3524:
3517:
3508:
3507:
3413:Mesotrophic soil
3353:Climax community
3285:Marine food webs
3224:Biomagnification
3025:Chemoorganotroph
2879:Keystone species
2839:Biotic component
2784:
2777:
2770:
2761:
2760:
2747:
2746:
2740:
2736:
2735:
2726:
2724:Lakes portal
2722:
2721:
2720:
2690:Marine pollution
2382:Deep-water coral
2365:
2364:
2353:
2286:Marine chemistry
2246:
2245:
2233:
2232:
2150:Freshwater marsh
2043:Freshwater biome
2025:
1741:Acoustic ecology
1731:
1730:
1717:
1716:
1702:
1695:
1688:
1679:
1678:
1672:
1671:
1639:
1633:
1632:
1614:
1591:Marine Chemistry
1582:
1573:
1572:
1532:
1526:
1525:
1469:
1463:
1462:
1429:(6): 1088–1100.
1414:
1405:
1404:
1356:
1350:
1349:
1339:
1321:
1297:
1291:
1290:
1280:
1262:
1230:
1224:
1223:
1183:
1177:
1176:
1166:
1148:
1116:
1110:
1099:
1093:
1092:
1074:
1057:(6): 1103–1112.
1042:
1036:
1033:Dissolved Oxygen
1030:
1024:
1023:
1013:
989:
983:
982:
942:
933:
932:
906:
897:
890:
881:
874:
863:
862:
860:
858:
839:
828:
827:
825:
823:
807:
785:
784:of water bodies.
778:
683:Freshwater lakes
653:biomagnification
525:species such as
357:< 30—40
337:
331:
270:is about 10% of
243:
241:
240:
235:
224:
223:
211:
207:
206:
204:
203:
194:
193:
184:
171:
167:
159:
136:total phosphorus
21:
4369:
4368:
4364:
4363:
4362:
4360:
4359:
4358:
4344:Water pollution
4334:Aquatic ecology
4324:
4323:
4322:
4317:
4308:
4294:Systems ecology
4182:
4153:Extinction debt
4118:Ecological debt
4108:Bioluminescence
4089:
4082:
4051:marine habitats
4026:Ecological trap
4007:
3887:
3880:
3823:
3817:
3773:Rapoport's rule
3768:Priority effect
3709:Endemic species
3677:
3636:Population size
3552:
3545:
3535:
3505:
3500:
3453:
3447:
3433:Trophic cascade
3343:Bioaccumulation
3326:
3253:
3210:
3132:
3099:
2996:
2908:
2869:Ecosystem model
2802:
2788:
2758:
2753:
2730:
2729:
2718:
2716:
2715:
2699:
2660:Coral bleaching
2646:
2627:Seagrass meadow
2524:Marine habitats
2514:
2488:Coral reef fish
2454:
2440:Marine protists
2416:
2354:
2345:
2316:Ocean turbidity
2291:Marine food web
2240:
2219:
2161:
2100:River ecosystem
2053:Freshwater fish
2026:
2017:
1823:Bioluminescence
1808:Aquatic science
1725:
1711:
1706:
1676:
1675:
1660:10.1071/MF13137
1640:
1636:
1583:
1576:
1533:
1529:
1470:
1466:
1415:
1408:
1357:
1353:
1298:
1294:
1245:(6): e0179151.
1231:
1227:
1184:
1180:
1117:
1113:
1100:
1096:
1043:
1039:
1031:
1027:
990:
986:
943:
936:
921:
907:
900:
891:
884:
880:. 22:2 361–369.
