6795:
7491:
781:
350 to 550 billion tonnes C. This vast amount is similar to the biomass of carbon in all plants. The vast majority of bacteria and archaea were estimated to be in sediments deep below the seafloor or in the deep terrestrial biosphere (in deep continental aquifers). However, updated measurements reported in a 2012 study reduced the calculated prokaryotic biomass in deep subseafloor sediments from the original ≈300 billion tonnes C to ≈4 billion tonnes C (range 1.5–22 billion tonnes). This update originates from much lower estimates of both the prokaryotic abundance and their average weight.
1027:
483:
1099:
922:
38:
1069:
883:
1825:
52:
7517:
7505:
176:
264:
957:
467:
454:
992:
7123:
820:
423:
405:
355:
1091:, such as lanternfish, spending most of the day in the deep, dark waters. Marine mammals such as whales and dolphins account for about 0.006 billion tonnes C. Land animals account for about 500 million tonnes C, or about 20% of the biomass of animals on Earth. Terrestrial arthropods account for about 150 million tonnes C, most of which is found in the
794:
biomass was estimated to be found in the deep subsurface. The estimated number of prokaryotic cells globally was estimated to be 11–15 × 10. With this information, the authors of the May 2018 PNAS article revised their estimate for the global biomass of prokaryotes to ≈30 billion tonnes C, similar to the Deep Carbon
Observatory estimate.
780:
The estimates for the global biomass of prokaryotes had changed significantly over recent decades, as more data became available. A much-cited study from 1998 collected data on abundances (number of cells) of bacteria and archaea in different natural environments, and estimated their total biomass at
303:
In a temperate grassland, grasses and other plants are the primary producers at the bottom of the pyramid. Then come the primary consumers, such as grasshoppers, voles and bison, followed by the secondary consumers, shrews, hawks and small cats. Finally the tertiary consumers, large cats and wolves.
254:
When energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next, typically only ten percent is used to build new biomass. The remaining ninety percent goes to metabolic processes or is dissipated as heat. This energy loss means that productivity pyramids are never inverted, and generally limits food
793:
published in 2018 reported a much larger dataset of measurements, and updated the total biomass estimate in the deep terrestrial biosphere. It used this new knowledge and previous estimates to update the global biomass of bacteria and archaea to 23–31 billion tonnes C. Roughly 70% of the global
1095:. Land mammals account for about 180 million tonnes C, most of which are humans (about 80 million tonnes C) and domesticated mammals (about 90 million tonnes C). Wild terrestrial mammals account for only about 3 million tonnes C, less than 2% of the total mammalian biomass on land.
117:, the salmon biomass might be regarded as the total wet weight the salmon would have if they were taken out of the water. In other contexts, biomass can be measured in terms of the dried organic mass, so perhaps only 30% of the actual weight might count, the rest being
594:
Marine environments can have inverted biomass pyramids. In particular, the biomass of consumers (copepods, krill, shrimp, forage fish) is larger than the biomass of primary producers. This happens because the ocean's primary producers are tiny phytoplankton which are
2571:"Life in deep Earth totals 15 to 23 billion tons of carbon -- hundreds of times more than humans - Deep Carbon Observatory collaborators, exploring the 'Galapagos of the deep,' add to what's known, unknown, and unknowable about Earth's most pristine ecosystem"
788:
in May 2018 estimated global bacterial biomass at ≈70 billion tonnes C, of which ≈60 billion tonnes are in the terrestrial deep subsurface. It also estimated the global biomass of archaea at ≈7 billion tonnes C. A later study by the
3903:
IPCC 2006, 2006 IPCC Guidelines for
National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T. and Tanabe K. (eds). Published: IGES,
797:
These estimates convert global abundance of prokaryotes into global biomass using average cellular biomass figures that are based on limited data. Recent estimates used an average cellular biomass of about 20–30
1859:
primary production for the Earth is about 104.9 billion tonnes C/yr. This translates to about 426 gC/m/yr for land production (excluding areas with permanent ice cover), and 140 gC/m/yr for the oceans.
4049:
Joint
Research Centre (European Commission); Johnson, Nancy C.; Scheu, Stefan; Ramirez, Kelly S.; Lemanceau, Philippe; Eggleton, Paul; Jones, Arwyn; Moreira, Fatima M. S.; Barrios, Edmundo (2016).
1102:
The global biomass broken down by kingdom and into taxonomic groups for animals. The estimates for bacteria and archaea have been updated to 30 billion tonnes C combined since this figure was made.
243:). The primary producers take energy from the environment in the form of sunlight or inorganic chemicals and use it to create energy-rich molecules such as carbohydrates. This mechanism is called
441:
Ocean or marine biomass, in a reversal of terrestrial biomass, can increase at higher trophic levels. In the ocean, the food chain typically starts with phytoplankton, and follows the course:
183:
illustrates how much energy is needed as it flows upward to support the next trophic level. Only about 10% of the energy transferred between each trophic level is converted to biomass.
6954:
2624:
7446:
2946:
Kettler GC, Martiny AC, Huang K, Zucker J, Coleman ML, Rodrigue S, Chen F, Lapidus A, Ferriera S, Johnson J, Steglich C, Church GM, Richardson P, Chisholm SW (December 2007).
4411:
Johnson, Brett M.; Pate, William M.; Hansen, Adam G. (2017). "Energy
Density and Dry Matter Content in Fish: New Observations and an Evaluation of Some Empirical Models".
3456:
Greenspoon, Lior; Krieger, Eyal; Sender, Ron; Rosenberg, Yuval; Bar-On, Yinon M.; Moran, Uri; Antman, Tomer; Meiri, Shai; Roll, Uri; Noor, Elad; Milo, Ron (7 March 2023).
1828:
Globally, terrestrial and oceanic habitats produce a similar amount of new biomass each year (56.4 billion tonnes C terrestrial and 48.5 billion tonnes C oceanic).
3114:
Magnabosco, C.; Lin, L.-H.; Dong, H.; Bomberg, M.; Ghiorse, W.; Stan-Lotter, H.; Pedersen, K.; Kieft, T. L.; van
Heerden, E.; Onstott, T. C. (24 September 2018).
6949:
599:
that grow and reproduce rapidly, so a small mass can have a fast rate of primary production. In contrast, terrestrial primary producers, such as forests, are
1106:
Most of the global biomass is found on land, with only 5 to 10 billion tonnes C found in the oceans. On land, there is about 1,000 times more plant biomass (
3255:"Distribution patterns of attached and suspended bacteria in pristine and contaminated shallow aquifers studied with an in situ sediment exposure microcosm"
2328:
121:. For other purposes, only biological tissues count, and teeth, bones and shells are excluded. In some applications, biomass is measured as the mass of
2353:
3642:
1079:
represent less than 0.5% of the total biomass on Earth, with about 2 billion tonnes C in total. Most animal biomass is found in the oceans, where
671:, and their biomass is commonly estimated together. The global biomass of prokaryotes is estimated at 30 billion tonnes C, dominated by bacteria.
6979:
5654:
4907:
4858:
2598:
6471:
255:
chains to about six levels. However, in oceans, biomass pyramids can be wholly or partially inverted, with more biomass at higher levels.
6819:
5798:
2180:
4494:
6564:
5868:
1087:, account for about 1 billion tonnes C and fish for another 0.7 billion tonnes C. Roughly half of the biomass of fish in the world are
4880:
4585:
307:
Changes in plant species in the terrestrial ecosystem can result in changes in the biomass of soil decomposer communities. Biomass in
6794:
5440:
5405:
4386:
628:
on Earth: a single millilitre of surface seawater can contain 100,000 cells or more. Worldwide, there are estimated to be several
6969:
6754:
2891:"Soybean photosynthetic and biomass responses to carbon dioxide concentrations ranging from pre-industrial to the distant future"
1072:
Humans and their livestock represent 96% of all mammals on earth in terms of biomass, whereas all wild mammals represent only 4%.
106:
How biomass is measured depends on why it is being measured. Sometimes, the biomass is regarded as the natural mass of organisms
4875:
5878:
5606:
4452:
1855:/yr (53.8%), for terrestrial primary production, and 48.5 billion tonnes C/yr for oceanic primary production. Thus, the total
4836:
4642:
4595:
4540:
4140:
4068:
2338:
1836:
is the rate at which new biomass is generated, mainly due to photosynthesis. Global primary production can be estimated from
6984:
5883:
3627:
3303:
4866:
3526:
Rosenberg, Yuval; Bar-On, Yinon M.; Fromm, Amir; Ostikar, Meital; Shoshany, Aviv; Giz, Omer; Milo, Ron (3 February 2023).
3318:"The rise to dominance of lanternfishes (Teleostei: Myctophidae) in the oceanic ecosystems: a paleontological perspective"
140:
was once thought to be about the same as plants, but recent studies suggest it is significantly less. The total number of
7082:
6944:
6071:
564:
A fourth trophic level can consist of predatory fish, marine mammals and seabirds that consume forage fish. Examples are
103:, plants or animals. The mass can be expressed as the average mass per unit area, or as the total mass in the community.
3921:
Schultheiss, Patrick; Nooten, Sabine; Wang, Runxi; Wong, Mark; Brassard, François; Benoit, Guénard (19 September 2022).
624:, is just 0.5 to 0.8 micrometres across. In terms of individual numbers, Prochlorococcus is possibly the most plentiful
7546:
5824:
5647:
5488:
4900:
2889:
Drag, David W; Slattery, Rebecca; Siebers, Matthew; DeLucia, Evan H; Ort, Donald R; Bernacchi, Carl J (12 March 2020).
167:. Anthropogenic mass (human-made material) is expected to exceed all living biomass on earth at around the year 2020.
4700:
the tundra is a vast and treeless land which covers about 20% of the Earth's surface, circumnavigating the North pole.
6974:
5160:
6609:
6464:
4532:
831:
The total global biomass has been estimated at 550 billion tonnes C. A breakdown of the global biomass is given by
5621:
132:
at about 550 billion (5.5×10) tonnes C, most of it in plants. In 1998 Field et.al. estimated the total annual net
5903:
5616:
5483:
5195:
4556:
43:
The total global live biomass has been estimated at 550 billion tonnes carbon, most of which is found in forests.
4084:
Fierer, Noah; Strickland, Michael S.; Liptzin, Daniel; Bradford, Mark A.; Cleveland, Cory C. (13 October 2009).
2706:
1114:). About 18% of this plant biomass is eaten by the land animals. However, marine animals eat most of the marine
603:
that grow and reproduce slowly, so a much larger mass is needed to achieve the same rate of primary production.
344:
7436:
6288:
6161:
2032:
6334:
5933:
5888:
5640:
4893:
4776:"Quantifying and mapping the human appropriation of net primary production in earth's terrestrial ecosystems"
516:. They are then consumed by zooplankton that range in size from a few micrometers in diameter in the case of
5420:
3592:
591:
can consume zooplankton and krill directly, leading to a food chain with only three or four trophic levels.
