Biomass (energy) - Knowledge

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based on the attributional LCA accounting principle. It includes all supply chain emissions, from raw material extraction, through energy and material production and manufacturing, to end-of-life treatment and final disposal. It also includes emissions related to the production of the fossil fuels used in the supply chain. It excludes emission/absorption effects that takes place outside its system boundaries, for instance market related, biogeophysical (e.g. albedo), and time-dependent effects. The authors conclude that "ost bio-based commodities release less GHG than fossil products along their supply chain; but the magnitude of GHG emissions vary greatly with logistics, type of feedstocks, land and ecosystem management, resource efficiency, and technology."

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material which " would have released its carbon (via decay or burning) back to the atmosphere anyway (over time spans defined by the biome's decay rate) ." In other words, payback and parity times depend on the decay speed. The decay speed depends on a.) location (because decay speed is " roughly proportional to temperature and rainfall "), and b.) the thickness of the residues. Residues decay faster in warm and wet areas, and thin residues decay faster than thick residues. Thin residues in warm and wet temperate forests therefore have the fastest decay, while thick residues in cold and dry boreal forests have the slowest decay. If the residues instead are

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characteristics and assumptions for both the forest/bioenergy system and the alternative fossil system, with the emission intensity of the displaced fossil fuels seen as the most important factor, followed by conversion efficiency and biomass growth rate/rotation time. Other factors relevant for the carbon parity time are the initial carbon stock and the existing harvest level; both higher initial carbon stock and higher harvest level means longer parity times. Liquid biofuels have high parity times because about half of the energy content of the biomass is lost in the processing.

427:. This solid product is water resistant, easy to grind, non-corrosive, and it contains approximately 85% of the original biomass energy. Basically the mass part has shrunk more than the energy part, and the consequence is that the calorific value of torrefied biomass increases significantly, to the extent that it can compete with coals used for electricity generation (steam/thermal coals). The energy density of the most common steam coals today is 22–26 GJ/t. There are other less common, more experimental or proprietary thermal processes that may offer benefits, such as 36: 1103: 762:

heat or electrical energy with different efficiencies. The researcher has to know about this and choose a realistic efficiency range for the different biomass-combustion paths under consideration. The chosen efficiencies are used to calculate so-called "displacement factors" – single numbers that shows how efficient fossil carbon is substituted by biogenic carbon. If for instance 10 tonnes of carbon are combusted with an efficiency half that of a modern coal plant, only 5 tonnes of coal would actually be counted as displaced (displacement factor 0.5).

1216: 5503:"Any soil disturbance, such as ploughing and cultivation, is likely to result in short-term respiration losses of soil organic carbon, decomposed by stimulated soil microbe populations (Cheng, 2009; Kuzyakov, 2010). Annual disturbance under arable cropping repeats this year after year resulting in reduced SOC levels. Perennial agricultural systems, such as grassland, have time to replace their infrequent disturbance losses which can result in higher steady-state soil carbon contents (Gelfand et al., 2011; Zenone et al., 2013)." 1300:. According to the IPCC, there is strong evidence that modern bioenergy have "large positive impacts" on air quality. Traditional bioenergy is inefficient and the phasing out of this energy source has both large health benefits and large economic benefits. When combusted in industrial facilities, most of the pollutants originating from woody biomass reduce by 97-99%, compared to open burning. Combustion of woody biomass produces lower amounts of particulate matter than coal for the same amount of electricity generated. 991: 649: 7060: 1197: 1087: 7100: 6041: 7018: 1277: 57: 7110: 7088: 824:

Research Center agrees that different methodologies produce different results, but also argue that this is to be expected, since different researchers consciously or unconsciously choose different alternative scenarios/methodologies as a result of their ethical ideals regarding man's optimal relationship with nature. The ethical core of the sustainability debate should be made explicit by researchers, rather than hidden away.

7046: 7004: 1156:. Positive climate effects are produced if the harvested biomass is used efficiently. There is a tradeoff between the benefits of having a maximized forest carbon stock, not absorbing any more carbon, and the benefits of having a portion of that carbon stock "unlocked", and instead working as a renewable fossil fuel replacement tool, for instance in sectors which are difficult or expensive to decarbonize. 918:

International Organization for Standardization. In the US, the RFS (Renewables Fuel Standard) limit the use of traditional biofuels and defines the minimum life-cycle GHG emissions that are acceptable. Biofuels are considered traditional if they achieve up to 20% GHG emission reduction compared to the petrochemical equivalent, advanced if they save at least 50%, and cellulosic if the save more than 60%.

7074: 782:), or if fossil fuel energy sources with higher emissions in the supply chain start to come online (e.g. because of fracking, or increased use of shale gas), the displacement factor will start to rise. On the other hand, if or when new baseload energy sources with lower emissions than fossil fuels start to come online, the displacement factor will start to drop. Whether a displacement factor 727:(GWP; typically 20 or 100 years), or other time spans. In the EU, a time span of 20 years is used when quantifying the net carbon effects of a land use change. Generally in legislation, the static number approach is preferred over the dynamic, time-dependent curve approach. The number is expressed as a so-called "emission factor" (net emission per produced energy unit, for instance kg CO 333:. The United States is the largest producer of bioethanol, while the European Union is the largest producer of biodiesel. The global production of bioethanol and biodiesel provides 2.2 and 1.5 EJ of energy per year, respectively. Biofuel made from food crops harvested for energy is also known as "first-generation" or "traditional" biofuel and has relatively low emission savings. 587:

therefore suggest that the EU should adjust its sustainability criteria so that only renewable energy with carbon payback times of less than 10 years is defined as sustainable, for instance wind, solar, biomass from wood residues and tree thinnings that would otherwise be burnt or decompose relatively fast, and biomass from short rotation coppicing (SRC).

3428:"Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems. Chapter 6. Interlinkages between desertification, land degradation, food security and GHG fluxes: synergies, trade-offs and integrated response options" 3412:"Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems. Chapter 6. Interlinkages between desertification, land degradation, food security and GHG fluxes: synergies, trade-offs and integrated response options" 3400:"Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems. Chapter 6. Interlinkages between desertification, land degradation, food security and GHG fluxes: synergies, trade-offs and integrated response options" 922:

emission savings is 77%. Emission savings drop to 75% when the distance is between 2500 and 10 000 km, and to 69% when the distance is above 10 000 km. When stemwood is used, emission savings varies between 70% and 77%, depending on transport distance. When wood industry residues are used, savings varies between 79% and 87%.

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removed to reduce wildfire risk. The extraction level of logging residues differ from region to region, but there is an increasing interest in using this feedstock, since the sustainable potential is large (15 EJ annually). 68% of the total forest biomass in the EU consists of wood stems, and 32% consists of stumps, branches and tops.

812:. Shorter payback/parity times are also calculated when the researcher choose landscape level over stand level carbon accounting (if carbon accounting starts at the harvest rather than at the planting event.) Conversely, longer payback/parity times are calculated when carbon intensity, growth rate and conversion efficiency 3698:

M. E.; Hubbell, S. P.; Kenfack, D.; Lin, Y.; Makana, J.-R.; Malizia, A.; Malizia, L. R.; Pabst, R. J.; Pongpattananurak, N.; Su, S.-H.; Sun, I-F.; Tan, S.; Thomas, D.; van Mantgem, P. J.; Wang, X.; Wiser, S. K.; Zavala, M. A. (2014-01-15). "Rate of tree carbon accumulation increases continuously with tree size".

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The environmental impacts of biomass production need to be taken into account. For instance in 2022, IEA stated that "bioenergy is an important pillar of decarbonisation in the energy transition as a near zero-emission fuel", and that "more efforts are needed to accelerate modern bioenergy deployment

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Many biomass-only combustion facilities are relatively small and inefficient, compared to the typically much larger coal plants. Further, raw biomass (for instance wood chips) can have higher moisture content than coal (especially if the coal has been dried). When this is the case, more of the wood's

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Critics argue that unrealistic system boundary choices are made, or that narrow system boundaries lead to misleading conclusions. Others argue that the wide range of results shows that there is too much leeway available and that the calculations therefore are useless for policy development. EU's Join

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The efficiency-related boundaries define a range of fuel substitution efficiencies for different biomass-combustion pathways. Different supply chains emit different amounts of carbon per supplied energy unit, and different combustion facilities convert the chemical energy stored in different fuels to

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absorption and emission in forests are 1.) along the edges of a particular forest stand and 2.) along the edges of a whole forest landscape, which include many forest stands of increasing age (the forest stands are harvested and replanted, one after the other, over as many years as there are stands.)

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net emission curve will typically show high emissions at the beginning (if the counting starts when the biomass is harvested.) Alternatively, the starting point can be moved back to the planting event; in this case the curve can potentially move below zero (into carbon negative territory) if there is

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annual net emission for a specific time period. The specific time period can be the expected lifetime of the infrastructure involved (typical for life cycle assessments; LCA's), policy relevant time horizons inspired by the Paris agreement (for instance remaining time until 2030, 2050 or 2100), time

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A range of chemical processes may be used to convert biomass into other forms, such as to produce a fuel that is more practical to store, transport and use, or to exploit some property of the process itself. Many of these processes are based in large part on similar coal-based processes, such as the

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Stephenson, N. L.; Das, A. J.; Condit, R.; Russo, S. E.; Baker, P. J.; Beckman, N. G.; Coomes, D. A.; Lines, E. R.; Morris, W. K.; Rüger, N.; Álvarez, E.; Blundo, C.; Bunyavejchewin, S.; Chuyong, G.; Davies, S. J.; Duque, Á.; Ewango, C. N.; Flores, O.; Franklin, J. F.; Grau, H. R.; Hao, Z.; Harmon,

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Data from FAO show that most wood pellets are produced in regions dominated by sustainably managed forests, such as Europe and North America. Europe (including Russia) produced 54% of the world's wood pellets in 2019, and the forest carbon stock in this area increased from 158.7 to 172.4 Gt between

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Short carbon payback/parity times are produced when the most realistic no-bioenergy scenario is a traditional forestry scenario where "good" wood stems are harvested for lumber production, and residues are burned or left behind in the forest or in landfills. The collection of such residues provides

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it takes for the carbon to move out of the pools and return to the forest via the atmosphere (X axis). As described above, the carbon payback time is the time it takes for the harvested carbon to be returned to the forest, and the carbon parity time is the time it takes for the carbon stored in two

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scenarios (also called "reference scenarios" or "counterfactuals") for comparison. The alternative scenarios range from scenarios with only modest changes compared to the existing project, all the way to radically different ones (i.e. forest protection or "no-bioenergy" counterfactuals.) Generally,

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Gasification entails heating organic materials to 1,400–1700 °F (800–900 °C) with injections of controlled amounts of oxygen and/or steam into the vessel to produce a carbon monoxide and hydrogen rich gas called synthesis gas or syngas. Syngas can be used as a fuel for diesel engines, for

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The by-products from forestry operations are called logging residues or forest residues, and consist of tree tops, branches, stumps, damaged or dying or dead trees, irregular or bent stem sections, thinnings (small trees that are cleared away in order to help the bigger trees grow large), and trees

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Roy, Rajarshi; Schooff, Brian; Li, Xiaolong; Montgomery, Scott; Tuttle, Jacob; Wendt, Jost O. L.; Dickson, Kingsley; Iverson, Brian; Fry, Andrew (1 May 2023). "Ash aerosol particle size distribution, composition, and deposition behavior while co-firing coal and steam-exploded biomass in a 1.5 MWth

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EU's Joint Research Centre has examined a number of bioenergy emission estimates found in literature, and calculated greenhouse gas savings percentages for bioenergy pathways in heat production, transportation fuel production and electricity production, based on those studies. The calculations are

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GHG emissions per produced energy unit at the point of combustion depend on moisture content in the fuel, chemical differences between fuels and conversion efficiencies. For example, raw biomass can have higher moisture content compared to some common coal types. When this is the case, more of the

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Further, the researcher has to decide whether emissions from direct/indirect land use change should be included in the calculation. Most researchers include emissions from direct land use change, for instance the emissions caused by cutting down a forest in order to start some agricultural project

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to start and end carbon counting. Sometimes "early" events are included in the calculation, for instance carbon absorption going on in the forest before the initial harvest. Sometimes "late" events are included as well, for instance emissions caused by end-of-life activities for the infrastructure

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is a mild form of pyrolysis where organic materials are heated to 400–600 °F (200–300 °C) in a no–to–low oxygen environment. The heating process removes (via gasification) the parts of the biomass that has the lowest energy content, while the parts with the highest energy content remain.