875:
866:
856:
854:
841:
840:
831:
821:
819:
808:
799:
794:
789:
788:
779:
775:
770:
717:
708:
699:abiotic factors
694:
685:
661:
623:
572:
566:
561:
550:
452:Tatra Mountains
448:Kurtkowiec Lake
441:
307:
287:
276:
269:
258:
219:
215:
199:
195:
189:
185:
183:
176:
172:
158:
154:
152:
149:
148:
126:
105:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4367:
4357:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4319:
4318:
4313:
4310:
4309:
4307:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4274:Microecosystem
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4231:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4190:
4188:
4184:
4183:
4181:
4180:
4175:
4173:Thorson's rule
4170:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4098:Assembly rules
4094:
4092:
4084:
4083:
4081:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4054:
4053:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4028:
4023:
4017:
4015:
4009:
4008:
4006:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3983:
3981:Patch dynamics
3978:
3976:Metapopulation
3973:
3968:
3963:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3892:
3890:
3882:
3881:
3879:
3878:
3873:
3871:Storage effect
3868:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3827:
3825:
3819:
3818:
3816:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3753:Neutral theory
3750:
3745:
3740:
3738:Native species
3731:
3726:
3721:
3716:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3696:
3691:
3685:
3683:
3679:
3678:
3676:
3675:
3670:
3669:
3668:
3663:
3653:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3611:Overpopulation
3608:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3557:
3555:
3547:
3546:
3534:
3533:
3526:
3519:
3511:
3502:
3501:
3499:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3457:
3455:
3449:
3448:
3446:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3418:Nutrient cycle
3415:
3410:
3408:Feeding frenzy
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3388:Energy quality
3385:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3348:Cascade effect
3345:
3340:
3334:
3332:
3328:
3327:
3325:
3324:
3323:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3261:
3259:
3255:
3254:
3252:
3251:
3246:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3220:
3218:
3212:
3211:
3209:
3208:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3191:Microbial loop
3188:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3156:Lithoautotroph
3153:
3148:
3142:
3140:
3138:Microorganisms
3134:
3133:
3131:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3109:
3107:
3101:
3100:
3098:
3097:
3095:Prey switching
3092:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3057:
3052:
3047:
3042:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3006:
3004:
2998:
2997:
2995:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2972:Photosynthesis
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2927:Chemosynthesis
2924:
2918:
2916:
2910:
2909:
2907:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2819:Abiotic stress
2816:
2810:
2808:
2804:
2803:
2787:
2786:
2779:
2772:
2764:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2751:
2741:
2727:
2712:
2709:
2708:
2705:
2704:
2701:
2700:
2698:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2656:
2654:
2648:
2647:
2645:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2528:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2516:
2515:
2513:
2512:
2507:
2506:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2478:Saltwater fish
2475:
2473:Marine reptile
2470:
2464:
2462:
2456:
2455:
2453:
2452:
2447:
2445:Marine viruses
2442:
2437:
2432:
2426:
2424:
2422:Microorganisms
2418:
2417:
2415:
2414:
2412:Wild fisheries
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2368:
2362:
2356:
2355:
2348:
2346:
2344:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2326:Thorson's rule
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2281:Marine biology
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2252:
2250:
2242:
2241:
2229:
2228:
2225:
2224:
2221:
2220:
2218:
2217:
2216:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2192:
2187:
2186:
2185:
2180:
2169:
2167:
2163:
2162:
2160:
2159:
2158:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2140:Brackish marsh
2137:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2091:
2090:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2068:Lake ecosystem
2065:
2060:
2058:Hyporheic zone
2055:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2034:
2032:
2028:
2027:
2020:
2018:
2016:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1908:Microbial loop
1905:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1853:Eutrophication
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1833:Cascade effect
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1779:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1761:Aquatic animal
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1737:
1735:
1727:
1726:
1713:
1712:
1705:
1704:
1697:
1690:
1682:
1674:
1673:
1654:(6): 517–537.
1634:
1574:
1547:(2): 282–297.
1527:
1464:
1406:
1351:
1292:
1225:
1178:
1111:
1107:dictionary.com
1101:Definition of
1094:
1037:
1025:
1004:(4): 445–456.