7541:
7456:
7441:
5766:
3003:
823:
7551:
7451:
6457:
6123:
5014:
2742:
Elhacham, Emily; Ben-Uri, Liad; et al. (2020). "Global human-made mass exceeds all living biomass".
2122: – Biological material from either living (see ecology) or recently living organisms (see bioenergy)
4683:
7561:
6759:
6188:
5908:
5395:
5112:
5009:
2148:
69:, can be as productive as forests, generating similar amounts of new biomass each year on a given area.
329:
plant species have been observed to increase in biomass in response to increasing concentrations of CO
7067:
6961:
6369:
5981:
5873:
5731:
5716:
5711:
5390:
5102:
2625:"Massive 'deep life' study reveals billions of tonnes of microbes living far beneath Earth's surface"
4885:
3170:
2570:
7520:
7313:
7308:
6604:
6359:
6354:
6324:
6128:
5591:
5473:
5632:
5263:
4287:
Pershing AJ, Christensen LB, Record NR, Sherwood GD, Stetson PB (August 2010). Humphries S (ed.).
7221:
7032:
6926:
6654:
6644:
6203:
6066:
5976:
5844:
5726:
5696:
5553:
5518:
5238:
5205:
5180:
4771:
3071:
790:
2836:"Interactive Effects of Diversity, Nutrients and Elevated CO2 on Experimental Plant Communities"
7047:
7037:
6739:
6724:
6349:
6293:
6228:
6091:
6026:
5961:
5523:
5311:
5019:
4999:
2142:
4632:
4231:
4048:
3171:"Life in deep Earth totals 15 to 23 billion tons of carbon—hundreds of times more than humans"
1026:
7466:
7393:
7328:
7193:
7168:
7143:
7027:
6774:
6554:
6253:
6198:
6061:
6046:
5829:
5786:
5776:
5771:
5528:
5508:
5364:
5354:
5296:
5291:
5127:
4979:
2797:"Plant diversity effects on soil heterotrophic activity in experimental grassland ecosystems"
3997:"A Comparative Analysis of Soil Fauna Populations and Their Role in Decomposition Processes"
3376:
Hatton, Ian A.; Heneghan, Ryan F.; Bar-On, Yinon M.; Galbraith, Eric D. (12 November 2021).
7201:
7163:
6494:
6379:
6344:
6339:
6263:
6258:
6213:
6111:
6081:
6076:
5928:
5791:
5781:
5326:
5165:
4954:
4787:
4730:
4467:
4420:
4359:
4300:
4243:
4097:
4008:
3934:
3539:
3469:
3389:
3329:
3127:
2847:
2753:
2520:
2458:
2399:
2264:
2131:
1875:
1127:, human-made materials, or anthropogenic mass, outweigh all living biomass on earth, with
640:(nutrient poor) regions of the oceans. The bacterium accounts for an estimated 20% of the
8:
7556:
7423:
7077:
6886:
6844:
6614:
6574:
6429:
6404:
6268:
6238:
6183:
6096:
5986:
5971:
5918:
5751:
5686:
5568:
5498:
5430:
5029:
4513:
3254:
3253:
Griebler, Christian; Mindl, Birgit; Slezak, Doris; Geiger-Kaiser, Margot (26 June 2002).
1936:
584:
148:
4791:
4734:
4471:
4424:
4371:
4363:
4304:
4247:
4212:
Biomass of termites and their emissions of methane and carbon dioxide: A global database
4157:
4101:
4012:
3938:
3543:
3498:
3473:
3457:
3393:
3333:
3131:
2851:
2795:
Spehn, Eva M.; Joshi, Jasmin; Schmid, Bernhard; Alphei, Jörn; Körner, Christian (2000).
2757:
2524:
2462:
2403:
2268:
7343:
7338:
7206:
7148:
7042:
6891:
6809:
6694:
6674:
6584:
6527:
6440:
6389:
6384:
6193:
6156:
5898:
5854:
5819:
5676:
5601:
5503:
5435:
5425:
5359:
5306:
5117:
5062:
5024:
4949:
4810:
4775:
4753:
4718:
4323:
4288:
4193:
4024:
3965:
3922:
3851:
3824:
3802:
3747:
3739:
3568:
3527:
3418:
3377:
3355:
3235:
3151:
2974:
2947:
2923:
2890:
2871:
2816:
2777:
2679:
2652:
2543:
2508:
2287:
2252:
2154:
1864:
1833:
549:
In turn, small zooplankton are consumed by both larger predatory zooplankters, such as
315:
308:
244:
221:
198:
188:
133:
2859:
288:
are grasses, trees and shrubs. These have a much higher biomass than the animals that
7353:
7231:
7178:
7097:
6764:
6729:
6669:
6629:
6569:
6480:
6329:
6298:
6086:
5913:
5721:
5586:
5563:
5301:
5077:
4989:
4974:
4939:
4832:
4815:
4758:
4638:
4591:
4536:
4328:
4269:
4197:
4185:
4177:
4136:
4113:
4109:
4064:
3996:
3970:
3952:
3856:
3823:
Walpole SC, Prieto-Merino D, Edwards P, Cleland J, Stevens G, Roberts I (June 2012).
3806:
3794:
3786:
3573:
3555:
3503:
3485:
3423:
3405:
3359:
3347:
3276:
3227:
3219:
3155:
3143:
3053:
3048:
3023:
2979:
2948:"Patterns and implications of gene gain and loss in the evolution of Prochlorococcus"
2928:
2910:
2863:
2781:
2769:
2714:
2684:
2548:
2486:
2481:
2415:
2388:"Primary production of the biosphere: integrating terrestrial and oceanic components"
2334:
2292:
1128:
1098:
832:
292:, such as deer, zebras and insects. The level with the least biomass are the highest
4881:
Biomass distributions for high trophic-level fishes in the North
Atlantic, 1900–2000
4859:
The mass of all life on Earth is staggering — until you consider how much we've lost
3751:
3239:
3199:
3115:
2820:
2363:
482:
7461:
7153:
7057:
7009:
6921:
6814:
6512:
6283:
6146:
6138:
6056:
5938:
5923:
5859:
5839:
5756:
5746:
5741:
5706:
5538:
5478:
5349:
5150:
5092:
5004:
4964:
4805:
4795:
4770:
Haberl H, Erb KH, Krausmann F, Gaube V, Bondeau A, Plutzar C, Gingrich S, Lucht W,
4748:
4738:
4509:
4475:
4428:
4367:
4318:
4308:
4259:
4251:
4169:
4105:
4056:
4016:
3960:
3942:
3846:
3836:
3778:
3731:
3563:
3547:
3493:
3477:
3413:
3397:
3337:
3266:
3211:
3135:
3043:
3039:
3035:
2969:
2959:
2918:
2902:
2855:
2808:
2796:
2761:
2744:
2674:
2664:
2538:
2528:
2476:
2466:
2407:
2367:
2358:
2282:
2272:
2125:
2012:
1856:
1123:
1088:
501:
477:
Compared to terrestrial biomass pyramids, aquatic pyramids are inverted at the base
225:
24:
20:
4432:
7431:
7398:
7259:
7211:
7087:
7062:
6871:
6824:
6749:
6594:
6579:
6419:
6278:
6248:
6243:
6233:
6166:
6151:
6031:
6011:
5893:
5761:
5667:
5558:
5468:
5410:
4994:
4920:
4870:
4313:
3297:
2964:
2669:
2629:
2443:
2411:
2170:
2165:
1700:
1068:
620:
607:
488:
472:
37:
2509:"Global distribution of microbial abundance and biomass in subseafloor sediment"
921:
16:
Total mass of living organisms in a given area (all species or selected species)
7295:
7249:
7244:
7216:
7183:
7052:
6911:
6839:
6829:
6679:
6624:
6542:
6537:
6532:
6399:
6223:
6176:
6106:
6101:
5996:
5863:
5736:
5543:
5533:
5513:
5316:
5281:
5220:
5097:
5052:
4944:
4863:
4780:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4723:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4131:
Edwards, Clive A.; Normal, Arancon Q. (27 April 2022). "Earthworm
Physiology".
2513:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2451:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2387:
2257:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2183: – Aquatic animals that are harvested commercially in the greatest amounts
2160:
2136:
1852:
1118:, and the biomass of marine animals is greater than that of marine autotrophs.
615:
558:
509:
458:
427:
180:
122:
100:
4658:
4479:
4453:"A re-appraisal of the total biomass and annual production of Antarctic krill"
4255:
4158:"Ant-termite interactions: an important but under-explored ecological linkage"
3766:
3668:"Anthropogenic mass: Comparing human-made mass to the living Biomass on earth"
3215:
3139:
2812:
2765:
882:
7535:
7509:
7403:
7368:
7269:
7264:
7239:
6769:
6734:
6709:
6559:
6522:
6424:
5400:
5374:
5331:
5321:
5276:
5243:
5135:
4969:
4924:
4181:
3956:
3841:
3790:
3559:
3489:
3409:
3351:
3280:
3223:
3147:
2914:
2867:
2718:
2362:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
1779:
611:
600:
596:
497:
446:
409:
368:
281:
248:
202:
4800:
4743:
4232:"Soil nematode abundance and functional group composition at a global scale"
4085:
3947:
3672:
Anthropogenic mass: Comparing human-made mass to the living Biomass on earth
3481:
3024:"Prochlorococcus, a marine photosynthetic prokaryote of global significance"
2599:"Scientists Reveal a Massive Biosphere of Life Hidden Under Earth's Surface"
2533:
2471:
2371:
2277:
193:
An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation that shows, for a given
7495:
7274:
7254:
7158:
6896:
6779:
6699:
6659:
6649:
6619:
6409:
6394:
6051:
6021:
5966:
5849:
5814:
5691:
5190:
4819:
4762:
4332:
4273:
4189:
4117:
3974:
3879:
3860:
3798:
3577:
3551:
3507:
3427:
3401:
3231:
3057:
2998:
2983:
2932:
2773:
2702:
2688:
2552:
2296:
2071:
1824:
1785:
588:
136:
of biomass at just over 100 billion tonnes C/yr. The total live biomass of
4350:
Jelmert A, Oppen-Berntsen DO (1996). "Whaling and Deep-Sea Biodiversity".
4050:
3782:
3720:"How Many Times Has the Human Population Doubled? Comparisons with Cancer"
2906:
2507:
Kallmeyer J, Pockalny R, Adhikari RR, Smith DC, D'Hondt S (October 2012).