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IEA Bioenergy state that an exclusive focus on the short-term make it harder to achieve efficient carbon mitigation in the long term, and compare investments in new bioenergy technologies with investments in other renewable energy technologies that only provide emission reductions after 2030, for

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Raw biomass can be upgraded into better and more practical fuel simply by compacting it (e.g. wood pellets), or by different conversions broadly classified as thermal, chemical, and biochemical. Biomass conversion reduces the transport costs as it is cheaper to transport high density commodities.

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The by-products from the wood processing industry are called wood processing residues and consist of cut offs, shavings, sawdust, bark, and black liquor. Wood processing residues have a total energy content of 5.5 EJ annually. Wood pellets are mainly made from wood processing residues, and have a

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The EU's Renewable Energy Directive (RED) states that the typical greenhouse gas emissions savings when replacing fossil fuels with wood pellets from forest residues for heat production varies between 69% and 77%, depending on transport distance: When the distance is between 0 and 2500 km,

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The IPCC states: "While individual stands in a forest may be either sources or sinks, the forest carbon balance is determined by the sum of the net balance of all stands." IPCC also state that the only universally applicable approach to carbon accounting is the one that accounts for both carbon

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Approximately one-third of all wood used for traditional heating and cooking in tropical areas is harvested unsustainably. Bioenergy feedstocks typically require significant amounts of energy to harvest, dry, and transport; the energy usage for these processes may emit greenhouse gases. In some

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The energy content in agricultural residues used for energy is approximately 2 EJ. However, agricultural residues has a large untapped potential. The energy content in the global production of agricultural residues has been estimated to 78 EJ annually, with the largest share from straw (51 EJ).

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Alternative system boundaries for assessing climate effects of forest-based bioenergy. Option 1 (black) considers only the stack emissions; Option 2 (green) considers only the forest carbon stock; Option 3 (blue) considers the bioenergy supply chain; Option 4 (red) covers the whole bioeconomy,

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IPCC states that there is disagreement about whether the global forest is shrinking or not, and quote research indicating that tree cover has increased 7.1% between 1982 and 2016. The IPCC writes: "While above-ground biomass carbon stocks are estimated to be declining in the tropics, they are

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equivalent emissions and absorptions accumulated throughout its entire lifetime: If emissions during agriculture, processing, transport and combustion are higher than what is absorbed (and stored) by the plants, both above and below ground, during the project's lifetime, the project is carbon

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Some research groups state that even if the European and North American forest carbon stock is increasing, it simply takes too long for harvested trees to grow back. Bioenergy from sources with high payback and parity times take a long time to have an impact on climate change mitigation. They

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The climate impact of bioenergy varies considerably depending on where biomass feedstocks come from and how they are grown. For example, burning wood for energy releases carbon dioxide; those emissions can be significantly offset if the trees that were harvested are replaced by new trees in a

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Pyrolysis entails heating organic materials to 800–900 °F (400–500 °C) in the near complete absence of oxygen. Biomass pyrolysis produces fuels such as bio-oil, charcoal, methane, and hydrogen. Hydrotreating is used to process bio-oil (produced by fast pyrolysis) with hydrogen under

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The economic boundaries define which market effects to include in the calculation, if any. Changed market conditions can lead to small or large changes in carbon emissions and absorptions from supply chains and forests, for instance changes in forest area as a response to changes in demand.

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instance the scaling-up of battery manufacturing or the development of rail infrastructure. Forest carbon emission avoidance strategies give a short-term mitigation benefit, but the long-term benefits from sustainable forestry activities provide ongoing forest product and energy resources.

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Like other scientists, the JRC staff note the high variability in carbon accounting results, and attribute this to different methodologies. In the studies examined, the JRC found carbon parity times of 0 to 400 years for stemwood harvested exclusively for bioenergy, depending on different

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Because of the varied climate mitigation potential for different biofuel pathways, governments and organizations set up different certification schemes to ensure that biomass use is sustainable, for instance the RED (Renewable Energy Directive) in the EU and the ISO standard 13065 by the

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for energy releases carbon dioxide. Those emissions can be significantly offset if the trees that were harvested are replaced by new trees in a well-managed forest, as the new trees will remove carbon dioxide from the air as they grow. However, the farming of biomass feedstocks can

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The "competition" between locked-away and unlocked forest carbon might be won by the unlocked carbon: "In the long term, using sustainably produced forest biomass as a substitute for carbon-intensive products and fossil fuels provides greater permanent reductions in atmospheric

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Whitaker, Jeanette; Field, John L.; Bernacchi, Carl J.; Cerri, Carlos E. P.; Ceulemans, Reinhart; Davies, Christian A.; DeLucia, Evan H.; Donnison, Iain S.; McCalmont, Jon P.; Paustian, Keith; Rowe, Rebecca L.; Smith, Pete; Thornley, Patricia; McNamara, Niall P. (March 2018).

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Municipal waste produced 1.4 EJ and industrial waste 1.1 EJ. Wood waste from cities and industry also produced 1.1 EJ. The sustainable potential for wood waste has been estimated to 2–10 EJ. IEA recommends a dramatic increase in waste utilization to 45 EJ annually in 2050.

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Cowie, Annette L.; Berndes, Göran; Bentsen, Niclas Scott; Brandão, Miguel; Cherubini, Francesco; Egnell, Gustaf; George, Brendan; Gustavsson, Leif; Hanewinkel, Marc; Harris, Zoe M.; Johnsson, Filip; Junginger, Martin; Kline, Keith L.; Koponen, Kati; Koppejan, Jaap (2021).

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A third option is the so-called increasing stand level carbon accounting method. The researcher has to decide whether to focus on the individual stand, an increasing number of stands, or the whole forest landscape. The IPCC recommends landscape-level carbon accounting.

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Short term climate and biodiversity impacts for 3 alternative bioenergy pathways in the EU (forest residues, afforestation and conversion to forest plantation.) Short term is here defined as a period of 0–20 years, medium term 30-50 years, and long term over 50

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Most of IPCC's GHG mitigation pathways include substantial deployment of bioenergy technologies. Limited or no bioenergy pathways leads to increased climate change or shifting bioenergy's mitigation load to other sectors. In addition, mitigation cost increases.

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allows operators of CO2 generating installations to apply zero emissions factor for the fraction used for non-energy purposes, while energy purposes (electricity generation, heating) require additional sustainability certification on the biomass used.

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production. There are variations in how such biomass for energy is defined, e.g. only from plants, or from plants and algae, or from plants and animals. The vast majority of biomass used for bioenergy does come from plants. Bioenergy is a type of

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to pay back, and in addition more and more carbon is absorbed by the planted trees. The emission curve then spikes upward at harvest. The harvested carbon is then being distributed into other carbon pools, and the curve moves in tandem with the

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heating, and for generating electricity in gas turbines. It can also be treated to separate the hydrogen from the gas, and the hydrogen can be burned or used in fuel cells. The syngas can be further processed to produce liquid fuels using the

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Win-lose scenarios (good for the climate, bad for biodiversity) include afforestation on ancient, biodiversity-rich grassland ecosystems which were never forests, and afforestation of former agricultural land with monoculture plantations.

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and short-rotation forests are also harvested directly for energy, providing 4 EJ of energy, and are considered sustainable. The potential for these crops and perennial energy crops to provide at least 25 EJ annually by 2050 is estimated.

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The displacement factor varies with the carbon intensity of both the biomass fuel and the displaced fossil fuel. If or when bioenergy can achieve negative emissions (e.g. from afforestation, energy grass plantations and/or bioenergy with

3444:"Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems. Chapter 2. Land climate interactions" 3384:"Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems. Chapter 2. Land climate interactions" 735:

for specific bioenergy pathways. The EU's published greenhouse gas savings percentages for specific bioenergy pathways used in the Renewable Energy Directive (RED) and other legal documents are based on life cycle assessments (LCA's).

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Macroeconomic events/policy changes can have impacts on forest carbon stock. Like with indirect land use changes, economic changes can be difficult to quantify however, so some researchers prefer to leave them out of the calculation.

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climate mitigation potentials for these crops, using LCA-based carbon accounting methods. A particular energy crop-based bioenergy project is considered carbon positive, carbon neutral or carbon negative based on the total amount of

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Biochemical processes have developed in nature to break down the molecules of which biomass is composed, and many of these can be harnessed. In most cases, microorganisms are used to perform the conversion. The processes are called

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Camia, A.; Robert, N.; Jonsson, R.; Pilli, R.; García-Condado, S E.; López-Lozano, R.; van der Velde, M; Ronzon, T; Gurría, P I.; M'Barek, R.; Tamosiunas, S.; Fiore, G.; Araujo, R.; Hoepffner, N.; Marelli, L.; Giuntoli, J. (2018).

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The traditional use of wood in cook stoves and open fires produces pollutants, which can lead to severe health and environmental consequences. However, a shift to modern bioenergy contribute to improved livelihoods and can reduce

412:, these are separated principally by how far the chemical reactions involved are allowed to proceed. The advancement of the chemical reactions is mainly controlled by how much oxygen is available, and the conversion temperature. 765:

Generally, fuel burned in inefficient (old or small) combustion facilities gets assigned lower displacement factors than fuel burned in efficient (new or large) facilities, since more fuel has to be burned (and therefore more

3371:"Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems. Summary for Policymakers" 961:

There is now (2018) consensus in the scientific community that " the GHG balance of perennial bioenergy crop cultivation will often be favourable ", also when considering the implicit direct and indirect land use changes.

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there instead. The inclusion of indirect land use change effects is more controversial, as they are difficult to quantify accurately. Other choices involve defining the likely spatial boundaries of forests in the future.

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Chapter 4: Land Degradation. In: Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial

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Increased use of whole trees from coppice forests, increased use of thin forest residues from boreal forests with slow decay rates, and increased use of all kinds of residues from temperate forests with faster decay

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van den Born et al. distinguish between logging residues in general and dead wood, with the logging residues potential at 14 EJ, and the dead wood potential at 1 EJ annually. For the logging residues potential, see

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or other commercial purposes, and forests provide 85% of all biomass used for energy globally. In the EU, forests provide 60% of all biomass used for energy, with wood residues and waste being the largest source.

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Time-dependent net emission estimates for forest bioenergy pathways, compared against coal and natural gas alternative scenarios. Plus signs represents positive climate effects, minus signs negative climate

1141:. The IPCC found that " landscapes with older forests have accumulated more carbon but their sink strength is diminishing, while landscapes with younger forests contain less carbon but they are removing CO 803:

The chosen system boundaries are very important for the calculated results. Shorter payback/parity times are calculated when fossil carbon intensity, forest growth rate and biomass conversion efficiency

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Liu, Guangjian; Larson, Eric D.; Williams, Robert H.; Kreutz, Thomas G.; Guo, Xiangbo (2011-01-20). "Making Fischer−Tropsch Fuels and Electricity from Coal and Biomass: Performance and Cost Analysis".

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carbon emissions/absorptions that will be included in the actual calculation, and which that will be excluded. System boundaries include temporal, spatial, efficiency-related and economic boundaries.

595:(absorption) for managed lands (e.g. forest landscapes.) When the total is calculated, natural disturbances like fires and insect infestations are subtracted, and what remains is the human influence. 1223: 379:

Others have estimated between 18 and 82 EJ. The use of agricultural residues and waste that is both sustainable and economically feasible is expected to increase to between 37 and 66 EJ in 2030.

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Camia, Andrea; Giuntoli, Jacopo; Jonsson, Ragnar; Robert, Nicolas; Cazzaniga, Noemi E.; Jasinevičius, Gedimas; Avitabile, Valerio; Grassi, Giacomo; Barredo, José I.; Mubareka, Sarah (2021).

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and at dairy and livestock operations. It also forms in and may be captured from solid waste landfills. Properly treated renewable natural gas has the same uses as fossil fuel natural gas.

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Since the long payback and parity times calculated for some forestry projects is seen as a non-issue for energy crops (except in the cases mentioned above), researchers instead calculate

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involved, e.g. demolition of factories. Since the emission and absorption of carbon related to a project or scenario changes with time, the net carbon emission can either be presented as

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Lose-lose scenarios include increased use of thick forest residues like stumps from some boreal forests with slow decay rates, and conversion of natural forests into forest plantations.

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Typically, perennial crops sequester more carbon than annual crops because the root buildup is allowed to continue undisturbed over many years. Also, perennial crops avoid the yearly

4841: 3763:"Directive (EU) 2018/2001 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 2018 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources (Text with EEA relevance.)" 786:

is included in the calculation or not, depends on whether or not it is expected to take place within the time period covered by the relevant scenario's temporal system boundaries.