984:
934:
919:
898:
882:
864:
829:
796:
795:
793:
790:
787:
786:
772:
771:
769:
766:
765:
764:
759:
754:
748:
743:
741:Surface runoff
738:
733:
728:
726:Eutrophication
723:
716:
713:
707:
704:
693:
690:
684:
681:
660:
657:
622:
619:
593:eutrophication
570:Eutrophication
568:Main article:
565:
562:
560:
557:
549:
546:
493:drinking-water
464:use the term "
440:
437:
422:
421:
418:
415:
412:
409:
405:
404:
401:
398:
395:
392:
388:
387:
384:
381:
378:
375:
371:
370:
367:
366:> 8—4
364:
361:
358:
354:
353:
352:Trophic Class
350:
347:
344:
341:
327:hypereutrophic
306:
303:
302:
301:
295:
289:
283:
278:
274:
265:
260:
256:
251:
244:
233:
230:
227:
222:
218:
214:
210:
202:
198:
192:
188:
182:
179:
175:
170:
165:
162:
157:
125:
124:Index variable
122:
104:
101:
97:trophic levels
81:
80:
77:hypereutrophic
70:
64:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4366:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4331:
4329:
4316:
4311:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4299:Urban ecology
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4191:
4189:
4185:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4158:Kleiber's law
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4095:
4093:
4091:
4085:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4052:
4049:
4048:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4018:
4016:
4014:
4010:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3931:Foster's rule
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3893:
3891:
3889:
3883:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3828:
3826:
3820:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3686:
3684:
3680:
3674:
3671:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3658:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3558:
3556:
3554:
3548:
3543:
3539:
3532:
3527:
3525:
3520:
3518:
3513:
3512:
3509:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3458:
3456:
3450:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3335:
3333:
3329:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3287:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3262:
3260:
3256:
3250:
3249:Trophic level
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3221:
3219:
3217:
3213:
3207:
3206:Phage ecology
3204:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3196:Microbial mat
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3151:Bacteriophage
3149:
3147:
3144:
3143:
3141:
3139:
3135:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3118:Decomposition
3116:
3114:
3111:
3110:
3108:
3106:
3102:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3065:Mesopredators
3063:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3010:Apex predator
3008:
3007:
3005:
3003:
2999:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2919:
2917:
2915:
2911:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2844:Biotic stress
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2811:
2809:
2805:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2785:
2780:
2778:
2773:
2771:
2766:
2765:
2762:
2750:
2742:
2739:
2734:
2728:
2725:
2714:
2713:
2710:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2657:
2655:
2653:
2649:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2632:Sponge ground
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2597:Marine biomes
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2527:
2525:
2521:
2511:
2508:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2498:Demersal fish
2496:
2494:
2493:Deep-sea fish
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2480:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2468:Marine mammal
2466:
2465:
2463:
2461:
2457:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2427:
2425:
2423:
2419:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2369:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2357:
2352:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2253:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2234:
2230:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2195:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2175:
2174:
2171:
2170:
2168:
2164:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2132:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2089:
2086:
2085:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2035:
2033:
2029:
2024:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1998:Trophic level