2490:
2419:
7408:
7383:
7378:
7348:
7131:
7107:
7072:
6881:
6784:
6704:
6664:
6517:
5701:
5248:
5210:
5185:
5175:
5140:
5087:
5067:
3623:
3619:
2575:
1845:
1748:
554:
527:
521:
436:
381:
289:
233:
4289:"The impact of whaling on the ocean carbon cycle: why bigger was better"
4264:
3743:
3719:
51:
7388:
7323:
7112:
7092:
6876:
6849:
6634:
6547:
6414:
5991:
5956:
5596:
5548:
5493:
5463:
5369:
5286:
5230:
5107:
5057:
4028:
3735:
3342:
3317:
2875:
2835:
1956:
1592:
668:
649:
645:
637:
531:
513:
505:
297:
66:
7504:
4173:
3767:"Water as an essential nutrient: the physiological basis of hydration"
3693:
3271:
1867:—while accounting for almost half of total annual production, oceanic
263:
247:. The pyramid then proceeds through the various trophic levels to the
7413:
7318:
7102:
6866:
6859:
6834:
6744:
6449:
6319:
6273:
6001:
5445:
5415:
5215:
5170:
5145:
5082:
5072:
5047:
5039:
4984:
4915:
4614:. Berkeley, California: University of California Press and UNEP/WCMC.
1868:
1837:
1467:
1115:
1080:
799:
629:
565:
285:
240:
194:
175:
144:
88:
62:
4020:
1881:
Some global producers of biomass in order of productivity rates are
956:
321:
plant species can change in response to altered concentrations of CO
99:, which is the mass of all species in the community. It can include
7363:
7173:
6719:
6714:
6639:
6374:
6303:
5834:
5662:
5341:
5253:
5200:
5155:
1549:
894:
660:
569:
293:
137:
84:
3822:
3643:"Human-made materials now outweigh Earth's entire biomass – study"
1131:
alone exceeding the mass of all land and marine animals combined.
802:
carbon (fgC) per cell in the subsurface and terrestrial habitats.
466:
453:
7373:
7333:
7303:
7281:
6901:
6689:
6589:
6364:
6171:
6041:
6036:
5663:
5611:
5271:
4916:
4495:"Estimates of global cyanobacterial biomass and its distribution"
4286:
4060:
3299:
Global biodiversity: Earth's living resources in the 21st century
2385:
2119:
1994:
1742:
1508:
1375:
1092:
1084:
991:
968:
898:
664:
625:
535:
517:
114:
58:
7122:
6492:
3455:
3252:
3200:"Towards a quantitative view of the global ubiquity of biofilms"
2386:
Field CB, Behrenfeld MJ, Randerson JT, Falkowski P (July 1998).
530:
comprise the second level in the food chain, and includes small
280:
Terrestrial biomass generally decreases markedly at each higher
7358:
6684:
4083:
2091:
2052:
1243:
1169:
1076:
1003:
933:
641:
573:
111:
4492:
4451:
Atkinson A, Siegel V, Pakhomov EA, Jessopp MJ, Loeb V (2009).
4156:
Tuma, Jiri; Eggleton, Paul; Fayle, Tom M. (25 December 2019).
2506:
2157: – Measurement of population per unit area or unit volume
587:, which can consume swordfish, make up a fifth trophic level.
422:
4450:
3825:"The weight of nations: an estimation of adult human biomass"
3375:
2128: – Biological material used as a renewable energy source
1976:
1917:
1913:
1849:
1287:
859:
550:
543:
539:
304:
The biomass pyramid decreases markedly at each higher level.
164:
129:
118:
3116:"The biomass and biodiversity of the continental subsurface"
835:
in the table below, based on a 2018 study by Bar-On et. al.
239:
The bottom of the pyramid represents the primary producers (
6854:
4716:
3923:"The abundance, biomass, and distribution of ants on Earth"
3667:
3525:
3008:
2834:
He, Jin-Sheng; Bazzaz, Fakhri A.; Schmid, Bernhard (2002).
1841:
1662:
1331:
785:
580:
404:
128:
In 2018, Bar-On et al. estimated the total live biomass on
80:
4610:
Mark Spalding, Corinna Ravilious, and Edmund Green. 2001.
2888:
1878:
generate about 1.5% of the global net primary production.
520:
microzooplankton to macroscopic gelatinous and crustacean
284:(plants, herbivores, carnivores). Examples of terrestrial
6916:
6906:
3920:
3528:"The global biomass and number of terrestrial arthropods"
3316:
Schwarzhans, Werner; Carnevale, Giorgio (19 March 2021).
2945:
1419:
636:
is ubiquitous between 40°N and 40°S and dominates in the
141:
4717:
Foley JA, Monfreda C, Ramankutty N, Zaks D (July 2007).
3378:"The global ocean size spectrum from bacteria to whales"
3113:
1863:
However, there is a much more significant difference in
354:
232:
An ecological pyramid provides a snapshot in time of an
4853:
4769:
2650:
2568:
1844:(NDVI) over terrestrial habitats, and scan sea-surface
561:
fish. This makes up the third level in the food chain.
4135:(4 ed.). New York, NY: Springer. pp. 33–54.
2794:
445:
Phytoplankton → zooplankton → predatory zooplankton →
19:
This article is about the ecological measure. For the
4676:
4493:
Garcia-Pichel F, Belnap J, Neuer S, Schanz F (2003).
4349:
3624:
The 300 Million Years War: Plant Biomass v Herbivores
2997:
Nemiroff, R.; Bonnell, J., eds. (27 September 2006).
2145: – Rate of generation of biomass in an ecosystem
4226:
4224:
3995:
Petersen, Henning; Luxton, Malcolm (December 1982).
3818:
3816:
3315:
2175:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
4854:
Biocubes: a visualization of biomass and technomass
4651:
4446:
4444:
4442:
4387:"Fun Facts About Fascinating Fish | NOAA Fisheries"
3021:
2441:
3072:"The Most Important Microbe You've Never Heard Of"
2651:Landenmark HK, Forgan DH, Cockell CS (June 2015).
2250:
1871:account for only about 0.2% of the total biomass.
614:. Marine cyanobacteria include the smallest known
213:shows the amount of biomass at each trophic level.
95:, which is the mass of one or more species, or to
4410:
4221:
4155:
4055:. LU: Publications Office of the European Union.
3813:
1848:levels over oceans. This results in 56.4 billion
7533:
4439:
4280:
3198:Bar-On, Yinon M.; Milo, Ron (21 February 2019).
2901:(12). Oxford University Press (OUP): 3690–3700.
3927:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
3764:
3593:"Misc All the Biomass of Earth, in One Graphic"
3462:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2996:
2741:
2695:
2653:"An Estimate of the Total DNA in the Biosphere"
4626:
4624:
4622:
4620:
4583:
4413:Transactions of the American Fisheries Society
4345:
4343:
4230:
3994:
3916:
3914:
3912:
3910:
3292:
3290:
2833:
2442:Whitman WB, Coleman DC, Wiebe WJ (June 1998).
2437:
2435:
2433:
2431:
2429:
2326:
6755:Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems
6465:
5648:
4901:
4210:Sum of from table 3 in Sanderson, M.G. 1996
4130:
3451:
3449:
3447:
3445:
3443:
3441:
3439:
3437:
3022:Partensky F, Hess WR, Vaulot D (March 1999).
2564:
2562:
1160:global wet (fresh) biomass in million tonnes
610:are members from a phylum of bacteria called
4826:
4634:The environment: principles and applications
4086:"Global patterns in belowground communities"
3521:
3519:
3517:
2569:Deep Carbon Observatory (10 December 2018).
2381:
2379:
2139: – Matter composed of organic compounds
1819:
1025:
990:
955:
920:
881:
6820:Freshwater environmental quality parameters
4617:
4340:
3990:
3988:
3986:
3984:
3907:
3765:Jéquier, E.; Constant, F. (February 2010).
3287:
2737:
2735:
2502:
2500:
2426:
2251:Bar-On YM, Phillips R, Milo R (June 2018).
2181:List of commercially important fish species
844:Global biomass in billion tonnes of carbon
606:Among the phytoplankton at the base of the
6472:
6458:
5869:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
5655:
5641:
4908:
4894:
3874:
3872:
3870:
3615:
3613:
3434:
3197:
3028:Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews
2616:
2590:
2559:
648:, and forms part of the base of the ocean
4809:
4799:
4752:
4742:
4526:
4520:
4384:
4322:
4312:
4263:
3964:
3946:
3850:
3840:
3567:
3514:
3497:
3417:
3371:
3369:
3341:
3270:
3047:
2973:
2963:
2922:
2678:
2668:
2622:
2542:
2532:
2480:
2470:
2376:
2322:
2320:
2318:
2316:
2314:
2312:
2310:
2308:
2306:
2286:
2276:
2246:
2244:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2236:
2234:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2226:
2224:
2222:
2220:
2218:
147:on Earth, as a possible approximation of
5767:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
5406:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
4637:(2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 564.
4604:
4590:(4th ed.). Macmillan. p. 197.
3981:
2732:
2596:
2497:
2333:(4th ed.). Macmillan. p. 192.
2216:
2214:
2212:
2210:
2208:
2206:
2204:
2202:
2200:
2198:
1823:
1097:
1067:
481:
465:
452:
262:
174:
5799:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
4404:
3867:
3640:
3610:
3168:
1121:According to a 2020 study published in
7534:
6479:
5607:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
3771:European Journal of Clinical Nutrition
3366:
3109:
3107:
3105:
2303:
1842:normalised difference vegetation index
1397:0.9 kg for broilers, 1.8 kg for layers
258:
197:, the relationship between biomass or
170:
110:, just as they are. For example, in a
91:at a given time. Biomass can refer to
57:Shallow aquatic environments, such as
7008:
7007:
6491:
6453:
5636:
4889:
4529:Encyclopedia of Environmental Science
3306:, World Conservation Press, Cambridge
3193:
3191:
3103:
3101:
3099:
3097:
3095:
3093:
3091:
3089:
3087:
3085:
2701:
2195:
1157:global dry biomass in million tonnes
850:Global wet biomass in billion tonnes
847:Global dry biomass in billion tonnes
5622:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
4630:
3717:
3590:
3458:"The global biomass of wild mammals"
3304:World Conservation Monitoring Centre
2623:Gabbatiss, Josh (11 December 2018).
2597:Dockrill, Peter (11 December 2018).
655:
546:of fish, squid, lobsters and crabs.
7083:Oceanic physical-biological process
6945:List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)
6072:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
4372:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10020653.x
3691:
3641:Laville, Sandra (9 December 2020).
3628:Royal Institution Christmas Lecture
3064:
2253:"The biomass distribution on Earth"
13:
5825:Ecological effects of biodiversity
4709:
3718:Hern, Warren M. (September 1999).
3309:
3188:
3082:
2444:"Prokaryotes: the unseen majority"
2359:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
1840:observations. Satellites scan the
14:
7573:
5161:Generalist and specialist species
4847:
4133:Biology and Ecology of Earthworms
3296:Groombridge B, Jenkins MD (2000)
2860:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2002.970304.x
805:
512:to convert inorganic carbon into
228:in biomass at each trophic level.
7516:
7515:
7503:
7489:
7121:
6793:
6610:Colored dissolved organic matter
5884:Occupancy–abundance relationship
4719:"Our share of the planetary pie"
4514:10.1127/1864-1318/2003/0109-0213
4242:(7768): 194–198. 8 August 2019.