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positive. Likewise, if total absorption is higher than total emissions, the project is carbon negative. In other words, carbon negativity is possible when net carbon accumulation

2833:"Wood pellets, what else? Greenhouse gas parity times of European electricity from wood pellets produced in the south-eastern United States using different softwood feedstocks" 201:

The European Union's Joint Research Centre defines solid biofuel as raw or processed organic matter of biological origin used for energy, such as firewood, wood chips, and

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Regarding the issue of climate consequences for modern bioenergy, IPCC states: "Life-cycle GHG emissions of modern bioenergy alternatives are usually lower than those for

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captures only a small fraction of the energy in sunlight, producing a given amount of bioenergy requires a large amount of land compared to other renewable energy sources.

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from biological material harvested mainly for non-energy purposes. The most important by-products are wood residues, agricultural residues and municipal/industrial waste:

3322:"Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Chapter 9. Forestry" 3495: 1148:

The IPCC states that the net climate effect from conversion of unmanaged to managed forest can be positive or negative, depending on circumstances. The carbon stock is

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Old trees have a very high carbon absorption rate, and felling old trees means that this large potential for future carbon absorption is lost. There is also a loss of

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1990 and 2020. In the EU, above-ground forest biomass increases with 1.3% per year on average, however the increase is slowing down because the forests are maturing.

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for bioenergy have a positive climate impact only in the long term, while the use of wood residues have a positive climate impact also in the short to medium term.

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Searchinger, Timothy; Heimlich, Ralph; Houghton, R. A.; Dong, Fengxia; Elobeid, Amani; Fabiosa, Jacinto; Tokgoz, Simla; Hayes, Dermot; Yu, Tun-Hsiang (2008-02-29).

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to get on track with the Net Zero Scenario while simultaneously ensuring that bioenergy production does not incur negative social and environmental consequences."

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Other problems are pollution of soil and water from fertiliser/pesticide use, and emission of ambient air pollutants, mainly from open field burning of residues.

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upgrading (sometimes called "wet" torrefaction.) The hydrothermal upgrade path can be used for both low and high moisture content biomass, e.g. aqueous slurries.

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Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change: Working Group III contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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well-managed forest, as the new trees will absorb carbon dioxide from the air as they grow. However, the establishment and cultivation of bioenergy crops can

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in the no-bioenergy scenario, e.g. outside the factories or at roadside in the forests, emissions are instant. In this case, parity times approach zero.

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from industry and households. Wood and wood residues is the largest biomass energy source today. Wood can be used as a fuel directly or processed into

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Olsson, L., H. Barbosa, S. Bhadwal, A. Cowie, K. Delusca, D. Flores-Renteria, K. Hermans, E. Jobbagy, W. Kurz, D. Li, D.J. Sonwa, L. Stringer, 2019:

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Biomass production for bioenergy can have negative impacts on biodiversity. Oil palm and sugar cane are examples of crops that have been linked to

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That is, approximately 30% of the biomass is converted to gas during the torrefaction process, while 70% remains, usually in the form of compacted

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McCalmont, Jon P.; Hastings, Astley; McNamara, Niall P.; Richter, Goetz M.; Robson, Paul; Donnison, Iain S.; Clifton-Brown, John (March 2017).

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Classification scheme for win-win (green), trade-off (orange), and lose-lose (red) scenarios caused by additional bioenergy pathways in the EU.

744:

The spatial boundaries define "geographical" borders for carbon emission/absorption calculations. The two most common spatial boundaries for CO

2461: 1125:

than young trees, because of the larger leaf area in full grown trees. However, the old forest (as a whole) will eventually stop absorbing CO

198:

fuel used for transportation, as defined by government authorities in the US and EU. From that perspective, biofuel is a subset of biomass.

128:. Upgrading raw biomass to higher grade fuels can be achieved by different methods, broadly classified as thermal, chemical, or biochemical. 4574: 1762: 6457: 4822: 4618: 3306:"2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Volume 4. Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use. Chapter 1: Introduction" 1062: 537: 435:

elevated temperatures and pressures in the presence of a catalyst to produce renewable diesel, renewable gasoline, and renewable jet fuel.

3539:

Akhtar, Ali; Krepl, Vladimir; Ivanova, Tatiana (2018-07-05). "A Combined Overview of Combustion, Pyrolysis, and Gasification of Biomass".

1445: 3483: 2756: 555: 4714:"The forecasted growth in wood pellet production in Europe will increase competition for wood fiber & require new feedstock sources" 1094: 355:

industry. Had the residues not been collected and used for bioenergy, they would have decayed (and therefore produced emissions) on the

6126: 1167:

IEA Bioenergy writes: "forests managed for producing sawn timber, bioenergy and other wood products can make a greater contribution to

2428: 502:). Bioethanol is used as a vehicle fuel. Renewable natural gas—also called biogas or biomethane—is produced in anaerobic digesters at 5923: 1396: 1320: 657:

In addition to the choice of alternative scenario, other choices has to be made as well. The so-called "system boundaries" determine

289:, particularly in developing countries, with 25 EJ per year used globally for these purposes. This practice is highly polluting. The 2135: 223:

Primary biomass sources that are appropriate for heat or electricity generation but not for transport include: wood, wood residues,

2308: 1481: 400:

Thermal upgrading produces solid, liquid or gaseous fuels, with heat as the dominant conversion driver. The basic alternatives are

2641: 833:

wood's inherent energy must be spent solely on evaporating moisture, compared to the drier coal, which means that the amount of CO

1386: 525: 375:

total energy content of 0.7 EJ. Wood chips are made from a combination of feedstocks, and have a total energy content of 0.8 EJ.

359:

or in landfills, or been burnt (and produced emissions) at the side of the road in forests or outside wood processing facilities.

4115: 3985: 2364: 1537: 4461: 3919: 1265:

Lose-win scenarios (bad for the climate, good for biodiversity) include natural forest expansion on former agricultural land.

4835: 4803: 4769: 4133: 4003: 3973: 3682: 3663: 3347: 3071: 6428: 3762: 664:

For example, the actual carbon intensity of bioenergy varies with biomass production techniques and transportation lengths.

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inherent energy must be spent solely on evaporating moisture, compared to the drier coal, which means that the amount of CO

540:, cultivation, and processing can result in higher overall carbon emissions for bioenergy compared to using fossil fuels. 4416: 3066:. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 5578: 2654: 1688:"Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation. Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change" 2973: 170:

Biomass (in the context of energy generation) is matter from recently living (but now dead) organisms which is used for

6119: 6077: 4144: 2535: 845:

emitted per unit produced heat will be higher. This moisture problem can be mitigated by modern combustion facilities.

529: 145: 4713: 4638:

Pokharel, Raju; Grala, Robert K; Latta, Gregory S; Grebner, Donald L; Grado, Stephen C; Poudel, Jagdish (2019-08-30).

2485:"Towards sustainable palm oil production: The positive and negative impacts on ecosystem services and human wellbeing" 1889: 135:

of bioenergy varies considerably depending on where biomass feedstocks come from and how they are grown. For example,

6351: 6331: 4471: 4159:"The potential for production of high quality bio-coal from early harvested Miscanthus by hydrothermal carbonisation" 3929: 336:

The IPCC estimates that between 0.32 and 1.4 billion hectares of marginal land are suitable for bioenergy worldwide.

4824:

Burning Opportunity: Clean Household Energy for Health, Sustainable Development, and Wellbeing of Women and Children

498:

Fermentation converts biomass into bioethanol, and anaerobic digestion converts biomass into renewable natural gas (

6105: 3867:"Carbon payback period and carbon offset parity point of wood pellet production in the South-eastern United States" 1081: 583:." Consequently, most of IPCC's GHG mitigation pathways include substantial deployment of bioenergy technologies. 1002:. The reason given is: the references used are quite old; there must be more updated information available in the 905: 6423: 4640:"Availability of Logging Residues and Likelihood of Their Utilization for Electricity Production in the US South" 2022:"Applying a science-based systems perspective to dispel misconceptions about climate effects of forest bioenergy" 550:, which requires a significant proportion of the harvest. In Malaysia and Indonesia, clearing forests to produce 5285:, pp. 23, 51–52. Note that the JRC use the term "payback time" in the sense of "parity time" as defined in 3826:"The 'debt' is in the detail: A synthesis of recent temporal forest carbon analyses on woody biomass for energy" 3361: 7008: 294: 4324: 3987:

Biomass production, supply, uses and flows in the European Union - first results from an integrated assessment

3443: 3383: 6496: 4721:

Springsteen, Bruce; Christofk, Tom; Eubanks, Steve; Mason, Tad; Clavin, Chris; Storey, Brett (January 2011).

4531:"Integrated analysis of global biomass flows in search of the sustainable potential for bioenergy production" 3770:

Gasparatos, Alexandros; Doll, Christopher N.H.; Esteban, Miguel; Ahmed, Abubakari; Olang, Tabitha A. (2017).

2489: 452:

Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. A chemical conversion process known as transesterification is used for converting

4877:

In EU legislation, biofuel is defined as: "Liquid or gaseous fuel for transport produced from biomass." See

1922: 5675: 4630: 4186:"Mass and energy integration study of hydrothermal carbonization with anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge" 3427: 3411: 3399: 2781: 1781:"Management Strategies for Wood Fuel Harvesting—Trade-Offs with Biodiversity and Forest Ecosystem Services" 1137:

absorption. The old forest (or forest stands) are also vulnerable for natural disturbances that produces CO

1003: 4558: 4185: 4082: 4049: 1832: 1687: 7149: 6306: 6112: 6021: 6011: 5938: 4542: 3921:

Carbon accounting of forest bioenergy - conclusions and recommendations from a critical literature review

3321: 1380: 1375: 1189: 1181:"Carbon in forests is vulnerable to loss through natural events such as insect infestations or wildfires" 488: 5730: 5462:, p. 34. Note that the JRC use the term "payback time" in the sense of "parity time" as defined in 6820: 6462: 6098: 2277: 1200:

Sankey diagram that shows the flow of biomass from forest to wood products, paper and energy in Sweden.

775: 286: 5216:

See for instance the European Union's official emission savings percentages for different fuels here:

4679:

Dahlberg, Anders; Thor, Göran; Allmér, Johan; Jonsell, Mats; Jonsson, Mattias; Ranius, Thomas (2011).

4266:"Use of U.S. Croplands for Biofuels Increases Greenhouse Gases Through Emissions from Land-Use Change" 3508:"Liquid biofuel production, 2020, and in the Net Zero Scenario, 2030 – Charts – Data & Statistics" 2303: 1476: 7144: 6783: 6603: 6472: 6133: 5996: 5704: 1168: 1041: 440: 362: 290: 180: 5874: 4499: 3951: 1032:. For this reason, the greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of 293:(WHO) estimates that cooking-related pollution causes 3.8 million annual deaths. The United Nations 6922: 6608: 6216: 6181: 5970: 5943: 4609: 2451: 1453: 724: 461: 132: 6558: 5548: 6751: 6642: 6538: 6533: 5571: 4508: 4431:

Basu, P; Dhungana, A; Rao, S; Acharya, B (2013-08-01). "Effect of oxygen presence in torrefier".

2691: 516: 2302:

Correa, Diego F.; Beyer, Hawthorne L.; Fargione, Joseph E.; Hill, Jason D.; et al. (2019).

1475:

Correa, Diego F.; Beyer, Hawthorne L.; Fargione, Joseph E.; Hill, Jason D.; et al. (2019).

165: 6528: 6523: 6403: 6391: 6070: 5928: 1779:

Eggers, Jeannette; Melin, Ylva; Lundström, Johanna; Bergström, Dan; Öhman, Karin (2020-05-16).

1325: 325:, while corn and rapeseed are annual crops. Sugar- and starch-producing crops are used to make 62: 3370: 2974:"Biophysical forcings of land-use changes from potential forestry activities in North America" 2831:

Hanssen, Steef V.; Duden, Anna S.; Junginger, Martin; Dale, Virginia H.; Hilst, Floor (2017).

7036: 7022: 6693: 3336:

IPCC (2014). Edenhofer, O.; Pichs-Madruga, R.; Sokona, Y.; Farahani, E.; et al. (eds.).