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1963:Sediment trap
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1938:Phytoplankton
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1788:Aquatic plant
1786:
1784:
1781:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1763:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1751:Anoxic waters
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1738:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1703:
1698:
1696:
1691:
1689:
1684:
1683:
1680:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1638:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1581:
1579:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1531:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1468:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1413:
1411:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1355:
1347:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1320:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1296:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1229:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1192:Harmful Algae
1189:
1182:
1174:
1170:
1165:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1147:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1115:
1108:
1104:
1098:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1041:
1034:
1029:
1021:
1017:
1012:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
988:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
941:
939:
930:
926:
922:
916:
912:
905:
903:
895:
889:
887:
879:
873:
871:
869:
852:
848:
846:
838:
836:
834:
817:
813:
806:
804:
802:
797:
783:
782:trophic index
777:
773:
763:
760:
758:
757:Water quality
755:
752:
749:
747:
746:Trophic level
744:
742:
739:
737:
734:
732:
729:
727:
724:
722:
719:
718:
712:
703:
700:
689:
680:
678:
674:
670:
666:
665:anthropogenic
656:
654:
650:
649:trophic level
646:
641:
638:
636:
632:
628:
618:
616:
612:
608:
605:
600:
598:
594:
585:
581:
576:
571:
556:
553:
545:
543:
542:decomposition
538:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
515:
513:
507:
505:
501:
496:
494:
490:
486:
482:
477:
475:
471:
467:
463:
457:
453:
449:
445:
436:
434:
433:fish die-offs
429:
420:Hypertrophic
416:
413:
410:
407:
406:
399:
396:
393:
390:
389:
382:
379:
376:
373:
372:
365:
362:
359:
356:
355:
351:
348:
345:
342:
339:
338:
335:
330:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
299:
296:
293:
290:
286:
282:
279:
273:
268:
264:
261:
255:
252:
249:
245:
231:
228:
225:
220:
216:
212:
208:
200:
196:
190:
186:
180:
177:
173:
168:
163:
160:
155:
147:
146:
145:
143:
142:
137:
133:
132:
121:
118:
114:
113:trophic state
110:
100:
98:
94:
90:
86:
78:
74:
71:
68:
65:
62:
59:
58:
57:
54:
52:
48:
44:
36:
32:
19:
4284:Regime shift
4269:Macroecology
3990:
3986:
3926:Edge effects
3896:Biogeography
3841:Commensalism
3689:Biodiversity
3566:Allee effect
3442:
3305:kelp forests
3258:Example webs
3123:Detritivores
2962:Organotrophs
2942:Kinetotrophs
2894:Productivity
2652:Conservation
2503:Pelagic fish
2483:Coastal fish
2387:Marine fungi
2125:Water garden
2114:
2008:Water column
1953:Productivity
1928:Pelagic zone
1888:Macrobenthos
1878:Hydrobiology
1848:Ecohydrology
1651:
1647:
1637:
1594:
1590:
1544:
1540:
1530:
1481:
1477:
1467:
1426:
1422:
1371:(1): 27–49.
1368:
1364:
1354:
1309:
1305:
1295:
1242:
1238:
1228:
1195:
1191:
1181:
1128:
1124:
1114:
1097:
1054:
1050:
1040:
1028:
1001:
997:
987:
954:
950:
910:
893:
877:
855:. Retrieved
850:
844:
820:. Retrieved
815:
781:
776:
709:
695:
686:
662:
642:
639:
627:algal blooms
624:
621:Hypertrophic
614:
610:
606:
601:
589:
554:
551:
539:
535:hypolimnetic
516:
508:
497:
478:
466:oligotrophic
462:Limnologists
460:
454:of southern
439:Oligotrophic
425:
386:Mesotrophic
333:
326:
322:
318:
314:
311:oligotrophic
310:
308:
297:
291:
284:
280:
271:
266:
262:
253:
247:
141:Secchi depth
139:
135:
129:
127:
112:
106:
82:
76:
72:
66:
61:oligotrophic
60:
55:
46:
42:
40:
3921:Disturbance
3824:interaction
3646:Recruitment
3576:Depensation
3368:Copiotrophs
3239:Energy flow
3161:Lithotrophy
3105:Decomposers
3085:Planktivore
3060:Insectivore
3050:Heterotroph
3015:Bacterivore
2982:Phototrophs
2932:Chemotrophs
2904:Restoration
2854:Competition
2637:Sponge reef
2612:Rocky shore
2607:Oyster reef
2577:Kelp forest
2460:Vertebrates
2360:Marine life
2336:Viral shunt
2301:Marine snow
2203:Maharashtra
2110:Stream pool
2013:Zooplankton
1933:Photic zone
1893:Meiobenthos
1746:Algal bloom
957:: 832–850.