4110:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01360.x
818:
618:organisms. The smallest of all,
461:showing a network of food chains
421:
403:
353:
336:
275:of vertebrates versus arthropods
50:
36:
6955:Latin America and the Caribbean
5904:Relative abundance distribution
5617:Plant defense against herbivory
5484:Competitive exclusion principle
5196:Mesopredator release hypothesis
4831:(8th ed.). W. H. Freeman.
4584:Ricklefs RE, Miller GL (2000).
4577:
4549:
4486:
4378:
4214:Global Biochemical Cycles, Vol
4204:
4149:
4124:
4077:
4042:
3897:
3758:
3711:
3685:
3660:
3634:
3584:
3246:
3162:
3015:
2990:
2939:
2882:
2827:
2788:
2707:"Counting All the DNA on Earth"
2644:
2327:Ricklefs RE, Miller GL (2000).
1151:mean living mass of individual
824:Visualizing the biomass of life
583:, which can consume seals, and
7437:Ecological values of mangroves
6980:North Pacific Subtropical Gyre
5489:Consumer–resource interactions
4385:Fisheries, NOAA (3 May 2022).
4052:Global soil biodiversity atlas
3040:10.1128/MMBR.63.1.106-127.1999
2895:Journal of Experimental Botany
2347:
2177:- a biomass manipulation study
557:, which are small, schooling,
272:Relative terrestrial biomasses
269:
1:
6335:Biological data visualization
6162:Environmental niche modelling
5889:Population viability analysis
4827:Purves WK, Orians GH (2007).
4433:10.1080/00028487.2017.1360392
3591:Gosh, Iman (20 August 2021).
2188:
7457:Marine conservation activism
7442:Fisheries and climate change
5820:Density-dependent inhibition
4829:Life: The Science of Biology
4314:10.1371/journal.pone.0012444
3004:Astronomy Picture of the Day
2965:10.1371/journal.pgen.0030231
2670:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002168
2412:10.1126/science.281.5374.237
2105:
2100:
2095:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2061:
2056:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2026:
2021:
2016:
1998:
1980:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1926:
1921:
504:at the bottom of the marine
300:, such as foxes and eagles.
7:
7452:Human impact on marine life
7329:Davidson Seamount § Ecology
6565:Aquatic population dynamics
6289:Liebig's law of the minimum
6124:Resource selection function
5015:Metabolic theory of ecology
4527:Alexander DE (1 May 1999).
3204:Nature Reviews Microbiology
2112:
1883:
10:
7578:
6189:Niche apportionment models
5909:Relative species abundance
5113:Primary nutritional groups
5010:List of feeding behaviours
4612:World Atlas of Coral Reefs
3724:Population and Environment
3169:Observatory, Deep Carbon.
2151: – Group of organisms
2149:Primary nutritional groups
1164:
492:, an influential bacterium
434:
186:
18:
7547:Environmental terminology
7483:
7422:
7294:
7230:
7192:
7139:
7130:
7119:
7068:Marine primary production
7020:
7016:
7003:
6962:List of marine ecoregions
6937:
6802:
6791:
6505:
6501:
6487:
6438:
6370:Ecosystem based fisheries
6312:
6212:
6137:
6010:
5982:Interspecific competition
5947:
5874:Minimum viable population
5807:
5732:Maximum sustainable yield
5717:Intraspecific competition
5712:Effective population size
5675:
5592:Anti-predator adaptations
5577:
5456:
5383:
5340:
5262:
5229:
5126:
5103:Photosynthetic efficiency
5038:
4932:
4480:10.1016/j.dsr.2008.12.007
4256:10.1038/s41586-019-1418-6
3259:Aquatic Microbial Ecology
3216:10.1038/s41579-019-0162-0
3140:10.1038/s41561-018-0221-6
2766:10.1038/s41586-020-3010-5
1820:Global rate of production
1597:
1590:
1585:
1174:
1167:
817:
812:
683:Billion tonnes of carbon
7314:Coastal biogeomorphology
7309:Marine coastal ecosystem
6360:Ecological stoichiometry
6325:Alternative stable state
4869:12 December 2013 at the
4460:Deep-Sea Research Part I
3842:10.1186/1471-2458-12-439
1154:percent biomass (dried)
579:Apex predators, such as
163:, and weighs 50 billion
123:organically bound carbon
7222:Paradox of the plankton
7033:Diel vertical migration
6927:Freshwater swamp forest
6645:GIS and aquatic science
6493:General components and
6204:Ontogenetic niche shift
6067:Ideal free distribution
5977:Ecological facilitation
5727:Malthusian growth model
5697:Consumer-resource model
5554:Paradox of the plankton
5519:Energy systems language
5239:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
5206:Optimal foraging theory
5181:Heterotrophic nutrition
4801:10.1073/pnas.0704243104
4744:10.1073/pnas.0705190104
4659:"Tundra - Biomes - WWF"
3948:10.1073/pnas.2201550119
3482:10.1073/pnas.2204892120
2813:10.1023/A:1004891807664
2534:10.1073/pnas.1203849109
2472:10.1073/pnas.95.12.6578
2372:10.1351/goldbook.B00660
2278:10.1073/pnas.1711842115
1110:) than animal biomass (
791:Deep Carbon Observatory
680:Number of cells (× 10)
667:are both classified as
393:carnivorous zooplankton
199:biological productivity
7048:Large marine ecosystem
6740:Shoaling and schooling
6350:Ecological forecasting
6294:Marginal value theorem
6092:Landscape epidemiology
6027:Cross-boundary subsidy
5962:Biological interaction
5312:Microbial intelligence
5000:Green world hypothesis
3552:10.1126/sciadv.abq4049
3402:10.1126/sciadv.abh3732
2143:Productivity (ecology)
1908:(billion tonnes C/yr)
1829:
1103:
1073:
1030:
995:
960:
925:
886:
784:A census published in
740:Terrestrial subsurface
494:
479:
463:
451:
277:
184:
7467:Marine protected area
7394:Salt pannes and pools
7169:Marine larval ecology
7144:Census of Marine Life
7028:Deep scattering layer
6985:San Francisco Estuary
6950:Africa and Madagascar
6775:Underwater camouflage
6555:Aquatic biomonitoring
6495:freshwater ecosystems
6355:Ecological humanities
6254:Ecological energetics
6199:Niche differentiation
6062:Habitat fragmentation
5830:Ecological extinction
5777:Small population size
5529:Feed conversion ratio
5509:Ecological succession
5441:San Francisco Estuary
5355:Ecological efficiency
5297:Microbial cooperation
3783:10.1038/ejcn.2009.111
2173: – body of water
1876:freshwater ecosystems
1827:
1101:
1071:
1029:
994:
959:
924:
885:
485:
469:
456:
443:
266:
178:
125:(C) that is present.
83:of living biological
7202:Marine bacteriophage
7164:Marine invertebrates
6380:Evolutionary ecology
6345:Ecological footprint
6340:Ecological economics
6264:Ecological threshold
6259:Ecological indicator
6129:Source–sink dynamics
6082:Land change modeling
6077:Insular biogeography
5929:Species distribution
5668:Modelling ecosystems
5327:Microbial metabolism
5166:Intraguild predation
4955:Biogeochemical cycle
4921:Modelling ecosystems
4557:"What are wetlands?"
4352:Conservation Biology
2132:Biomass partitioning
1937:Tropical rainforests
1890:Biomass productivity
1735:379 (in peak season)
677:Geographic location
585:shortfin mako sharks
508:. Phytoplankton use
428:predatory vertebrate
234:ecological community
218:productivity pyramid
7542:Ecology terminology
7078:Ocean fertilization
6887:Trophic state index
6845:Lake stratification
6575:Aquatic respiration
6430:Theoretical ecology
6405:Natural environment
6269:Ecosystem diversity
6239:Ecological collapse
6229:Bateman's principle
6184:Limiting similarity
6097:Landscape limnology
5919:Species homogeneity
5757:Population modeling
5752:Population dynamics
5569:Trophic state index
4792:2007PNAS..10412942H
4735:2007PNAS..10412585F
4663:World Wildlife Fund
4502:Algological Studies
4472:2009DSRI...56..727A
4425:2017TrAFS.146.1262J
4364:1996ConBi..10..653J
4305:2010PLoSO...512444P
4248:2019Natur.572..194V
4102:2009EcolL..12.1238F
4013:1982Oikos..39..288P
3939:2022PNAS..11901550S
3933:(40): e2201550119.
3544:2023SciA....9.4049R
3474:2023PNAS..12004892G
3468:(10): e2204892120.
3394:2021SciA....7.3732H
3334:2021Pbio...47..446S
3132:2018NatGe..11..707M
2999:"Earth from Saturn"
2907:10.1093/jxb/eraa133
2852:2002Oikos..97..337H
2758:2020Natur.588..442E
2525:2012PNAS..10916213K
2463:1998PNAS...95.6578W
2404:1998Sci...281..237F
2269:2018PNAS..115.6506B
1220:4.63 billion adults
259:Terrestrial biomass
171:Ecological pyramids
149:global biodiversity
87:in a given area or
7552:Ecological metrics
7344:Intertidal wetland
7339:Intertidal ecology
7207:Marine prokaryotes
7149:Deep-sea community
7043:Iron fertilization
6966:Specific examples
6892:Upland and lowland
6810:Freshwater biology
6675:Microbial food web
6585:Aquatic toxicology
6528:Aquatic adaptation
6481:Aquatic ecosystems
6441:Outline of ecology
6390:Industrial ecology
6385:Functional ecology
6249:Ecological deficit
6194:Niche construction
6157:Ecosystem engineer
5934:Species–area curve
5855:Introduced species
5670:: Other components
5602:Deimatic behaviour
5504:Ecological network
5436:North Pacific Gyre
5421:hydrothermal vents
5360:Ecological pyramid
5307:Microbial food web
5118:Primary production
5063:Foundation species
4772:Fischer-Kowalski M
4162:Biological Reviews
3754:– via JSTOR.
3736:10.1007/BF02436121
3694:"Day of 8 Billion"
3343:10.1017/pab.2021.2
2711:The New York Times
1834:primary production
1830:
1486:10 mg (dry weight)
1142:number of species
1104:
1074:
1031:
996:
961:
926:
887:
632:(10) individuals.
495:
480:
464:
333:of up to 900 ppm.