3162:"Plant diversity effects on soil heterotrophic activity in experimental grassland ecosystems" 1315: 297:

aims for the traditional use of biomass for cooking to be phased out by 2030. Short-rotation

228: 121: 6630: 3960: 3652: 3651: 2640:

IPCC (2019) Refinement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories,

2365:"The EPA Declared That Burning Wood Is Carbon Neutral. It's Actually a Lot More Complicated" 2075: 2073: 1538:"The EPA Declared That Burning Wood Is Carbon Neutral. It's Actually a Lot More Complicated" 6912: 6652: 6593: 6563: 6433: 6221: 4723:"Emission Reductions from Woody Biomass Waste for Energy as an Alternative to Open Burning" 4277: 4232: 3707: 2988: 2420: 2369: 1542: 1102: 1066: 1045: 946:

procedures (plowing, digging) associated with growing annual crops. Tilling helps the soil

4015:"Carbon Debt Payback Time for a Biomass Fired CHP Plant—A Case Study from Northern Europe" 3484:"The use of forest biomass for climate change mitigation: response to statements of EASAC" 864:

from biomass " is irrelevant if the biomass is derived from sustainably managed forests."

35: 8: 7113: 6484: 6301: 6269: 6026: 4639: 3120:"UK Emissions Trading Scheme (UK ETS): monitoring and reporting biomass in installations" 2456: 2070: 2021: 1639: 909:

Greenhouse gas emissions from wood pellet production and transport from the US to the EU.

484: 232: 125: 89: 4281: 3711: 3160:

Spehn, Eva M.; Joshi, Jasmin; Schmid, Bernhard; Alphei, Jörn; Körner, Christian (2000).

2992: 2757:

The use of forest biomass for climate change mitigation: response to statements of EASAC

1254:

Multi-functional bioenergy landscapes, instead of expansion of monoculture plantations;

1008:

Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

7139: 7064: 6583: 6578: 6408: 6371: 6326: 6279: 6186: 6176: 6044: 5845: 5670: 5658: 5564: 4795: 4681:"Modelled impact of Norway spruce logging residue extraction on biodiversity in Sweden" 4487: 4311: 4213: 3939: 3906: 3853: 3749: 3633: 3606: 3564: 3277: 3181: 3004: 2949: 2916: 2872: 2540: 2516: 2333: 2219: 2059: 1506: 1257:

Afforestation of former agricultural land with mixed or naturally regenerating forests.

1237: 117: 19:

This article is about production of biomass for energy generation. For other uses, see

5892: 5179:

A simplified curve, complete with carbon payback and parity times, is available here:

3772:"Renewable energy and biodiversity: Implications for transitioning to a Green Economy" 3468: 1915:"Goal 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all" 7103: 6864: 6386: 6366: 6356: 6341: 6246: 6063: 5965: 5857: 4831: 4809: 4799: 4775: 4765: 4744: 4700: 4661: 4467: 4448: 4303: 4295: 4250: 4217: 4205: 4129: 4102: 4069: 4036: 3999: 3969: 3925: 3898: 3845: 3793: 3741: 3733: 3669: 3659: 3638: 3593: 3568: 3556: 3353: 3343: 3281: 3077: 3067: 2954: 2936: 2864: 2545: 2520: 2508: 2337: 2325: 2063: 2051: 1802: 1510: 1498: 1330: 1297: 1233: 1210: 852:

than coal. However, focusing on gross emissions misses the point, what counts is the

626: 612: 141: 4444: 4315: 3910: 3857: 3552: 3185: 3008: 2917:"Consensus, uncertainties and challenges for perennial bioenergy crops and land use" 1215: 7134: 6979: 6964: 6726: 6683: 6518: 6376: 6361: 6336: 5897: 5808: 4734: 4692: 4651: 4440: 4285: 4197: 4170: 4121: 4098: 4094: 4061: 4026: 3991: 3888: 3878: 3837: 3783: 3753: 3723: 3715: 3628: 3618: 3585: 3548: 3269: 3173: 3161: 2996: 2944: 2928: 2876: 2854: 2844: 2703: 2536:"Palm Oil Was Supposed to Help Save the Planet. Instead It Unleashed a Catastrophe" 2498: 2317: 2041: 2033: 1792: 1739: 1490: 1355: 1293: 1243: 1178:

Wood products can replace other materials that emitted more GHGs during production.

1025: 503: 176: 5741: 5491: 5217: 5204: 3760: 3100: 2503: 2484: 2136:"What does net-zero emissions by 2050 mean for bioenergy and land use? – Analysis" 6989: 6847: 6832: 6688: 6635: 6618: 6321: 6289: 6259: 6211: 6196: 6171: 6006: 5868: 5818: 4591:"Global Bioenergy Supply and Demand Projections – A working paper for REmap 2030" 4575:"Global bioenergy supply and demand projections – a working paper for REmap 2030" 4201: 4157:

Smith, Aidan Mark; Whittaker, Carly; Shield, Ian; Ross, Andrew Barry (May 2018).

3273: 2707: 2109: 1360: 698: 352: 278: 271: 239: 4680: 3806: 3607:"Environmental costs and benefits of growing Miscanthus for bioenergy in the UK" 1763:"Global bioenergy supply and demand projections – a working paper for REmap 2030 1111:

increasing globally due to increasing stocks in temperate and boreal forests ."

1024:

Forests generally have a low albedo because the majority of the ultraviolet and

7050: 6974: 6969: 6902: 6810: 6798: 6763: 6721: 6669: 6664: 6588: 6506: 6398: 6241: 6231: 5543: 4337: 4276:(5867). American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS): 1238–1240. 4175: 4158: 4065: 3788: 3771: 2321: 1663: 1494: 1420: 1152:, but since managed forests grow faster than unmanaged forests, more carbon is 1029: 820:, or the researcher choose stand level over landscape level carbon accounting. 592: 567: 322: 285:

Woody biomass used for energy often consists of trees and bushes harvested for

4739: 4722: 3177: 648: 7128: 7078: 7059: 6984: 6944: 6897: 6736: 6708: 6573: 6511: 6450: 6445: 6254: 6206: 6016: 5682: 4813: 4779: 4704: 4665: 4452: 4299: 4209: 4106: 4073: 4040: 3902: 3849: 3797: 3737: 3673: 3597: 3560: 3357: 3240: 3081: 2940: 2868: 2549: 2512: 2329: 2055: 1806: 1502: 1310: 1049: 1037: 1033: 951: 947: 543: 453: 96:

or other forms of fuels. Other plants can also be used as fuel, for instance

4656: 4290: 4265: 3029: 1733: 1196: 7092: 6927: 6623: 6613: 6598: 6568: 6491: 6467: 6381: 6346: 6311: 6226: 6201: 6157: 5958: 5828: 5665: 5623: 5603: 4748: 4529:

van den Born, G.J.; van Minnen, J.G.; Olivier, J.G.J.; Ros, J.P.M. (2014).

4307: 3959:

Bird, David Neil; Pena, Naomi; Schwaiger, Hannes; Zanchi, Giuliana (2010).

3745: 3642: 2958: 2642:

Chapter 2: Generic Methodologies Applicable to Multiple Land-Use Categories

2046: 1731: 1350: 1086: 580: 559: 547: 428: 415: 409: 401: 356: 274: 224: 202: 113: 5042: 5025: 3216: 3204: 3192: 3141: 3061: 1240:

which naturally effects decomposition and soil heterotrophic organisms.

860:

absorption, taken together. IEA Bioenergy concludes that the additional CO

827: 546:. In the United States, around 10% of motor gasoline has been replaced by 76:

is matter from recently living (but now dead) organisms which is used for

6959: 6939: 6932: 6892: 6859: 6440: 6191: 6001: 5953: 5948: 5933: 5719: 5692: 5653: 5638: 5613: 4787: 4360:"Bioenergy from boreal forests: Swedish approach to sustainable wood use" 2171: 1365: 1340: 1335: 1115: 420: 214: 101: 93: 81: 41: 3865:

Jonker, Jan Gerrit Geurt; Junginger, Martin; Faaij, Andre (2013-04-11).

3719: 3683:"Multi-functionality and sustainability in the European Union's forests" 3041: 3022: 1615: 1566: 1564: 1280:

Simple traditional use of biomass for cooking or heating (combustion of

1171:

than forests managed for conservation alone." Three reasons are given:

277:. One third of the global forest area of 4 billion hectares is used for 6954: 6949: 6675: 6296: 5862: 5798: 5643: 5608: 4031: 4014: 3893: 3883: 3866: 3728: 3623: 2932: 2883: 2859: 2849: 2832: 2389: 2037: 1973: 1797: 1780: 1370: 1276: 492: 457: 326: 305:

Food crops harvested for energy include sugar-producing crops (such as

267: 190:

interchangeably, but it is now more common to consider biofuel to be a

153: 149: 105: 3589: 3337: 3000: 2800: 2304:"Towards the implementation of sustainable biofuel production systems" 1477:"Towards the implementation of sustainable biofuel production systems" 6837: 6815: 6716: 6658: 6274: 6140: 5986: 5902: 5803: 5628: 5587: 4761: 4083:"Carbon balance for wood production from sustainably managed forests" 3841: 3523:"Global bioenergy supply in the Net-Zero by 2050 Scenario, 2010-2050" 1561: 1281: 978: 424: 405: 330: 306: 298: 171: 136: 77: 56: 45: 24: 4696: 3063:

Impact of the global forest industry on atmospheric greenhouse gases

2655:"Going carbon negative: What are the technology options? – Analysis" 1985: 6917: 6887: 6882: 6842: 6788: 6778: 6698: 6086: 5886: 5851: 5776: 5766: 5709: 4871: 4125: 3995: 3825: 2690:

Nabuurs, Gert-Jan; Arets, Eric J.M.M.; Schelhaas, Mart-Jan (2017).

2483:

Ayompe, Lacour M.; Schaafsma, M.; Egoh, Benis N. (1 January 2021).

2258: 1743: 1133:

emissions from dead trees cancel out the remaining living trees' CO

551: 351:

Wood residues are by-products from forestry operations or from the

318: 1664:"Biomass explained - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)" 1421:"Biomass explained - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)" 6907: 6803: 6773: 6768: 6756: 6746: 6731: 6284: 5793: 5787: 5736: 5618: 5595: 2692:"European forests show no carbon debt, only a long parity effect" 1914: 1345: 1175:

reducing ability to act as a carbon sink when the forest matures.

943: 867: 563: 477: 187: 20: 7087: 5504: 5070: 5000: 4720: 4528: 3604: 3246: 2741:. Research Paper - Environment, Energy and Resources Department. 2115: 2079: 731:

e per GJ), or even simpler as an average greenhouse gas savings

6741: 6479: 6316: 6264: 6163: 5839: 5771: 5687: 5633: 5270: 4263: 2788: 808:, or when the initial forest carbon stock and/or harvest level 706:

of carbon that is moved into these new pools (Y axis), and the

499: 473: 310: 109: 65:, a perennial grass, can also be used for bioenergy production. 4417:"Torrefaction: A Pathway Towards Fungible Biomass Feedstocks?" 2739:

Woody Biomass for Power and Heat Impacts on the Global Climate

2246: 900: 681:(for instance a curve which moves along a time axis), or as a 7073: 6793: 5813: 5756: 5746: 5699: 5076: 4974: 3654:

Power density: a key to understanding energy sources and uses

3088: 1778: 1075: 779: 617:

Carbon positive scenarios are likely to be net emitters of CO

314: 97: 85: 5556: 5012: 4711: 339: 219:

Different types of biomass are used for different purposes:

6852: 6827: 6501: 6055: 5781: 5751: 4143:

Mubareka, Sarah; Giuntoli, Jacopo; Grassi, Giacomo (2021).

3761:

European Parliament, Council of the European Union (2018).

3496:"Net Zero by 2050 – A Roadmap for the Global Energy Sector" 2913: 2607: 574: 263: 5544:

Biomass explained (U.S. Energy Information Administration)

5522: 5419: 5375: 5315: 4113: 3769: 3222: 3210: 3198: 3147: 3035: 2714: 2085: 2018: 1979: 1937: 1570: 532:, and consume water resources and synthetic fertilisers. 148:

and take land out of food production. It may also consume

5761: 4986: 4962: 4820: 4678: 4637: 2830: 2597: 2595: 2395: 770:

released) in order to produce the same amount of energy.

5516: 5106: 4156: 4117:

The use of woody biomass for energy production in the EU

3706:(7490). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 90–93. 3696: 3047: 1735:

The use of woody biomass for energy production in the EU

816:, or when the initial carbon stock and/or harvest level 262:

The main biomass types harvested directly for energy is

257: 5492:

European Parliament, Council of the European Union 2018

5485: 5273:, pp. 1238–1240 for the original research article. 5266: 5241: 5229: 5218:

European Parliament, Council of the European Union 2018

5205:

European Parliament, Council of the European Union 2018

4559:"WBA factsheet – Global biomass potential towards 2035" 3982: 3958: 3575: 3106: 2895: 2889: 2806: 2301: 2264: 2183: 1991: 1581: 1579: 1474: 828:

Comparisons of GHG emissions at the point of combustion

756: 5391: 5379: 5210: 5198: 5137: 5064: 4430: 4142: 4080: 3258: 3159: 2624: 2622: 2592: 2177: 1949: 1598: 1596: 1594: 1082:

Forest management § Sustainable forest management

606: 5321: 4884: 4727:

Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association

4081:

Hektor, Bo; Backéus, Sofia; Andersson, Kjell (2016).