857:17 February
736:Secchi disk
697:of various
645:biodilution
631:chlorophyll
548:Mesotrophic
315:mesotrophic
67:mesotrophic
4328:Categories
4289:Sexecology
3866:Parasitism
3831:Antibiosis
3666:Resistance
3661:Resilience
3551:Population
3471:Camouflage
3423:Oligotroph
3338:Ascendency
3300:intertidal
3290:cold seeps
3244:Food chain
3045:Herbivores
3020:Carnivores
2947:Mixotrophs
2922:Autotrophs
2801:components
2617:Salt marsh
2552:Coral reef
2341:Whale fall
2321:Photophore
2198:Everglades
2166:Ecoregions
2105:Stream bed
2078:Macrophyte
2031:Freshwater
1863:Food chain
1776:Water bird
1423:Ecosystems
1198:: 82–102.
792:References
635:phosphorus
531:oxygenated
527:lake trout
512:epilimnion
504:meromictic
500:holomictic
403:Eutrophic
89:phosphorus
4354:Limnology
4194:Allometry
4148:Emergence
3876:Symbiosis
3861:Mutualism
3656:Stability
3561:Abundance
3373:Dominance
3331:Processes
3320:tide pool
3216:Food webs
3090:Predation
3075:Omnivores
3002:Consumers
2957:Mycotroph
2914:Producers
2859:Ecosystem
2824:Behaviour
2642:Tide pool
2547:Cold seep
2331:Upwelling
2095:Rheotaxis
2088:Fish pond
2063:Limnology
1988:Substrate
1973:Siltation
1843:Dead zone
1668:1448-6059
1629:105382102
1621:0304-4203
1569:0272-7714
1506:0036-8075
1459:254079555
1451:1435-0629
1401:101079728
1393:1573-2932
1328:0027-8424
1269:1932-6203
1220:1568-9883
1155:0027-8424
1103:eutrophic
1089:209571196
1081:0380-1330
1020:1436-3240
979:0022-1694
929:784140625
607:eutrophos
564:Eutrophic
495:quality.
319:eutrophic
229:α
181:
73:eutrophic
4249:Endolith
4178:Xerosere
4090:networks
3906:Ecocline
3452:Defense,
3128:Detritus
3030:Foraging
2899:Resource
2749:Category
2675:HERMIONE
2592:Mangrove
2402:Seagrass
1948:Pleuston
1943:Plankton
1923:Particle
1868:Food web
1346:18667696
1287:28604811
1239:PLOS ONE
1173:10339530
896:. 96 pp.
715:See also
615:trephein
485:granitic
474:nutrient
431:massive
414:96—384+
411:56—155+
408:70—100+
377:2.6—7.3
85:nitrogen
4239:Ecopath
4046:Habitat
3916:Ecotype
3911:Ecotone
3888:ecology
3886:Spatial
3822:Species
3682:Species
3553:ecology
3538:Ecology
3486:Mimicry
3454:counter
3398:f-ratio
3146:Archaea
2834:Biomass
2807:General
2799:Trophic
2791:Ecology
2602:Mudflat
2562:Estuary
2532:Bay mud
2510:Seabird
2266:f-ratio
2249:General
2130:Wetland
1918:Neuston
1883:Hypoxia
1828:Biomass
1818:Benthos
1734:General
1599:Bibcode
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1549:Bibcode
1522:9715466
1514:4993386
1486:Bibcode
1478:Science
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1373:Bibcode
1337:2491484
1278:5467952
1247:Bibcode
1200:Bibcode
1133:Bibcode
1059:Bibcode
959:Bibcode
677:biomass
586:, China
584:Sichuan
580:Chengdu
481:igneous
472:due to
394:7.3—56
117:biomass
3270:Rivers
3166:Marine
2587:Lagoon
1913:Nekton
1771:Mammal
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391:50—70
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374:40—50
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292:α
246:where
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1455:S2CID
1397:S2CID
1164:34218
1085:S2CID
768:Notes
604:Greek
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925:OCLC
915:ISBN
859:2008
824:2018
523:fish
383:4—2
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2145:Fen
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1656:doi
1607:doi
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