278:
245:primary production
189:Ecological pyramid
185:
151:, is estimated at
134:primary production
7562:Fisheries science
7529:
7528:
7510:Oceans portal
7479:
7478:
7475:
7474:
7354:Hydrothermal vent
7290:
7289:
7179:Seashore wildlife
7010:Marine ecosystems
6999:
6998:
6995:
6994:
6765:Thermal pollution
6730:Ramsar Convention
6670:Microbial ecology
6630:Fisheries science
6570:Aquatic predation
6447:
6446:
6330:Balance of nature
6087:Landscape ecology
5972:Community ecology
5914:Species diversity
5850:Indicator species
5845:Gradient analysis
5722:Logistic function
5630:
5629:
5587:Animal coloration
5564:Trophic mutualism
5302:Microbial ecology
5093:Photoheterotrophs
5078:Myco-heterotrophy
4990:Ecosystem ecology
4975:Carrying capacity
4940:Abiotic component
4864:Counting bacteria
4838:978-1-4292-0877-2
4690:. 17 January 2020
4644:978-0-415-21770-5
4597:978-0-7167-2829-0
4542:978-0-412-74050-3
4174:10.1111/brv.12577
4142:978-0-387-74943-3
4096:(11): 1238–1249.
4070:978-92-79-48168-0
3829:BMC Public Health
3692:Nations, United.
3597:Visual Capitalist
3272:10.3354/ame028117
3120:Nature Geoscience
2752:(7838): 442–444.
2340:978-0-7167-2829-0
2263:(25): 6506–6511.
2110:
2109:
2013:Temperate forests
1817:
1816:
1789:
1752:
1148:individual count
1145:date of estimate
1066:
1065:
829:
828:
778:
777:
656:Bacterial biomass
502:primary producers
449:→ predatory fish
433:
432:
345:marine food chain
97:community biomass
7569:
7519:
7518:
7512:
7508:
7507:
7498:
7496:Lakes portal
7494:
7493:
7492:
7462:Marine pollution
7154:Deep-water coral
7137:
7136:
7125:
7058:Marine chemistry
7018:
7017:
7005:
7004:
6922:Freshwater marsh
6815:Freshwater biome
6797:
6513:Acoustic ecology
6503:
6502:
6489:
6488:
6474:
6467:
6460:
6451:
6450:
6147:Ecological niche
6119:selection theory
5939:Umbrella species
5924:Species richness
5860:Invasive species
5840:Flagship species
5747:Population cycle
5742:Overexploitation
5707:Ecological yield
5657:
5650:
5643:
5634:
5633:
5539:Mesotrophic soil
5479:Climax community
5411:Marine food webs
5350:Biomagnification
5151:Chemoorganotroph
5005:Keystone species
4965:Biotic component
4910:
4903:
4896:
4887:
4886:
4842:
4823:
4813:
4803:
4766:
4756:
4746:
4703:
4702:
4697:
4695:
4688:ArcGIS StoryMaps
4680:
4674:
4673:
4671:
4669:
4655:
4649:
4648:
4631:Park CC (2001).
4628:
4615:
4608:
4602:
4601:
4581:
4575:
4574:
4572:
4570:
4561:
4553:
4547:
4546:
4524:
4518:
4517:
4499:
4490:
4484:
4483:
4457:
4448:
4437:
4436:
4419:(6): 1262–1278.
4408:
4402:
4401:
4399:
4397:
4382:
4376:
4375:
4347:
4338:
4336:
4326:
4316:
4284:
4278:
4277:
4267:
4228:
4219:
4208:
4202:
4201:
4153:
4147:
4146:
4128:
4122:
4121:
4081:
4075:
4074:
4046:
4040:
4039:
4037:
4035:
3992:
3979:
3978:
3968:
3950:
3918:
3905:
3901:
3895:
3894:
3892:
3890:
3876:
3865:
3864:
3854:
3844:
3820:
3811:
3810:
3762:
3756:
3755:
3715:
3709:
3708:
3706:
3704:
3689:
3683:
3682:
3680:
3678:
3664:
3658:
3657:
3655:
3653:
3638:
3632:
3617:
3608:
3607:
3605:
3603:
3588:
3582:
3581:
3571:
3532:Science Advances
3523:
3512:
3511:
3501:
3453:
3432:
3431:
3421:
3388:(46): eabh3732.
3382:Science Advances
3373:
3364:
3363:
3345:
3313:
3307:
3294:
3285:
3284:
3274:
3250:
3244:
3243:
3195:
3186:
3185:
3183:
3181:
3166:
3160:
3159:
3111:
3080:
3079:
3068:
3062:
3061:
3051:
3019:
3013:
3012:
2994:
2988:
2987:
2977:
2967:
2943:
2937:
2936:
2926:
2886:
2880:
2879:
2831:
2825:
2824:
2792:
2786:
2785:
2739:
2730:
2729:
2727:
2725:
2705:(18 July 2015).
2699:
2693:
2692:
2682:
2672:
2648:
2642:
2641:
2639:
2637:
2620:
2614:
2613:
2611:
2609:
2594:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2583:
2566:
2557:
2556:
2546:
2536:
2504:
2495:
2494:
2484:
2474:
2448:
2439:
2424:
2423:
2398:(5374): 237–40.
2383:
2374:
2351:
2345:
2344:
2324:
2301:
2300:
2290:
2280:
2248:
2176:
2126:Biomass (energy)
2033:Cultivated lands
1906:Total production
1884:
1857:photoautotrophic
1783:
1746:
1720:
1439:
1227:(excl. children)
1134:
1133:
838:
837:
822:
821:
810:
809:
723:Terrestrial soil
706:Ocean subsurface
674:
673:
473:Biomass pyramids
425:
407:
357:
341:
340:
270:
162:
160:
156:
54:
40:
25:biomass (energy)
21:renewable energy
7577:
7576:
7572:
7571:
7570:
7568:
7567:
7566:
7532:
7531:
7530:
7525:
7502:
7501:
7490:
7488:
7487:
7471:
7432:Coral bleaching
7418:
7399:Seagrass meadow
7296:Marine habitats
7286:
7260:Coral reef fish
7226:
7212:Marine protists
7188:
7126:
7117:
7088:Ocean turbidity
7063:Marine food web
7012:
6991:
6933:
6872:River ecosystem
6825:Freshwater fish
6798:
6789:
6595:Bioluminescence
6580:Aquatic science
6497:
6483:
6478:
6448:
6443:
6434:
6420:Systems ecology
6308:
6279:Extinction debt
6244:Ecological debt
6234:Bioluminescence
6215:
6208:
6177:marine habitats
6152:Ecological trap
6133:
6013:
6006:
5949:
5943:
5899:Rapoport's rule
5894:Priority effect
5835:Endemic species
5803:
5762:Population size
5678:
5671:
5661:
5631:
5626:
5579:
5573:
5559:Trophic cascade
5469:Bioaccumulation
5452:
5379:
5336:
5258:
5225:
5122:
5034:
4995:Ecosystem model
4928:
4914:
4871:Wayback Machine
4850:
4845:
4839:
4786:(31): 12942–7.
4729:(31): 12585–6.
4712:
4710:Further reading
4707:
4706:
4693:
4691:
4682:
4681:
4677:
4667:
4665:
4657:
4656:
4652:
4645:
4629:
4618:
4609:
4605:
4598:
4582:
4578:
4568:
4566:
4559:
4555:
4554:
4550:
4543:
4525:
4521:
4497:
4491:
4487:
4455:
4449:
4440:
4409:
4405:
4395:
4393:
4383:
4379:
4348:
4341:
4285:
4281:
4229:
4222:
4209:
4205:
4154:
4150:
4143:
4129:
4125:
4090:Ecology Letters
4082:
4078:
4071:
4047:
4043:
4033:
4031:
4021:10.2307/3544689
3993:
3982:
3919:
3908:
3902:
3898:
3888:
3886:
3878:
3877:
3868:
3821:
3814:
3763:
3759:
3716:
3712:
3702:
3700:
3690:
3686:
3676:
3674:
3666:
3665:
3661:
3651:
3649:
3639:
3635:
3618:
3611:
3601:
3599:
3589:
3585:
3538:(5): eabq4049.
3524:
3515:
3454:
3435:
3374:
3367:
3314:
3310:
3295:
3288:
3251:
3247:
3196:
3189:
3179:
3177:
3167:
3163:
3126:(10): 707–717.
3112:
3083:
3070:
3069:
3065:
3020:
3016:
2995:
2991:
2944:
2940:
2887:
2883:
2832:
2828:
2793:
2789:
2740:
2733:
2723:
2721:
2700:
2696:
2663:(6): e1002168.
2649:
2645:
2635:
2633:
2630:The Independent
2621:
2617:
2607:
2605:
2595:
2591:
2581:
2579:
2567:
2560:
2519:(40): 16213–6.
2505:
2498:
2457:(12): 6578–83.