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carbon emission value is produced by calculating the

366:

Sawdust is residue from the wood processing industry.

16:

Biological material used as a renewable energy source

5510: 5327: 5006: 4992: 4896: 4878: 4792:

Energy Transitions: Global and National Perspectives

4506: 4050:"Carbon debt and payback time – Lost in the forest?" 3864: 3129: 2644:. Volume 4: Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use 2580: 2568: 1855: 1853: 1732:

European Commission. Joint Research Centre. (2021).

1576: 1246:(good for climate, good for biodiversity) include: 1236:. In addition, changes in biodiversity also impacts 5473: 5345: 5276: 2619: 2482: 2401: 1872: 1870: 1868: 1591: 629:projects balance emissions and absorption equally. 246:Biomass is categorized either as biomass harvested 5429: 5235: 4932: 4536:. PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. 3538: 2812: 2252: 2207: 2195: 2161: 2159: 2157: 2155: 837:emitted per unit of produced heat will be higher. 621:, carbon negative projects are net absorbers of CO 542:Use of farmland for growing biomass can result in 80:production. Examples include wood, wood residues, 5463: 5413: 5286: 4463:Brief on biomass for energy in the European Union 3824:Lamers, Patrick; Junginger, Martin (2013-04-12). 3547:(7). American Chemical Society (ACS): 7294–7318. 1850: 1052:can decrease the reflection of sunlight (albedo). 848:Forest biomass on average produces 10-16% more CO 689:emissions calculated over a defined time period. 7126: 5385: 5369: 5124: 4902: 4890: 4519: 4348: 4183: 4013:Madsen, Kristian; Bentsen, Niclas (2018-03-31). 3962:Review of existing methods for carbon accounting 2671: 2225: 1961: 1890:"Household air pollution and health: fact sheet" 1865: 1838: 1813: 1048:by forests is partially counterbalanced in that 965: 5919:Bioconversion of biomass to mixed alcohol fuels 5435: 5333: 5308: 5223: 5173: 5161: 5149: 5112: 4980: 4968: 4908: 3823: 3584:(1). American Chemical Society (ACS): 415–437. 2794: 2234: 2152: 2097: 653:including wood products in addition to biomass. 5453: 5441: 5401: 5357: 4956: 4628: 4607: 3968:. Center for International Forestry Research. 2091: 1943: 868:Climate impacts expressed as varying with time 6071: 5572: 5339: 5296: 5259: 5247: 5186: 5143: 4944: 4920: 4691:(6). Canadian Science Publishing: 1220–1232. 4466:. Publications Office of the European Union. 4364:IRENA – International Renewable Energy Agency 4120:. Publications Office of the European Union. 4012: 3990:. Publications Office of the European Union. 3924:. Publications Office of the European Union. 3481: 3094: 2733: 2731: 2729: 1145:from the atmosphere at a much higher rate ." 939:for net lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions. 789: 711:competing scenarios to reach the same level. 667: 645:carbon mitigation potential of the scenarios. 464:(FAME), which are used to produce biodiesel. 5497: 5052: 3690:European Academies' Science Advisory Council 2452:"It's Time to Rethink America's Corn System" 1063:Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels 739: 5100: 5018: 4255:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 3658:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. 2971: 1036:(or offset the negative climate impacts of 901:Climate impacts expressed as static numbers 329:, and oil-producing crops are used to make 166:Bioenergy § Definition and terminology 6078: 6064: 5579: 5565: 4758:Sustainable Energy: Choosing Among Options 2972:Zhao, Kaiguang; Jackson, Robert B (2014). 2726: 2533: 1076:Sustainable forestry and forest protection 798: 544:less land being available for growing food 5924:Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage 5088: 5035: 4859: 4738: 4655: 4424:Advanced Bioeconomy Feedstocks Conference 4414: 4289: 4174: 4030: 3892: 3882: 3787: 3727: 3632: 3622: 3451:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 3435:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 3419:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 3391:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 3375:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 3329:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 3313:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2948: 2858: 2848: 2502: 2189: 2045: 1796: 1321:Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage 1106:Forest area increase in the EU 1990–2020. 467: 340:Biomass in the form of residues and waste 48:production, usually for heating purposes. 5395: 5041:Recalculated from a total production of 5024:Recalculated from a total production of 4616: 4054:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 3776:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2309:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 1482:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 1275: 1222: 1214: 1195: 1101: 1093: 1085: 1056: 904: 871: 647: 575:Short-term vs long-term climate benefits 556:serious social and environmental effects 361: 287:traditional cooking and heating purposes 242:can come from corn, sugar cane, and soy. 5351: 4237:Center for Climate and Energy Solutions 4047: 2534:Lustgarten, Abrahm (20 November 2018). 1190:United Kingdom Emissions Trading System 7127: 4853: 4755: 4342:U.S. Energy Information Administration 4329:U.S. Energy Information Administration 3811:U.S. Energy Information Administration 2776: 2774: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2766: 2764: 2751: 2749: 2747: 1585: 1067:Bioenergy § Environmental impacts 446: 186:Some people use the terms biomass and 6059: 5560: 5479: 5253: 5180: 5167: 5155: 5131: 5118: 5094: 5028:tonnes wood pellets (FAO 2020), with 4938: 4926: 4786: 4712:Wood Resources International (2022). 4595:International Renewable Energy Agency 4588: 4582:International Renewable Energy Agency 4572: 4357: 3830:Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining 3680: 3469:"Data tables – Data & Statistics" 3441: 3425: 3409: 3397: 3381: 3368: 3364:from the original on 26 January 2017. 3303: 3234: 3135: 3059: 2901: 2613: 2601: 2586: 2574: 2449: 2362: 2130: 2128: 2126: 2124: 2014: 2012: 2010: 2008: 2006: 2004: 2002: 2000: 1955: 1767:International Renewable Energy Agency 1757: 1755: 1753: 1727: 1725: 1723: 1721: 1719: 1717: 1715: 1713: 1711: 1602: 1535: 881:The use of boreal stemwood harvested 395: 386: 258:Biomass harvested directly for energy 72:In the context of energy production, 5992:Cellulosic ethanol commercialization 5549:Biomass Energy (National Geographic) 5528: 5392:Hektor, Backéus & Andersson 2016 5380:Mubareka, Giuntoli & Grassi 2021 4914: 4865: 4383:neutral coal substitute is maturing" 4376: 4230: 3804: 3649: 3520: 3505: 3493: 3335: 3319: 3023:"Bioenergy – Energy system overview" 2677: 2628: 2425:US Energy Information Administration 2407: 2213: 2201: 1967: 1925:from the original on 2 February 2021 1876: 984: 972:Transpirational cooling (biological) 757:Efficiency-related system boundaries 317:), and oil-producing crops (such as 7003: 5467: 5459: 5447: 5423: 5407: 5363: 5302: 5290: 5282: 5192: 5082: 5058: 4950: 4685:Canadian Journal of Forest Research 4556: 4540: 4459: 4335: 4322: 3917: 3466: 2818: 2761: 2744: 2720: 2464:from the original on 3 January 2020 2278:"Biochemical Conversion of Biomass" 2240: 2165: 2103: 1859: 1844: 1819: 1090:Old-growth spruce forest in France. 607:Carbon accounting system boundaries 13: 5328:Jonker, Junginger & Faaij 2013 4847:from the original on 13 June 2021. 4821:World Health Organization (2016). 4543:"Global bioenergy statistics 2019" 4439:(3). Informa UK Limited: 171–176. 4379:"Torrefied biomass: The perfect CO 2647: 2121: 1997: 1907: 1825: 1750: 1708: 1468: 1446:"What Is Biomass Renewable Energy" 954:the available carbon, producing CO 509: 84:, agricultural residues including 44:is an example of biomass used for 14: 7161: 6352:Global Forest Information Service 5537: 5013:Wood Resources International 2022 4233:"Paris Climate Agreement Q&A" 2377:from the original on 30 June 2021 2344:from the original on 17 July 2021 1550:from the original on 30 June 2021 1517:from the original on 17 July 2021 1443: 1397:All pages with titles containing 1387:All pages with titles containing 641:between scenarios is seen as the 208: 7108: 7099: 7098: 7086: 7072: 7058: 7044: 7030: 7016: 7002: 6040: 6039: 3252: 3153: 3112: 3053: 3015: 2965: 2907: 2824: 2556:from the original on 17 May 2019 2450:Foley, Jonathan (5 March 2013). 2431:from the original on 14 May 2021 2253:Akhtar, Krepl & Ivanova 2018 1833:GLOBAL BIOENERGY STATISTICS 2019 1704:from the original on 2019-04-12. 989: 977:This section is an excerpt from 558:, as these forests are critical 515:This section is an excerpt from 55: 34: 7109: 4445:10.1179/1743967113z.00000000060 4433:Journal of the Energy Institute 4184:Renewable Energy (2021-04-01). 3553:10.1021/acs.energyfuels.8b01678 2683: 2634: 2527: 2476: 2443: 2413: 2356: 2270: 1882: 1772: 1680: 1656: 1204: 1118:due to the harvest operations. 672:The temporal boundaries define 238:Biomass that is processed into 4146:JRC report on forest bioenergy 4099:10.1016/j.biombioe.2016.05.025 4048:Bentsen, Niclas Scott (2017). 3342:. Cambridge University Press. 2396:World Health Organization 2016 2363:Daley, Jason (24 April 2018). 1632: 1608: 1536:Daley, Jason (24 April 2018). 1529: 1437: 1413: 856:climate effect from emissions 517:Sustainable energy § Bioenergy 295:Sustainable Development Goal 7 179:with potential to assist with 159: 23:. For technology aspects, see 1: 5586: 4507:European Commission (2018a). 4325:"Biomass and the environment" 2504:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123914 2490:Journal of Cleaner Production 2421:"Biofuels explained: Ethanol" 1407: 966:Albedo and evapotranspiration 6085: 5464:Carbon accounting principles 5287:Carbon accounting principles 5045:wood chips (FAO 2020), with 4513:European Commission Glossary 4202:10.1016/j.renene.2020.11.103 3274:10.1016/j.fuproc.2023.107674 2708:10.1016/j.forpol.2016.10.009 1271: 1098:Plantation forest in Hawaii. 1004:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report 7: 6022:Issues relating to biofuels 6012:Energy return on investment 5436:Lamers & Junginger 2013 4566:World Bioenergy Association 4550:World Bioenergy Association 2795:Lamers & Junginger 2013 2696:Forest Policy and Economics 1835:World Bioenergy Association 1738:. LU: Publications Office. 1381:World Bioenergy Association 1376:Renewable energy transition 1303: 566:for diverse species. Since 526:displace natural ecosystems 116:feedstocks are wood waste, 10: 7166: 6463:Growth and yield modelling 4953:, pp. 42–43, table 3. 4756:Tester, Jefferson (2012). 4619:"Energy Statistics Manual" 4396:(7): 72–75. Archived from 4176:10.1016/j.fuel.2018.01.143 4066:10.1016/j.rser.2017.02.004 4060:. Elsevier BV: 1211–1217. 3789:10.1016/j.rser.2016.08.030 3291: 3262:Fuel Processing Technology 2322:10.1016/j.rser.2019.03.005 1495:10.1016/j.rser.2019.03.005 1208: 1079: 1060: 976: 969: 790:Economic system boundaries 776:carbon capture and storage 668:Temporal system boundaries 610: 514: 471: 313:-producing crops (such as 212: 163: 18: 7037:Earth sciences portal 7023:Climate change portal 6998: 6875: 6707: 6604:Great Green Wall (Africa) 6549: 6240: 6150: 6093: 6035: 5997:Energy content of biofuel 5979: 5911: 5827: 5718: 5594: 5340:Madsen & Bentsen 2018 5003:, p. 20, table 4.2. 4879:European Commission 2018a 4740:10.3155/1047-3289.61.1.63 4520:Forest Research (2022c). 4351:"Short rotation forestry" 4349:Forest Research (2022a). 3109:, p. 29, 32, 34, 45. 1169:climate change mitigation 1164:than preservation does." 1042:climate change mitigation 998:This section needs to be 740:Spatial system boundaries 725:global warming potentials 723:spans based on different 554:for biodiesel has led to 441:Fischer-Tropsch synthesis 291:World Health Organization 250:(primary biomass), or as 181:climate change mitigation 6609:Great Green Wall (China) 6182:Close to nature forestry 5971:Thermal depolymerization 5944:Industrial biotechnology 5426:, pp. 16–17, 43–44. 5422:, p. 143. See also 5071:van den Born et al. 2014 5001:van den Born et al. 2014 4522:"Short rotation coppice" 4415:Koukoulas, A.A. (2016). 3782:. Elsevier BV: 161–184. 2116:van den Born et al. 2014 2082:, p. 20, table 4.2. 2080:van den Born et al. 2014 1121:Old trees absorb more CO 632:It is common to include 462:fatty acid methyl esters 6643:Million Tree Initiative 5939:Fischer–Tropsch process 5929:Biomass heating systems 5271:Searchinger et al. 2008 4629:ETIP Bioenergy (2020). 4608:ETIP Bioenergy (2022). 4291:10.1126/science.1151861 3247:Springsteen et al. 2011 3178:10.1023/A:1004891807664 1040:). In other words: The 799:System boundary impacts 504:sewage treatment plants 344:Residues and waste are 7065:Environment portal 6497:Sustainable management 6392:Trillion Tree Campaign 5517:Stephenson et al. 2014 5394:, p. 4. See also 5269:, p. 5, and also 4377:Wild, Michael (2015). 4152:. European Commission. 3482:IEA Bioenergy (2019). 3223:Gasparatos et al. 2017 3211:Gasparatos et al. 2017 3199:Gasparatos et al. 2017 3148:Gasparatos et al. 2017 3048:Stephenson et al. 2014 2723:, p. 41, table 2. 1616:"Bioenergy – Analysis" 1571:Gasparatos et al. 2017 1326:Biomass heating system 1285: 1229: 1220: 1201: 1107: 1099: 1091: 910: 878: 654: 536:cases, the impacts of 468:Biochemical conversion 367: 63:Miscanthus × giganteus 6990:Wood process engineer 6694:Urban forest inequity 5505:McCalmont et al. 2017 4903:Forest Research 2022a 4891:Forest Research 2022c 4657:10.1093/jofore/fvz047 4087:Biomass and Bioenergy 3877:(4). Wiley: 371–389. 3836:(4). Wiley: 373–385. 3650:Smil, Vaclav (2015). 2981:Ecological Monographs 2755:IEA Bioenergy (2019) 2616:, p. 23, 26, 35. 1316:Bioenergy Action Plan 1279: 1226: 1218: 1199: 1105: 1097: 1089: 1057:Environmental impacts 970:Further information: 937:more than compensates 908: 875: 651: 611:Further information: 365: 254:(secondary biomass). 229:agricultural residues 213:Further information: 122:municipal solid waste 6653:Shifting cultivation 6594:Forest fragmentation 6564:Carbon sequestration 6434:Woodland Carbon Code 6399:Forest certification 6307:Even-aged management 6222:Sustainable forestry 5109:, pp. 547, 556. 4987:Dahlberg et al. 2011 4963:Pokharel et al. 2019 4589:IRENA (2021-06-30). 4358:IRENA (2019-03-01). 4093:. Elsevier BV: 1–5. 3807:"Biofuels explained" 3060:Miner, Reid (2010). 2370:Smithsonian Magazine 1543:Smithsonian Magazine 1234:reduced biodiversity 1046:carbon sequestration 1028:is absorbed through 697:no carbon debt from 150:water for irrigation 6458:Formally designated 6302:Ecological thinning 6212:Plantation forestry 6120:Research institutes 6027:Sustainable biofuel 5494:, p. Annex VI. 5330:, pp. 371–387. 5318:, pp. 86, 100. 5207:, p. Annex VI. 4854:Quotes and comments 4644:Journal of Forestry 4338:"Biomass explained" 4282:2008Sci...319.1238S 4025:(4). MDPI AG: 807. 3720:10.1038/nature12914 3712:2014Natur.507...90S 2993:2014EcoM...84..329Z 2457:Scientific American 2231:, pp. 473–483. 2180:, pp. 171–176. 2092:ETIP Bioenergy 2020 1944:ETIP Bioenergy 2022 485:anaerobic digestion 460:, and greases into 447:Chemical conversion 252:residues and waste: 248:directly for energy 142:reduce biodiversity 126:manufacturing waste 7150:Sustainable energy 7051:Ecology portal 6584:Forest degradation 6579:Ecosystem services 6187:Community forestry 5144:IEA Bioenergy 2019 4975:Eggers et al. 2020 4796:Praeger Publishing 4460:JRC (2019-01-22). 4032:10.3390/en11040807 3884:10.1111/gcbb.12056 3624:10.1111/gcbb.12294 3578:Energy & Fuels 3541:Energy & Fuels 3095:IEA Bioenergy 2019 2933:10.1111/gcbb.12488 2850:10.1111/gcbb.12426 2737:Brack, D. (2017) 2541:The New York Times 2038:10.1111/gcbb.12844 1798:10.3390/su12104089 1640:"Bioenergy Basics" 1298:ecosystem services 1286: 1238:primary production 1230: 1221: 1202: 1108: 1100: 1092: 911: 879: 655: 548:corn-based ethanol 396:Thermal conversion 387:Biomass conversion 368: 321:). Sugarcane is a 118:agricultural waste 7122: 7121: 7079:Plants portal 6865:green woodworking 6053: 6052: 5966:Sabatier reaction 5420:Camia et al. 2021 5376:Camia et al. 2021 5316:Camia et al. 2021 5314:See for instance 5244:, pp. 89–91. 5242:Camia et al. 2018 5230:Camia et al. 2018 5107:Smith et al. 2018 4837:978-92-4-156523-3 4805:978-1-4408-5324-1 4771:978-0-262-01747-3 4617:OECD/IEA (2004). 4135:978-92-76-27867-2 4005:978-92-79-77237-5 3975:978-602-8693-27-1 3665:978-0-262-02914-8 3590:10.1021/ef101184e 3349:978-1-107-05821-7 3107:Camia et al. 2018 3073:978-92-5-106560-0 3038:, pp. 32–33. 3036:Camia et al. 2021 3025:. September 2022. 3001:10.1890/12-1705.1 2904:, pp. 57–58. 2890:Camia et al. 2018 2282:BioEnergy Consult 1992:Camia et al. 2018 1980:Camia et al. 2021 1450:Real World Energy 1331:Biomass to liquid 1244:Win-win scenarios 1211:Biodiversity loss 1023: 1022: 613:Carbon accounting 7157: 7145:Renewable energy 7112: 7111: 7102: 7101: 7093:Trees portal 7091: 7090: 7077: 7076: 7063: 7062: 7049: 7048: 7047: 7035: 7034: 7033: 7021: 7020: 7019: 7006: 7005: 6727:Forest gardening 6684:Timber recycling 6631:Invasive species 6519:Tree measurement 6080: 6073: 6066: 6057: 6056: 6043: 6042: 5887:Pongamia pinnata 5581: 5574: 5567: 5558: 5557: 5532: 5526: 5520: 5514: 5508: 5501: 5495: 5489: 5483: 5477: 5471: 5457: 5451: 5445: 5439: 5433: 5427: 5417: 5411: 5405: 5399: 5389: 5383: 5373: 5367: 5361: 5355: 5349: 5343: 5337: 5331: 5325: 5319: 5312: 5306: 5300: 5294: 5280: 5274: 5267:Bird et al. 2010 5263: 5257: 5251: 5245: 5239: 5233: 5227: 5221: 5214: 5208: 5202: 5196: 5190: 5184: 5177: 5171: 5165: 5159: 5153: 5147: 5141: 5135: 5128: 5122: 5116: 5110: 5104: 5098: 5092: 5086: 5080: 5074: 5073:, pp. 2–21. 5068: 5062: 5056: 5050: 5039: 5033: 5022: 5016: 5010: 5004: 4996: 4990: 4984: 4978: 4972: 4966: 4960: 4954: 4948: 4942: 4936: 4930: 4924: 4918: 4912: 4906: 4900: 4894: 4888: 4882: 4875: 4869: 4863: 4848: 4846: 4829: 4817: 4783: 4752: 4742: 4717: 4708: 4675: 4673: 4672: 4659: 4634: 4625: 4623: 4613: 4604: 4602: 4601: 4585: 4579: 4569: 4563: 4553: 4547: 4537: 4535: 4525: 4516: 4503: 4497: 4493: 4491: 4483: 4481: 4480: 4456: 4427: 4421: 4411: 4409: 4408: 4402: 4387: 4373: 4371: 4370: 4354: 4345: 4332: 4319: 4293: 4260: 4254: 4246: 4244: 4243: 4227: 4225: 4224: 4190:Renewable Energy 4180: 4178: 4153: 4151: 4139: 4110: 4077: 4044: 4034: 4009: 3979: 3967: 3955: 3949: 3945: 3943: 3935: 3914: 3896: 3886: 3861: 3842:10.1002/bbb.1407 3820: 3818: 3817: 3801: 3791: 3766: 3757: 3731: 3693: 3687: 3677: 3657: 3646: 3636: 3626: 3601: 3572: 3526: 3517: 3515: 3514: 3502: 3500: 3490: 3488: 3478: 3476: 3475: 3454: 3448: 3438: 3432: 3422: 3416: 3406: 3404: 3394: 3388: 3378: 3365: 3332: 3326: 3316: 3310: 3286: 3285: 3256: 3250: 3244: 3238: 3232: 3226: 3220: 3214: 3208: 3202: 3196: 3190: 3189: 3157: 3151: 3145: 3139: 3133: 3127: 3126: 3124: 3116: 3110: 3104: 3098: 3092: 3086: 3085: 3057: 3051: 3045: 3039: 3033: 3027: 3026: 3019: 3013: 3012: 2978: 2969: 2963: 2962: 2952: 2911: 2905: 2899: 2893: 2887: 2881: 2880: 2862: 2852: 2843:(9): 1406–1422. 2828: 2822: 2816: 2810: 2807:Bird et al. 2010 2804: 2798: 2792: 2786: 2778: 2759: 2753: 2742: 2735: 2724: 2718: 2712: 2711: 2687: 2681: 2675: 2669: 2668: 2666: 2665: 2651: 2645: 2638: 2632: 2626: 2617: 2611: 2605: 2604:, p. B 7.4. 2599: 2590: 2584: 2578: 2572: 2566: 2565: 2563: 2561: 2531: 2525: 2524: 2506: 2480: 2474: 2473: 2471: 2469: 2447: 2441: 2440: 2438: 2436: 2427:. 18 June 2020. 2417: 2411: 2405: 2399: 2393: 2387: 2386: 2384: 2382: 2360: 2354: 2353: 2351: 2349: 2299: 2293: 2292: 2290: 2289: 2274: 2268: 2262: 2256: 2250: 2244: 2238: 2232: 2227:Renewable Energy 2223: 2217: 2211: 2205: 2199: 2193: 2187: 2181: 2178:Basu et al. 2013 2175: 2169: 2163: 2150: 2149: 2147: 2146: 2132: 2119: 2118:, p. 2, 21. 2113: 2107: 2101: 2095: 2089: 2083: 2077: 2068: 2067: 2049: 2032:(8): 1210–1231. 2016: 1995: 1989: 1983: 1977: 1971: 1965: 1959: 1958:, p. 20-21. 1953: 1947: 1941: 1935: 1934: 1932: 1930: 1911: 1905: 1904: 1902: 1901: 1886: 1880: 1874: 1863: 1857: 1848: 1842: 1836: 1829: 1823: 1817: 1811: 1810: 1800: 1776: 1770: 1759: 1748: 1747: 1729: 1706: 1705: 1703: 1692: 1684: 1678: 1677: 1675: 1674: 1660: 1654: 1653: 1651: 1650: 1636: 1630: 1629: 1627: 1626: 1612: 1606: 1600: 1589: 1583: 1574: 1568: 1559: 1558: 1556: 1555: 1533: 1527: 1526: 1524: 1522: 1472: 1466: 1465: 1463: 1461: 1452:. Archived from 1441: 1435: 1434: 1432: 1431: 1417: 1402: 1392: 1356:Carbon footprint 1294:land degradation 1026:visible spectrum 1018: 1015: 1009: 993: 992: 985: 177:renewable energy 59: 38: 7165: 7164: 7160: 7159: 7158: 7156: 7155: 7154: 7125: 7124: 7123: 7118: 7085: 7071: 7057: 7045: 7043: 7031: 7029: 7017: 7015: 6994: 6871: 6848:spruce-pine-fir 6821:Christmas trees 6703: 6619:Illegal logging 6551: 6545: 6260:Controlled burn 6245: 6236: 6217:Social forestry 6197:Energy forestry 6177:Bamboo forestry 6172:Analog forestry 6146: 6089: 6084: 6054: 6049: 6031: 6007:Energy forestry 5975: 5907: 5869:Jatropha curcas 5830: 5823: 5731:Camelina sativa 5721: 5714: 5590: 5585: 5554: 5540: 5535: 5527: 5523: 5515: 5511: 5502: 5498: 5490: 5486: 5478: 5474: 5458: 5454: 5446: 5442: 5434: 5430: 5418: 5414: 5406: 5402: 5390: 5386: 5382:, pp. 8–9. 