2446:
2440:
2427:
2384:
2377:
2352:
2348:
2341:
2325:
2304:
2249:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2174:
2171:Lake Pohjalampi
2166:Stubble burning
2115:
1995:River estuaries
1907:
1899:
1891:
1865:standing stocks
1822:
1813:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1782:
1767:
1758:
1753:
1745:
1736:
1727:
1722:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1701:Antarctic krill
1694:
1689:
1684:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1656:
1651:
1646:
1641:
1636:
1631:
1624:
1617:
1610:
1605:
1600:
1595:
1588:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1564:
1559:
1552:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1487:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1422:
1413:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1378:
1369:
1364:
1359:
1354:
1349:
1344:
1339:
1334:
1325:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1251:
1246:
1237:
1228:
1226:
1221:
1216:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1194:
1193:(incl children)
1192:
1187:
1182:
1177:
1172:
1062:
1055:
1048:
1041:
1032:
1021:
1016:
1011:
1006:
997:
986:
981:
976:
971:
962:
951:
946:
941:
936:
927:
916:
911:
906:
901:
888:
877:
872:
867:
862:
819:
808:
774:
767:
760:
751:
746:
741:
734:
729:
724:
717:
712:
707:
700:
695:
690:
658:
644:in the Earth's
634:Prochlorococcus
621:Prochlorococcus
608:marine food web
493:
489:Prochlorococcus
478:
476:
462:
439:
358: Sun
347:
339:
332:
328:
324:
319:
312:
276:
274:
268:
261:
211:biomass pyramid
191:
173:
158:
154:
152:
93:species biomass
74:
73:
72:
71:
70:
55:
46:
45:
44:
41:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
7575:
7565:
7564:
7559:
7554:
7549:
7544:
7527:
7526:
7524:
7523:
7513:
7499:
7484:
7481:
7480:
7477:
7476:
7473:
7472:
7470:
7469:
7464:
7459:
7454:
7449:
7444:
7439:
7434:
7428:
7426:
7420:
7419:
7417:
7416:
7411:
7406:
7401:
7396:
7391:
7386:
7381:
7376:
7371:
7366:
7361:
7356:
7351:
7346:
7341:
7336:
7331:
7326:
7321:
7316:
7311:
7306:
7300:
7298:
7292:
7291:
7288:
7287:
7285:
7284:
7279:
7278:
7277:
7272:
7267:
7262:
7257:
7250:Saltwater fish
7247:
7245:Marine reptile
7242:
7236:
7234:
7228:
7227:
7225:
7224:
7219:
7217:Marine viruses
7214:
7209:
7204:
7198:
7196:
7194:Microorganisms
7190:
7189:
7187:
7186:
7184:Wild fisheries
7181:
7176:
7171:
7166:
7161:
7156:
7151:
7146:
7140:
7134:
7128:
7127:
7120:
7118:
7116:
7115:
7110:
7105:
7100:
7098:Thorson's rule
7095:
7090:
7085:
7080:
7075:
7070:
7065:
7060:
7055:
7053:Marine biology
7050:
7045:
7040:
7035:
7030:
7024:
7022:
7014:
7013:
7001:
7000:
6997:
6996:
6993:
6992:
6990:
6989:
6988:
6987:
6982:
6977:
6972:
6964:
6959:
6958:
6957:
6952:
6941:
6939:
6935:
6934:
6932:
6931:
6930:
6929:
6924:
6919:
6914:
6912:Brackish marsh
6909:
6899:
6894:
6889:
6884:
6879:
6874:
6869:
6864:
6863:
6862:
6852:
6847:
6842:
6840:Lake ecosystem
6837:
6832:
6830:Hyporheic zone
6827:
6822:
6817:
6812:
6806:
6804:
6800:
6799:
6792:
6790:
6788:
6787:
6782:
6777:
6772:
6767:
6762:
6757:
6752:
6747:
6742:
6737:
6732:
6727:
6722:
6717:
6712:
6707:
6702:
6697:
6692:
6687:
6682:
6680:Microbial loop
6677:
6672:
6667:
6662:
6657:
6652:
6647:
6642:
6637:
6632:
6627:
6625:Eutrophication
6622:
6617:
6612:
6607:
6605:Cascade effect
6602:
6597:
6592:
6587:
6582:
6577:
6572:
6567:
6562:
6557:
6552:
6551:
6550:
6545:
6540:
6533:Aquatic animal
6530:
6525:
6520:
6515:
6509:
6507:
6499:
6498:
6485:
6484:
6477:
6476:
6469:
6462:
6454:
6445:
6444:
6439:
6436:
6435:
6433:
6432:
6427:
6422:
6417:
6412:
6407:
6402:
6400:Microecosystem
6397:
6392:
6387:
6382:
6377:
6372:
6367:
6362:
6357:
6352:
6347:
6342:
6337:
6332:
6327:
6322:
6316:
6314:
6310:
6309:
6307:
6306:
6301:
6299:Thorson's rule
6296:
6291:
6286:
6281:
6276:
6271:
6266:
6261:
6256:
6251:
6246:
6241:
6236:
6231:
6226:
6224:Assembly rules
6220:
6218:
6210:
6209:
6207:
6206:
6201:
6196:
6191:
6186:
6181:
6180:
6179:
6169:
6164:
6159:
6154:
6149:
6143:
6141:
6135:
6134:
6132:
6131:
6126:
6121:
6109:
6107:Patch dynamics
6104:
6102:Metapopulation
6099:
6094:
6089:
6084:
6079:
6074:
6069:
6064:
6059:
6054:
6049:
6044:
6039:
6034:
6029:
6024:
6018:
6016:
6008:
6007:
6005:
6004:
5999:
5997:Storage effect
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5974:
5969:
5964:
5959:
5953:
5951:
5945:
5944:
5942:
5941:
5936:
5931:
5926:
5921:
5916:
5911:
5906:
5901:
5896:
5891:
5886:
5881:
5879:Neutral theory
5876:
5871:
5866:
5864:Native species
5857:
5852:
5847:
5842:
5837:
5832:
5827:
5822:
5817:
5811:
5809:
5805:
5804:
5802:
5801:
5796:
5795:
5794:
5789:
5779:
5774:
5769:
5764:
5759:
5754:
5749:
5744:
5739:
5737:Overpopulation
5734:
5729:
5724:
5719:
5714:
5709:
5704:
5699:
5694:
5689:
5683:
5681:
5673:
5672:
5660:
5659:
5652:
5645:
5637:
5628:
5627:
5625:
5624:
5619:
5614:
5609:
5604:
5599:
5594:
5589:
5583:
5581:
5575:
5574:
5572:
5571:
5566:
5561:
5556:
5551:
5546:
5544:Nutrient cycle
5541:
5536:
5534:Feeding frenzy
5531:
5526:
5521:
5516:
5514:Energy quality
5511:
5506:
5501:
5496:
5491:
5486:
5481:
5476:
5474:Cascade effect
5471:
5466:
5460:
5458:
5454:
5453:
5451:
5450:
5449:
5448:
5443:
5438:
5433:
5428:
5423:
5418:
5408:
5403:
5398:
5393:
5387:
5385:
5381:
5380:
5378:
5377:
5372:
5367:
5362:
5357:
5352:
5346:
5344:
5338:
5337:
5335:
5334:
5329:
5324:
5319:
5317:Microbial loop
5314:
5309:
5304:
5299:
5294:
5289:
5284:
5282:Lithoautotroph
5279:
5274:
5268:
5266:
5264:Microorganisms
5260:
5259:
5257:
5256:
5251:
5246:
5241:
5235:
5233:
5227:
5226:
5224:
5223:
5221:Prey switching
5218:
5213:
5208:
5203:
5198:
5193:
5188:
5183:
5178:
5173:
5168:
5163:
5158:
5153:
5148:
5143:
5138:
5132:
5130:
5124:
5123:
5121:
5120:
5115:
5110:
5105:
5100:
5098:Photosynthesis
5095:
5090:
5085:
5080:
5075:
5070:
5065:
5060:
5055:
5053:Chemosynthesis
5050:
5044:
5042:
5036:
5035:
5033:
5032:
5027:
5022:
5017:
5012:
5007:
5002:
4997:
4992:
4987:
4982:
4977:
4972:
4967:
4962:
4957:
4952:
4947:
4945:Abiotic stress
4942:
4936:
4934:
4930:
4929:
4913:
4912:
4905:
4898:
4890:
4884:
4883:
4878:
4876:Trophic levels
4873:
4861:
4856:
4849:
4848:External links
4846:
4844:
4843:
4837:
4824:
4767:
4713:
4711:
4708:
4705:
4704:
4675:
4650:
4643:
4616:
4603:
4596:
4576:
4548:
4541:
4519:
4485:
4466:(5): 727–740.
4438:
4403:
4377:
4358:(2): 653–654.
4339:
4279:
4220:
4203:
4168:(3): 555–572.
4148:
4141:
4123:
4076:
4069:
4041:
4007:(3): 288–388.
3980:
3906:
3896:
3866:
3812:
3777:(2): 115–123.
3757:
3710:
3698:United Nations
3684:
3659:
3633:
3609:
3583:
3513:
3433:
3365:
3328:(3): 446–463.
3308:
3286:
3265:(2): 117–129.
3245:
3210:(4): 199–200.
3187:
3161:
3081:
3063:
3014:
2989:
2938:
2881:
2846:(3): 337–348.
2826:
2807:(2): 217–230.
2801:Plant and Soil
2787:
2731:
2694:
2643:
2615:
2589:
2558:
2496:
2425:
2375:
2346:
2339:
2302:
2193:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2184:
2178:
2168:
2163:
2161:Slash-and-burn
2158:
2155:Standing stock
2152:
2146:
2140:
2137:Organic matter
2134:
2129:
2123:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2108:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2088:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2029:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2009:
2008:
2006:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1991:
1990:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1973:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1953:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1933:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1910:
1909:
1904:
1901:
1896:
1893:
1888:
1821:
1818:
1815:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1778:
1775:
1774:
1772:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1759:
1756:
1754:
1741:
1738:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1716:
1714:
1711:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1699:
1696:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1661:
1658:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1591:
1589:
1586:
1583:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1553:
1548:
1545:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1512:
1507:
1504:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1466:
1463:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1447:
1444:
1442:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1418:
1415:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1374:
1371:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1335:
1330:
1327:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1286:
1283:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1242:
1239:
1238:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1229:
1224:
1222:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1190:
1188:
1185:
1183:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1168:
1166:
1162:
1161:
1158:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1064:
1063:
1058:
1056:
1051:
1049:
1044:
1042:
1037:
1034:
1033:
1024:
1022:
1019:
1017:
1014:
1012:
1009:
1007:
1002:
999:
998:
989:
987:
984:
982:
979:
977:
974:
972:
967:
964:
963:
954:
952:
949:
947:
944:
942:
939:
937:
932:
929:
928:
919:
917:
914:
912:
909:
907:
904:
902:
893:
890:
889:
880:
878:
875:
873:
870:
868:
865:
863:
858:
855:
854:
851:
848:
845:
842:
827:
826:
815:
814:
813:External image
807:
806:Global biomass
804:
776:
775:
770:
768:
763:
761:
756:
753:
752:
749:
747:
744:
742:
739:
736:
735:
732:
730:
727:
725:
722:
719:
718:
715:
713:
710:
708:
705:
702:
701:
698:
696:
693:
691:
688:
685:
684:
681:
678:
657:
654:
616:photosynthetic
559:filter-feeding
510:photosynthesis
486:
470:
459:Ocean food web
457:
447:filter feeders
431:
430:
418:
417:
413:
412:
400:
399:
395:
394:
390:
389:
385:
384:
377:
376:
372:
371:
365:
364:
360:
359:
350:
349:
338:
335:
330:
326:
322:
317:
310:
267:
260:
257:
249:apex predators
230:
229:
214:
203:trophic levels
187:Main article:
181:energy pyramid
172:
169:
101:microorganisms
56:
49:
48:
47:
42:
35:
34:
33:
32:
31:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7574:
7563:
7560:
7558:
7555:
7553:
7550:
7548:
7545:
7543:
7540:
7539:
7537:
7522:
7514:
7511:
7506:
7500:
7497:
7486:
7485:
7482:
7468:
7465:
7463:
7460:
7458:
7455:
7453:
7450:
7448:
7445:
7443:
7440:
7438:
7435:
7433:
7430:
7429:
7427:
7425:
7421:
7415:
7412:
7410:
7407:
7405:
7404:Sponge ground
7402:
7400:
7397:
7395:
7392:
7390:
7387:
7385:
7382:
7380:
7377:
7375:
7372:
7370:
7369:Marine biomes
7367:
7365:
7362:
7360:
7357:
7355:
7352:
7350:
7347:
7345:
7342:
7340:
7337:
7335:
7332:
7330:
7327:
7325:
7322:
7320:
7317:
7315:
7312:
7310:
7307:
7305:
7302:
7301:
7299:
7297:
7293:
7283:
7280:
7276:
7273:
7271:
7270:Demersal fish
7268:
7266:
7265:Deep-sea fish
7263:
7261:
7258:
7256:
7253:
7252:
7251:
7248:
7246:
7243:
7241:
7240:Marine mammal
7238:
7237:
7235:
7233:
7229:
7223:
7220:
7218:
7215:
7213:
7210:
7208:
7205:
7203:
7200:
7199:
7197:
7195:
7191:
7185:
7182:
7180:
7177:
7175:
7172:
7170:
7167:
7165:
7162:
7160:
7157:
7155:
7152:
7150:
7147:
7145:
7142:
7141:
7138:
7135:
7133:
7129:
7124:
7114:
7111:
7109:
7106:
7104:
7101:
7099:
7096:
7094:
7091:
7089:
7086:
7084:
7081:
7079:
7076:
7074:
7071:
7069:
7066:
7064:
7061:
7059:
7056:
7054:
7051:
7049:
7046:
7044:
7041:
7039:
7036:
7034:
7031:
7029:
7026:
7025:
7023:
7019:
7015:
7011:
7006:
7002:
6986:
6983:
6981:
6978:
6976:
6973:
6971:
6968:
6967:
6965:
6963:
6960:
6956:
6953:
6951:
6948:
6947:
6946:
6943:
6942:
6940:
6936:
6928:
6925:
6923:
6920:
6918:
6915:
6913:
6910:
6908:
6905:
6904:
6903:
6900:
6898:
6895:
6893:
6890:
6888:
6885:
6883:
6880:
6878:
6875:
6873:
6870:
6868:
6865:
6861:
6858:
6857:
6856:
6853:
6851:
6848:
6846:
6843:
6841:
6838:
6836:
6833:
6831:
6828:
6826:
6823:
6821:
6818:
6816:
6813:
6811:
6808:
6807:
6805:
6801:
6796:
6786:
6783:
6781:
6778:
6776:
6773:
6771:
6770:Trophic level
6768:
6766:
6763:
6761:
6758:
6756:
6753:
6751:
6748:
6746:
6743:
6741:
6738:
6736:
6735:Sediment trap
6733:
6731:
6728:
6726:
6723:
6721:
6718:
6716:
6713:
6711:
6710:Phytoplankton
6708:
6706:
6703:
6701:
6698:
6696:
6693:
6691:
6688:
6686:
6683:
6681:
6678:
6676:
6673:
6671:
6668:
6666:
6663:
6661:
6658:
6656:
6653:
6651:
6648:
6646:
6643:
6641:
6638:
6636:
6633:
6631:
6628:
6626:
6623:
6621:
6618:
6616:
6613:
6611:
6608:
6606:
6603:
6601:
6598:
6596:
6593:
6591:
6588:
6586:
6583:
6581:
6578:
6576:
6573:
6571:
6568:
6566:
6563:
6561:
6560:Aquatic plant
6558:
6556:
6553:
6549:
6546:
6544:
6541:
6539:
6536:
6535:
6534:
6531:
6529:
6526:
6524:
6523:Anoxic waters
6521:
6519:
6516:
6514:
6511:
6510:
6508:
6504:
6500:
6496:
6490:
6486:
6482:
6475:
6470:
6468:
6463:
6461:
6456:
6455:
6452:
6442:
6437:
6431:
6428:
6426:
6425:Urban ecology
6423:
6421:
6418:
6416:
6413:
6411:
6408:
6406:
6403:
6401:
6398:
6396:
6393:
6391:
6388:
6386:
6383:
6381:
6378:
6376:
6373:
6371:
6368:
6366:
6363:
6361:
6358:
6356:
6353:
6351:
6348:
6346:
6343:
6341:
6338:
6336:
6333:
6331:
6328:
6326:
6323:
6321:
6318:
6317:
6315:
6311:
6305:
6302:
6300:
6297:
6295:
6292:
6290:
6287:
6285:
6284:Kleiber's law
6282:
6280:
6277:
6275:
6272:
6270:
6267:
6265:
6262:
6260:
6257:
6255:
6252:
6250:
6247:
6245:
6242:
6240:
6237:
6235:
6232:
6230:
6227:
6225:
6222:
6221:
6219:
6217:
6211:
6205:
6202:
6200:
6197:
6195:
6192:
6190:
6187:
6185:
6182:
6178:
6175:
6174:
6173:
6170:
6168:
6165:
6163:
6160:
6158:
6155:
6153:
6150:
6148:
6145:
6144:
6142:
6140:
6136:
6130:
6127:
6125:
6122:
6120:
6118:
6114:
6110:
6108:
6105:
6103:
6100:
6098:
6095:
6093:
6090:
6088:
6085:
6083:
6080:
6078:
6075:
6073:
6070:
6068:
6065:
6063:
6060:
6058:
6057:Foster's rule
6055:
6053:
6050:
6048:
6045:
6043:
6040:
6038:
6035:
6033:
6030:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6020:
6019:
6017:
6015:
6009:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5973:
5970:
5968:
5965:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5955:
5954:
5952:
5946:
5940:
5937:
5935:
5932:
5930:
5927:
5925:
5922:
5920:
5917:
5915:
5912:
5910:
5907:
5905:
5902:
5900:
5897:
5895:
5892:
5890:
5887:
5885:
5882:
5880:
5877:
5875:
5872:
5870:
5867:
5865:
5861:
5858:
5856:
5853:
5851:
5848:
5846:
5843:
5841:
5838:
5836:
5833:
5831:
5828:
5826:
5823:
5821:
5818:
5816:
5813:
5812:
5810:
5806:
5800:
5797:
5793:
5790:
5788:
5785:
5784:
5783:
5780:
5778:
5775:
5773:
5770:
5768:
5765:
5763:
5760:
5758:
5755:
5753:
5750:
5748:
5745:
5743:
5740:
5738:
5735:
5733:
5730:
5728:
5725:
5723:
5720:
5718:
5715:
5713:
5710:
5708:
5705:
5703:
5700:
5698:
5695:
5693:
5690:
5688:
5685:
5684:
5682:
5680:
5674:
5669:
5665:
5658:
5653:
5651:
5646:
5644:
5639:
5638:
5635:
5623:
5620:
5618:
5615:
5613:
5610:
5608:
5605:
5603:
5600:
5598:
5595:
5593:
5590:
5588:
5585:
5584:
5582:
5576:
5570:
5567:
5565:
5562:
5560:
5557:
5555:
5552:
5550:
5547:
5545:
5542:
5540:
5537:
5535:
5532:
5530:
5527:
5525:
5522:
5520:
5517:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5507:
5505:
5502:
5500:
5497:
5495:
5492:
5490:
5487:
5485:
5482:
5480:
5477:
5475:
5472:
5470:
5467:
5465:
5462:
5461:
5459:
5455:
5447:
5444:
5442:
5439:
5437:
5434:
5432:
5429:
5427:
5424:
5422:
5419:
5417:
5414:
5413:
5412:
5409:
5407:
5404:
5402:
5399:
5397:
5394:
5392:
5389:
5388:
5386:
5382:
5376:
5375:Trophic level
5373:
5371:
5368:
5366:
5363:
5361:
5358:
5356:
5353:
5351:
5348:
5347:
5345:
5343:
5339:
5333:
5332:Phage ecology
5330:
5328:
5325:
5323:
5322:Microbial mat
5320:
5318:
5315:
5313:
5310:
5308:
5305:
5303:
5300:
5298:
5295:
5293:
5290:
5288:
5285:
5283:
5280:
5278:
5277:Bacteriophage
5275:
5273:
5270:
5269:
5267:
5265:
5261:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5245:
5244:Decomposition
5242:
5240:
5237:
5236:
5234:
5232:
5228:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5202:
5199:
5197:
5194:
5192:
5191:Mesopredators
5189:
5187:
5184:
5182:
5179:
5177:
5174:
5172:
5169:
5167:
5164:
5162:
5159:
5157:
5154:
5152:
5149:
5147:
5144:
5142:
5139:
5137:
5136:Apex predator
5134:
5133:
5131:
5129:
5125:
5119:
5116:
5114:
5111:
5109:
5106:
5104:
5101:
5099:
5096:
5094:
5091:
5089:
5086:
5084:
5081:
5079:
5076:
5074:
5071:
5069:
5066:
5064:
5061:
5059:
5056:
5054:
5051:
5049:
5046:
5045:
5043:
5041:
5037:
5031:
5028:
5026:
5023:
5021:
5018:
5016:
5013:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4973:
4971:
4970:Biotic stress
4968:
4966:
4963:
4961:
4958:
4956:
4953:
4951:
4948:
4946:
4943:
4941:
4938:
4937:
4935:
4931:
4926:
4922:
4918:
4911:
4906:
4904:
4899:
4897:
4892:
4891:
4888:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4868:
4865:
4862:
4860:
4857:
4855:
4852:
4851:
4840:
4834:
4830:
4825:
4821:
4817:
4812:
4807:
4802:
4797:
4793:
4789:
4785:
4781:
4777:
4774:(July 2007).
4773:
4768:
4764:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4736:
4732:
4728:
4724:
4720:
4715:
4714:
4701:
4689:
4685:
4679:
4664:
4660:
4654:
4646:
4640:
4636:
4635:
4627:
4625:
4623:
4621:
4613:
4607:
4599:
4593:
4589:
4588:
4580:
4565:
4558:
4552:
4544:
4538:
4534:
4530:
4523:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4503:
4496:
4489:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4469:
4465:
4461:
4454:
4447:
4445:
4443:
4434:
4430:
4426:
4422:
4418:
4414:
4407:
4392:
4388:
4381:
4373:
4369:
4365:
4361:
4357:
4353:
4346:
4344:
4334:
4330:
4325:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4306:
4302:
4299:(8): e12444.
4298:
4294:
4290:
4283:
4275:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4257:
4253:
4249:
4245:
4241:
4237:
4233:
4227:
4225:
4217:
4213:
4207:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4167:
4163:
4159:
4152:
4144:
4138:
4134:
4127:
4119:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4087:
4080:
4072:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4053:
4045:
4030:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3998:
3991:
3989:
3987:
3985:
3976:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3928:
3924:
3917:
3915:
3913:
3911:
3900:
3885:
3881:
3875:
3873:
3871:
3862:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3819:
3817:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3761:
3753:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3714:
3699:
3695:
3688:
3673:
3669:
3663:
3648:
3644:
3637:
3630:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3616:
3614:
3598:
3594:
3587:
3579:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3522:
3520:
3518:
3509:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3452:
3450:
3448:
3446:
3444:
3442:
3440:
3438:
3429:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3372:
3370:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3312:
3305:
3301:
3300:
3293:
3291:
3282:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3249:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3194:
3192:
3176:
3172:
3165:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3110:
3108:
3106:
3104:
3102:
3100:
3098:
3096:
3094:
3092:
3090:
3088:
3086:
3077:
3073:
3067:
3059:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3034:(1): 106–27.