5374: 5370: 5362: 5358: 5354:, p. 1211. 5350: 5346: 5338: 5334: 5326: 5322: 5313: 5309: 5301: 5297: 5281: 5277: 5264: 5260: 5252: 5248: 5240: 5236: 5228: 5224: 5215: 5211: 5203: 5199: 5191: 5187: 5178: 5174: 5166: 5162: 5154: 5150: 5142: 5138: 5129: 5125: 5117: 5113: 5105: 5101: 5093: 5089: 5081: 5077: 5069: 5065: 5057: 5053: 5049:energy content. 5040: 5036: 5032:energy content. 5023: 5019: 5011: 5007: 4997: 4993: 4985: 4981: 4973: 4969: 4961: 4957: 4949: 4945: 4937: 4933: 4925: 4921: 4913: 4909: 4901: 4897: 4889: 4885: 4876: 4872: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4851: 4844: 4838: 4827: 4806: 4772: 4697:10.1139/x11-034 4670: 4668: 4621: 4599: 4597: 4577: 4561: 4545: 4533: 4495: 4494: 4485: 4484: 4478: 4476: 4474: 4419: 4406: 4404: 4400: 4385: 4382: 4368: 4366: 4248: 4247: 4241: 4239: 4222: 4220: 4149: 4136: 4006: 3976: 3965: 3947: 3946: 3937: 3936: 3932: 3815: 3813: 3685: 3666: 3529: 3512: 3510: 3498: 3486: 3473: 3471: 3457: 3446: 3430: 3414: 3402: 3386: 3350: 3324: 3308: 3294: 3289: 3257: 3253: 3245: 3241: 3233: 3229: 3221: 3217: 3209: 3205: 3197: 3193: 3158: 3154: 3146: 3142: 3134: 3130: 3122: 3118: 3117: 3113: 3105: 3101: 3093: 3089: 3074: 3058: 3054: 3050:, pp. 2–3. 3046: 3042: 3034: 3030: 3021: 3020: 3016: 2976: 2970: 2966: 2912: 2908: 2900: 2896: 2888: 2884: 2829: 2825: 2817: 2813: 2805: 2801: 2793: 2789: 2779: 2762: 2754: 2745: 2736: 2727: 2719: 2715: 2688: 2684: 2676: 2672: 2663: 2661: 2653: 2652: 2648: 2639: 2635: 2627: 2620: 2612: 2608: 2600: 2593: 2585: 2581: 2573: 2569: 2559: 2557: 2532: 2528: 2481: 2477: 2467: 2465: 2448: 2444: 2434: 2432: 2419: 2418: 2414: 2406: 2402: 2394: 2390: 2380: 2378: 2361: 2357: 2347: 2345: 2300: 2296: 2287: 2285: 2276: 2275: 2271: 2265:Liu et al. 2011 2263: 2259: 2251: 2247: 2239: 2235: 2224: 2220: 2212: 2208: 2200: 2196: 2188: 2184: 2176: 2172: 2164: 2153: 2144: 2142: 2134: 2133: 2122: 2114: 2110: 2102: 2098: 2090: 2086: 2078: 2071: 2017: 1998: 1990: 1986: 1978: 1974: 1966: 1962: 1954: 1950: 1942: 1938: 1928: 1926: 1913: 1912: 1908: 1899: 1897: 1888: 1887: 1883: 1875: 1866: 1858: 1851: 1843: 1839: 1830: 1826: 1818: 1814: 1777: 1773: 1760: 1751: 1730: 1709: 1701: 1690: 1686: 1685: 1681: 1672: 1670: 1662: 1661: 1657: 1648: 1646: 1638: 1637: 1633: 1624: 1622: 1614: 1613: 1609: 1601: 1592: 1584: 1577: 1569: 1562: 1553: 1551: 1534: 1530: 1520: 1518: 1473: 1469: 1459: 1457: 1444:Darby, Thomas. 1442: 1438: 1429: 1427: 1419: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1405: 1395: 1385: 1361:Energy forestry 1306: 1296:and impacts on 1274: 1213: 1207: 1163: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1084: 1078: 1069: 1059: 1054: 1053: 1019: 1013: 1010: 1007: 994: 990: 982: 974: 968: 957: 950:populations to 933: 903: 870: 863: 851: 844: 836: 830: 801: 792: 769: 759: 747: 742: 730: 699:land use change 670: 624: 620: 615: 609: 593:carbon removals 577: 572: 571: 538:land-use change 520: 512: 510:Climate impacts 480: 472:Main articles: 470: 449: 398: 389: 353:wood processing 342: 279:wood production 260: 240:transport fuels 217: 211: 168: 162: 70: 69: 68: 67: 66: 60: 51: 50: 49: 39: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7163: 7153: 7152: 7147: 7142: 7137: 7120: 7119: 7117: 7116: 7106: 7096: 7082: 7068: 7054: 7040: 7026: 7012: 6999: 6996: 6995: 6993: 6992: 6987: 6982: 6980:Timber cruiser 6977: 6975:Shingle weaver 6972: 6967: 6962: 6957: 6952: 6947: 6942: 6937: 6936: 6935: 6930: 6925: 6920: 6910: 6905: 6900: 6895: 6890: 6885: 6879: 6877: 6873: 6872: 6870: 6869: 6868: 6867: 6857: 6856: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6825: 6824: 6823: 6813: 6811:Rail transport 6808: 6807: 6806: 6801: 6796: 6791: 6786: 6781: 6776: 6771: 6761: 6760: 6759: 6754: 6752:pulp and paper 6749: 6744: 6734: 6729: 6724: 6722:Forest farming 6719: 6713: 6711: 6705: 6704: 6702: 6701: 6696: 6691: 6686: 6681: 6680: 6679: 6672: 6670:slash-and-char 6667: 6665:slash-and-burn 6662: 6650: 6645: 6640: 6639: 6638: 6628: 6627: 6626: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6601: 6596: 6591: 6589:Forest dieback 6586: 6581: 6576: 6571: 6566: 6561: 6555: 6553: 6547: 6546: 6544: 6543: 6542: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6516: 6515: 6514: 6509: 6499: 6494: 6489: 6488: 6487: 6477: 6476: 6475: 6465: 6460: 6455: 6454: 6453: 6448: 6438: 6437: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6406: 6396: 6395: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6324: 6314: 6309: 6304: 6299: 6294: 6293: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6262: 6257: 6251: 6249: 6238: 6237: 6235: 6234: 6232:Urban forestry 6229: 6224: 6219: 6214: 6209: 6204: 6199: 6194: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6169: 6168: 6167: 6154: 6152: 6148: 6147: 6145: 6144: 6137: 6130: 6123: 6116: 6109: 6102: 6094: 6091: 6090: 6083: 6082: 6075: 6068: 6060: 6051: 6050: 6048: 6047: 6036: 6033: 6032: 6030: 6029: 6024: 6019: 6014: 6009: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5983: 5981: 5977: 5976: 5974: 5973: 5968: 5963: 5962: 5961: 5956: 5946: 5941: 5936: 5931: 5926: 5921: 5915: 5913: 5909: 5908: 5906: 5905: 5900: 5895: 5890: 5883: 5872: 5865: 5860: 5858:Chinese tallow 5855: 5848: 5843: 5835: 5833: 5825: 5824: 5822: 5821: 5816: 5811: 5806: 5801: 5796: 5791: 5784: 5779: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5739: 5734: 5726: 5724: 5716: 5715: 5713: 5712: 5707: 5705:Water hyacinth 5702: 5697: 5696: 5695: 5685: 5680: 5679: 5678: 5673: 5663: 5662: 5661: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5611: 5606: 5600: 5598: 5592: 5591: 5584: 5583: 5576: 5569: 5561: 5552: 5551: 5546: 5539: 5538:External links 5536: 5534: 5533: 5521: 5509: 5507:, p. 493. 5496: 5484: 5472: 5452: 5440: 5438:, p. 379. 5428: 5412: 5400: 5384: 5378:, p. 93. 5368: 5356: 5344: 5332: 5320: 5307: 5295: 5275: 5258: 5256:, p. 194. 5246: 5234: 5222: 5209: 5197: 5185: 5172: 5170:, p. 638. 5160: 5158:, p. 637. 5148: 5136: 5134:, p. 1.5. 5123: 5111: 5099: 5087: 5075: 5063: 5051: 5034: 5017: 5005: 4991: 4989:, p. 1220 4979: 4967: 4965:, p. 543. 4955: 4943: 4931: 4929:, p. 193. 4919: 4917:, p. 212. 4907: 4895: 4883: 4870: 4857: 4855: 4852: 4850: 4849: 4836: 4818: 4804: 4784: 4770: 4753: 4718: 4709: 4676: 4650:(6): 543–559. 4635: 4626: 4614: 4605: 4586: 4573:IRENA (2014). 4570: 4554: 4538: 4526: 4517: 4504: 4496:|website= 4472: 4457: 4428: 4412: 4380: 4374: 4355: 4346: 4333: 4320: 4261: 4228: 4181: 4154: 4140: 4134: 4126:10.2760/831621 4111: 4078: 4045: 4010: 4004: 3996:10.2760/539520 3980: 3974: 3956: 3948:|website= 3930: 3915: 3862: 3821: 3802: 3767: 3758: 3694: 3681:EASAC (2017). 3678: 3664: 3647: 3617:(3): 489–507. 3602: 3573: 3535: 3534: 3533: 3528: 3527: 3518: 3503: 3491: 3479: 3463: 3462: 3461: 3456: 3455: 3442:IPCC (2019i). 3439: 3426:IPCC (2019h). 3423: 3410:IPCC (2019e). 3407: 3398:IPCC (2019d). 3395: 3382:IPCC (2019c). 3379: 3369:IPCC (2019b). 3366: 3348: 3333: 3317: 3304:IPCC (2006b). 3300: 3299: 3298: 3293: 3290: 3288: 3287: 3251: 3239: 3237:, p. 628. 3227: 3225:, p. 167. 3215: 3213:, p. 172. 3203: 3201:, p. 168. 3191: 3172:(2): 217–230. 3166:Plant and Soil 3152: 3150:, p. 166. 3140: 3128: 3111: 3099: 3097:, p. 4–5. 3087: 3072: 3052: 3040: 3028: 3014: 2987:(2): 329–353. 2964: 2927:(3): 150–164. 2906: 2894: 2892:, p. 105. 2882: 2823: 2811: 2799: 2797:, p. 380. 2787: 2760: 2743: 2725: 2713: 2682: 2670: 2646: 2633: 2631:, p. 549. 2618: 2606: 2591: 2589:, p. 194. 2579: 2577:, p. 161. 2567: 2526: 2475: 2442: 2412: 2410:, p. 616. 2400: 2388: 2355: 2294: 2269: 2257: 2245: 2233: 2218: 2206: 2194: 2190:Koukoulas 2016 2182: 2170: 2151: 2120: 2108: 2096: 2084: 2069: 1996: 1984: 1972: 1960: 1948: 1936: 1906: 1881: 1864: 1849: 1837: 1824: 1812: 1785:Sustainability 1771: 1761:IRENA (2014). 1749: 1744:10.2760/831621 1707: 1679: 1655: 1631: 1607: 1605:, p. 162. 1590: 1588:, p. 512. 1575: 1560: 1528: 1467: 1436: 1411: 1409: 1406: 1404: 1403: 1393: 1383: 1378: 1373: 1368: 1363: 1358: 1353: 1348: 1343: 1338: 1333: 1328: 1323: 1318: 1313: 1307: 1305: 1302: 1273: 1270: 1259: 1258: 1255: 1252: 1206: 1203: 1183: 1182: 1179: 1176: 1161: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1077: 1074: 1058: 1055: 1030:photosynthesis 1021: 1020: 997: 995: 988: 983: 979:Albedo § Trees 975: 967: 964: 955: 931: 902: 899: 869: 866: 861: 849: 842: 834: 829: 826: 800: 797: 791: 788: 767: 758: 755: 745: 741: 738: 728: 694:time-dependent 679:time-dependent 669: 666: 627:carbon neutral 622: 618: 608: 605: 591:emissions and 576: 573: 568:photosynthesis 521: 513: 511: 508: 469: 466: 454:vegetable oils 448: 445: 397: 394: 388: 385: 341: 338: 323:perennial crop 259: 256: 244: 243: 236: 210: 209:Types and uses 207: 161: 158: 133:climate impact 61: 54: 53: 52: 40: 33: 32: 31: 30: 29: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7162: 7151: 7148: 7146: 7143: 7141: 7138: 7136: 7133: 7132: 7130: 7115: 7107: 7105: 7097: 7095: 7094: 7089: 7083: 7081: 7080: 7075: 7069: 7067: 7066: 7061: 7055: 7053: 7052: 7041: 7039: 7038: 7027: 7025: 7024: 7013: 7011: 7010: 7001: 7000: 6997: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6970:Rubber tapper 6968: 6966: 6963: 6961: 6958: 6956: 6953: 6951: 6948: 6946: 6943: 6941: 6938: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6915: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6898:Choker setter 6896: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6884: 6881: 6880: 6878: 6874: 6866: 6863: 6862: 6861: 6858: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6830: 6829: 6826: 6822: 6819: 6818: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6805: 6802: 6800: 6797: 6795: 6792: 6790: 6787: 6785: 6782: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6767: 6766: 6765: 6762: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6743: 6740: 6739: 6738: 6737:Manufacturing 6735: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6714: 6712: 6710: 6706: 6700: 6697: 6695: 6692: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6678: 6677: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6660: 6656: 6655: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6637: 6634: 6633: 6632: 6629: 6625: 6622: 6621: 6620: 6617: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6587: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6574:Deforestation 6572: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6562: 6560: 6557: 6556: 6554: 6550:Environmental 6548: 6540: 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6521: 6520: 6517: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6504: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6486: 6483: 6482: 6481: 6478: 6474: 6471: 6470: 6469: 6466: 6464: 6461: 6459: 6456: 6452: 6451:reforestation 6449: 6447: 6446:afforestation 6444: 6443: 6442: 6439: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6401: 6400: 6397: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6320: 6319: 6318: 6315: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6267: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6255:Arboriculture 6253: 6252: 6250: 6248: 6243: 6239: 6233: 6230: 6228: 6225: 6223: 6220: 6218: 6215: 6213: 6210: 6208: 6207:Permaforestry 6205: 6203: 6200: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6166: 6165: 6161: 6160: 6159: 6156: 6155: 6153: 6149: 6143: 6142: 6138: 6136: 6135: 6131: 6129: 6128: 6124: 6122: 6121: 6117: 6115: 6114: 6110: 6108: 6107: 6103: 6101: 6100: 6096: 6095: 6092: 6088: 6081: 6076: 6074: 6069: 6067: 6062: 6061: 6058: 6046: 6038: 6037: 6034: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6017:Food vs. fuel 6015: 6013: 6010: 6008: 6005: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5984: 5982: 5978: 5972: 5969: 5967: 5964: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5952: 5951: 5950: 5947: 5945: 5942: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5927: 5925: 5922: 5920: 5917: 5916: 5914: 5910: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5888: 5884: 5882: 5881: 5877: 5873: 5871: 5870: 5866: 5864: 5861: 5859: 5856: 5854: 5853: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5842: 5841: 5837: 5836: 5834: 5832: 5826: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5789: 5785: 5783: 5780: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5733: 5732: 5728: 5727: 5725: 5723: 5717: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5694: 5691: 5690: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5681: 5677: 5674: 5672: 5669: 5668: 5667: 5664: 5660: 5659:vegetable oil 5657: 5656: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5601: 5599: 5597: 5593: 5589: 5582: 5577: 5575: 5570: 5568: 5563: 5562: 5559: 5555: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5541: 5531:, p. 94. 5530: 5525: 5518: 5513: 5506: 5500: 5493: 5488: 5482:, p. 47. 5481: 5476: 5470:, p. 16. 5469: 5465: 5461: 5456: 5450:, p. 17. 5449: 5444: 5437: 5432: 5425: 5421: 5416: 5410:, p. 75. 5409: 5404: 5398:, p. 20. 5397: 5396:OECD/IEA 2004 5393: 5388: 5381: 5377: 5372: 5366:, p. 75. 5365: 5360: 5353: 5348: 5341: 5336: 5329: 5324: 5317: 5311: 5305:, p. 69. 5304: 5299: 5293:, p. 16. 5292: 5288: 5284: 5279: 5272: 5268: 5262: 5255: 5250: 5243: 5238: 5232:, p. 89. 5231: 5226: 5219: 5213: 5206: 5201: 5195:, p. 45. 5194: 5189: 5183:, p. 23. 5182: 5176: 5169: 5164: 5157: 5152: 5145: 5140: 5133: 5127: 5121:, p. 34. 5120: 5115: 5108: 5103: 5096: 5091: 5084: 5079: 5072: 5067: 5060: 5055: 5048: 5044: 5038: 5031: 5027: 5021: 5014: 5009: 5002: 4995: 4988: 4983: 4976: 4971: 4964: 4959: 4952: 4947: 4941:, p. 45. 4940: 4935: 4928: 4923: 4916: 4911: 4904: 4899: 4892: 4887: 4880: 4874: 4867: 4862: 4858: 4843: 4839: 4833: 4826: 4825: 4819: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4724: 4719: 4715: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4677: 4667: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4636: 4632: 4627: 4620: 4615: 4611: 4610:"Agriculture" 4606: 4596: 4592: 4587: 4583: 4576: 4571: 4567: 4560: 4555: 4551: 4544: 4539: 4532: 4527: 4523: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4505: 4501: 4489: 4475: 4473:9789279772351 4469: 4465: 4464: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4429: 4425: 4418: 4413: 4403:on 2019-03-02 4399: 4395: 4391: 4390:VGB PowerTech 4384: 4375: 4365: 4361: 4356: 4352: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4292: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4262: 4258: 4252: 4238: 4234: 4231:C2ES (2021). 4229: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4182: 4177: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4155: 4148: 4147: 4141: 4137: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4118: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4033: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4011: 4007: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3988: 3981: 3977: 3971: 3964: 3963: 3957: 3953: 3941: 3933: 3931:9789279251009 3927: 3923: 3922: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3871:GCB Bioenergy 3868: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3822: 3812: 3808: 3805:EIA (2021b). 3803: 3799: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3768: 3764: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3730: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3695: 3691: 3684: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3661: 3656: 3655: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3635: 3630: 3625: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3611:GCB Bioenergy 3608: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3537: 3536: 3532:Other sources 3531: 3530: 3524: 3521:IEA (2021d). 3519: 3509: 3506:IEA (2021c). 3504: 3497: 3494:IEA (2021b). 3492: 3485: 3480: 3470: 3465: 3464: 3459: 3458: 3452: 3445: 3440: 3436: 3429: 3424: 3420: 3413: 3408: 3401: 3396: 3392: 3385: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3345: 3341: 3340: 3334: 3330: 3323: 3320:IPCC (2007). 3318: 3314: 3307: 3302: 3301: 3296: 3295: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3255: 3248: 3243: 3236: 3231: 3224: 3219: 3212: 3207: 3200: 3195: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3156: 3149: 3144: 3138:, p. 21. 3137: 3132: 3121: 3115: 3108: 3103: 3096: 3091: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3069: 3065: 3064: 3056: 3049: 3044: 3037: 3032: 3024: 3018: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2975: 2968: 2960: 2956: 2951: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2921:GCB Bioenergy 2918: 2910: 2903: 2898: 2891: 2886: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2861: 2856: 2851: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2837:GCB Bioenergy 2834: 2827: 2821:, p. 41. 2820: 2815: 2809:, p. 26. 2808: 2803: 2796: 2791: 2784: 2777: 2775: 2773: 2771: 2769: 2767: 2765: 2758: 2752: 2750: 2748: 2740: 2734: 2732: 2730: 2722: 2717: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2686: 2679: 2674: 2660: 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184: 182: 178: 173: 167: 157: 155: 151: 147: 146:degrade soils 143: 138: 134: 129: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 90:organic waste 87: 83: 79: 75: 64: 58: 47: 43: 37: 26: 22: 7084: 7070: 7056: 7042: 7028: 7014: 7007: 6985:Tree planter 6965:Resin tapper 6945:Truck driver 6940:River driver 6689:Tree hugging 6674: 6657: 6624:timber mafia 6614:High grading 6599:Ghost forest 6569:Clearcutting 6492:Silviculture 6468:Horticulture 6312:Fire ecology 6227:Urban forest 6202:Mycoforestry 6162: 6158:Agroforestry 6139: 6132: 6125: 6118: 6111: 6106:Forest areas 6104: 6097: 5885: 5879: 5875: 5867: 5850: 5846:Big bluestem 5838: 5831:energy crops 5786: 5729: 5648: 5553: 5524: 5519:, p. 3. 5512: 5499: 5487: 5475: 5455: 5443: 5431: 5415: 5403: 5387: 5371: 5359: 5352:Bentsen 2017 5347: 5342:, p. 1. 5335: 5323: 5310: 5298: 5278: 5261: 5249: 5237: 5225: 5212: 5200: 5188: 5175: 5163: 5151: 5146:, p. 4. 5139: 5126: 5114: 5102: 5090: 5085:, p. 3. 5078: 5066: 5061:, p. 3. 5054: 5037: 5020: 5008: 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The main 102:switchgrass 94:pellet fuel 7129:Categories 6955:Lumberjack 6950:Log scaler 6833:engineered 6784:non-timber 6757:sawmilling 6709:Industries 6676:svedjebruk 6387:transition 6367:protection 6357:old-growth 6342:governance 6297:Dendrology 6247:management 6113:Ministries 5912:Technology 5893:Salicornia 5876:Miscanthus 5799:Sugar beet 5671:cellulosic 5644:Bioliquids 5624:Biobutanol 5480:IRENA 2014 5254:IPCC 2019i 5181:EASAC 2017 5168:IPCC 2019e 5156:IPCC 2019e 5132:IPCC 2006b 5119:EASAC 2017 5095:IRENA 2021 4939:IRENA 2014 4927:IPCC 2019c 4671:2022-02-09 4600:2022-02-05 4479:2022-01-16 4407:2022-02-13 4369:2022-01-07 4242:2021-12-10 4223:2021-12-09 3816:2021-11-02 3513:2022-02-03 3474:2022-02-03 3268:: 107674. 3235:IPCC 2019h 3136:IRENA 2019 2902:IRENA 2014 2783:ecosystems 2664:2023-01-31 2614:EASAC 2017 2602:IPCC 2019b 2587:IPCC 2019d 2575:Smil 2017a 2497:: 123914. 2348:7 February 2288:2016-10-18 2145:2023-01-19 1956:IRENA 2014 1900:2020-11-21 1673:2023-01-13 1649:2023-01-13 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2014 5460:JRC 2014 5448:JRC 2014 5424:JRC 2014 5408:JRC 2014 5364:JRC 2014 5303:JRC 2014 5291:JRC 2014 5283:JRC 2014 5193:JRC 2014 5083:WBA 2019 5059:WBA 2019 5047:3.1 GJ/m 5026:43678925 4951:JRC 2014 4842:Archived 4749:21305889 4316:52810681 4308:18258860 4251:cite web 4019:Energies 3911:85946751 3858:86683620 3746:24429523 3643:28331551 3362:Archived 3186:25639544 3009:56059160 2959:29497458 2819:JRC 2014 2721:JRC 2014 2554:Archived 2462:Archived 2429:Archived 2375:Archived 2342:Archived 2241:EIA 2021 2166:EIA 2022 2104:IEA 2019 1929:12 March 1923:Archived 1860:JRC 2014 1845:JRC 2019 1820:WBA 2016 1699:Archived 1548:Archived 1515:Archived 1304:See also 1154:absorbed 877:effects. 625:, while 564:habitats 552:palm oil 319:rapeseed 299:coppices 270:and all 7135:Biomass 7114:Outline 6928:lookout 6923:hotshot 6804:tanbark 6774:biomass 6769:biochar 6747:plywood 6732:Logging 6636:wilding 6285:log jam 6242:Ecology 5794:Soybean 5788:Sorghum 5737:Cassava 5666:Ethanol 5649:Biomass 5619:Bagasse 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