3033:
3029:
3025:
3018:
3010:
3006:
3005:
3000:
2993:
2985:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2952:PLOS Genetics
2949:
2942:
2934:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2885:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2830:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2791:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2746:
2738:
2736:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2698:
2690:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2647:
2632:
2631:
2626:
2619:
2604:
2603:Science Alert
2600:
2593:
2578:
2577:
2572:
2565:
2563:
2554:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2503:
2501:
2492:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2445:
2438:
2436:
2434:
2432:
2430:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2382:
2380:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2342:
2336:
2332:
2331:
2323:
2321:
2319:
2317:
2315:
2313:
2311:
2309:
2307:
2298:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2247:
2245:
2243:
2241:
2239:
2237:
2235:
2233:
2231:
2229:
2227:
2225:
2223:
2221:
2219:
2217:
2215:
2213:
2211:
2209:
2207:
2205:
2203:
2201:
2199:
2194:
2182:
2179:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2156:
2153:
2150:
2147:
2144:
2141:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2127:
2124:
2121:
2118:
2117:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2090:
2089:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2051:
2050:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2031:
2030:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2011:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2003:
2001:
1996:
1993:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1978:
1975:
1974:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1955:
1954:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1915:
1912:
1911:
1905:
1902:
1900:(million km)
1897:
1894:
1889:
1886:
1885:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1872:
1870:
1866:
1861:
1858:
1854:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1826:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1781:
1780:Cyanobacteria
1777:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1769:
1764:
1762:
1760:
1755:
1750:
1744:
1740:
1739:
1733:
1731:
1729:
1724:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1702:
1698:
1697:
1691:
1686:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1664:
1660:
1659:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1627:
1621:
1619:
1614:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1594:
1584:
1578:
1573:
1568:
1566:
1561:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1547:
1546:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1523:
1518:
1513:
1510:
1506:
1505:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1469:
1465:
1464:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1445:3.7 mg-5.5 mg
1443:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1421:
1417:
1416:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1377:
1373:
1372:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1333:
1329:
1328:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1307:
1302:
1297:
1292:
1289:
1285:
1284:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1245:
1241:
1240:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1223:
1218:
1213:
1212:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1189:
1184:
1181:November 2022
1179:
1171:
1163:
1159:
1156:
1153:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1136:
1135:
1132:
1130:
1126:
1125:
1119:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1100:
1096:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1070:
1061:
1057:
1054:
1050:
1047:
1043:
1040:
1036:
1035:
1028:
1023:
1018:
1013:
1008:
1005:
1001:
1000:
993:
988:
983:
978:
973:
970:
966:
965:
958:
953:
948:
943:
938:
935:
931:
930:
923:
918:
913:
908:
903:
900:
896:
892:
891:
884:
879:
874:
869:
864:
861:
857:
856:
852:
849:
846:
843:
840:
839:
836:
834:
825:
816:
811:
803:
801:
795:
792:
787:
782:
773:
769:
766:
762:
759:
755:
754:
748:
743:
738:
737:
731:
726:
721:
720:
714:
709:
704:
703:
697:
692:
687:
686:
682:
679:
676:
675:
672:
670:
666:
662:
653:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
622:
617:
613:
612:cyanobacteria
609:
604:
602:
601:K-strategists
598:
597:r-strategists
592:
590:
589:Baleen whales
586:
582:
577:
575:
571:
567:
562:
560:
556:
552:
547:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
500:are the main
499:
498:Phytoplankton
491:
490:
484:
475:
474:
468:
460:
455:
450:
448:
442:
438:
429:
424:
420:
419:
415:
414:
411:
410:filter feeder
406:
402:
401:
397:
396:
392:
391:
387:
386:
383:
379:
378:
374:
373:
370:
369:phytoplankton
367:
366:
362:
361:
356:
352:
351:
346:
343:
342:
337:Ocean biomass
334:
320:
313:
305:
301:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
282:trophic level
273:
265:
256:
252:
250:
246:
242:
237:
235:
227:
223:
219:
215:
212:
208:
207:
206:
204:
200:
196:
190:
182:
177:
168:
166:
150:
146:
143:
139:
135:
131:
126:
124:
120:
116:
113:
109:
104:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
68:
64:
60:
53:
39:
30:
26:
22:
7424:Conservation
7275:Pelagic fish
7255:Coastal fish
7159:Marine fungi
6897:Water garden
6780:Water column
6725:Productivity
6700:Pelagic zone
6660:Macrobenthos
6650:Hydrobiology
6620:Ecohydrology
6599:
6410:Regime shift
6395:Macroecology
6116:
6112:
6052:Edge effects
6022:Biogeography
5967:Commensalism
5815:Biodiversity
5692:Allee effect
5431:kelp forests
5384:Example webs
5249:Detritivores
5088:Organotrophs
5068:Kinetotrophs
5020:Productivity
4959:
4828:
4783:
4779:
4726:
4722:
4699:
4692:. Retrieved
4687:
4678:
4666:. Retrieved
4662:
4653:
4633:
4611:
4606:
4586:
4579:
4567:. Retrieved
4563:
4551:
4528:
4522:
4505:
4501:
4488:
4463:
4459:
4416:
4412:
4406:
4394:. Retrieved
4390:
4380:
4355:
4351:
4296:
4292:
4282:
4265:10261/193342
4239:
4235:
4215:
4211:
4206:
4165:
4161:
4151:
4132:
4126:
4093:
4089:
4079:
4061:10.2788/2613
4051:
4044:
4032:. Retrieved
4004:
4000:
3930:
3926:
3899:
3887:. Retrieved
3883:
3832:
3828:
3774:
3770:
3760:
3730:(1): 59–80.
3727:
3723:
3713:
3701:. Retrieved
3697:
3687:
3675:. Retrieved
3671:
3662:
3650:. Retrieved
3647:The Guardian
3646:
3636:
3626:
3620:Hartley, Sue
3600:. Retrieved
3596:
3586:
3535:
3531:
3465:
3461:
3385:
3381:
3325:
3322:Paleobiology
3321:
3311:
3298:
3262:
3258:
3248:
3207:
3203:
3178:. Retrieved
3174:
3164:
3123:
3119:
3075:
3066:
3031:
3027:
3017:
3002:
2992:
2958:(12): e231.
2955:
2951:
2941:
2898:
2894:
2884:
2843:
2839:
2829:
2804:
2800:
2790:
2749:
2743:
2722:. Retrieved
2713:. New York.
2710:
2697:
2660:
2657:PLOS Biology
2656:
2646:
2634:. Retrieved
2628:
2618:
2606:. Retrieved
2602:
2592:
2580:. Retrieved
2574:
2516:
2512:
2454:
2450:
2395:
2391:
2357:
2349:
2329:
2260:
2256:
1880:
1874:Terrestrial
1873:
1862:
1831:
1786:picoplankton
1474:7,000–30,000
1165:Terrestrial
1122:
1120:
1111:
1107:
1105:
1075:
1059:
1052:
1045:
1038:
830:
796:
783:
779:
771:
764:
757:
659:
638:oligotrophic
633:
619:
605:
593:
578:
563:
548:
526:
496:
487:
471:
444:
440:
426:
408:
380:herbivorous
306:
302:
290:consume them
279:
271:
253:
251:at the top.
238:
231:
217:
210:
192:
127:
107:
105:
96:
92:
76:
75:
29:
23:source, see
7409:Sponge reef
7384:Rocky shore
7379:Oyster reef
7349:Kelp forest
7232:Vertebrates
7132:Marine life
7108:Viral shunt
7073:Marine snow
6975:Maharashtra
6882:Stream pool
6785:Zooplankton
6705:Photic zone
6665:Meiobenthos
6518:Algal bloom
6047:Disturbance
5950:interaction
5772:Recruitment
5702:Depensation
5494:Copiotrophs
5365:Energy flow
5287:Lithotrophy
5231:Decomposers
5211:Planktivore
5186:Insectivore
5176:Heterotroph
5141:Bacterivore
5108:Phototrophs
5058:Chemotrophs
5030:Restoration
4980:Competition
4508:: 213–217.
3884:www.fao.org
3602:16 December
2636:11 December
2608:11 December
2582:11 December
2576:EurekAlert!
1957:Coral reefs
1846:chlorophyll
1749:zooplankton
1604:Pre-whaling
1593:Blue whales
1348:1.1 billion
1304:1.3 billion
1265:300 kg
1260:1.5 billion
1089:mesopelagic
669:prokaryotes
555:forage fish
532:crustaceans
528:Zooplankton
522:zooplankton
437:Marine life
382:zooplankton
67:coral reefs
7557:Ecosystems
7536:Categories
7389:Salt marsh
7324:Coral reef
7113:Whale fall
7093:Photophore
6970:Everglades
6938:Ecoregions
6877:Stream bed
6850:Macrophyte
6803:Freshwater
6635:Food chain
6548:Water bird
6415:Sexecology
5992:Parasitism
5957:Antibiosis
5792:Resistance
5787:Resilience
5677:Population
5597:Camouflage
5549:Oligotroph
5464:Ascendency
5426:intertidal
5416:cold seeps
5370:Food chain
5171:Herbivores
5146:Carnivores
5073:Mixotrophs
5048:Autotrophs
4927:components
4564:ramsar.org
3835:(1): 439.
3652:9 December
2189:References
2072:Open ocean
2062:11.5-29.8
1977:Algal beds
1898:Total area
1892:(gC/m/yr)
1869:autotrophs
1669:>20,000
1468:Earthworms
1392:26 billion
1309:30 kg
1225:62 kg
1191:50 kg
1116:autotrophs
1083:, such as
1081:arthropods
699:1.6 to 2.2
689:Open ocean
650:food chain
646:atmosphere
542:, and the
534:, such as
514:protoplasm
506:food chain
435:See also:
298:food chain
241:autotrophs
222:production
220:shows the
145:base pairs
7414:Tide pool
7319:Cold seep
7103:Upwelling
6867:Rheotaxis
6860:Fish pond
6835:Limnology
6760:Substrate
6745:Siltation
6615:Dead zone
6320:Allometry
6274:Emergence
6002:Symbiosis
5987:Mutualism
5782:Stability
5687:Abundance
5499:Dominance
5457:Processes
5446:tide pool
5342:Food webs
5216:Predation
5201:Omnivores
5128:Consumers
5083:Mycotroph
5040:Producers
4985:Ecosystem
4950:Behaviour
4694:5 October
4668:5 October
4569:28 August
4337:(Table 1)
4198:209482348
4182:1464-7931
3957:0027-8424
3880:"FAOSTAT"
3807:205129670
3791:1476-5640
3560:2375-2548
3490:0027-8424
3410:2375-2548
3360:233678539
3352:0094-8373
3302:Page 11.
3281:0948-3055
3224:1740-1534
3156:133768246
3148:1752-0908
2915:0022-0957
2868:0030-1299
2782:228077506
2719:0362-4331
1887:Producer
1838:satellite
1766:10–10 kg
1640:60,000 kg
1550:Nematodes
1186:8 billion
1108:phytomass
800:femtogram
630:octillion
566:swordfish
553:, and by
518:protistan
348:(typical)
294:predators
286:producers
226:turn-over
195:ecosystem
89:ecosystem
85:organisms
63:estuaries
7521:Category
7447:HERMIONE
7364:Mangrove
7174:Seagrass
6720:Pleuston
6715:Plankton
6695:Particle
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1743:Copepods
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1085:copepods
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765:11 to 15
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5664:Ecology
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2120:Biomass
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1129:plastic
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1093:topsoil
1077:Animals
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626:species
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