1978:, at work or on the street. Lighting a cigarette is often seen as an effective way of avoiding the appearance of idleness or mere loitering. For adolescents, it can function as a first step out of childhood or as an act of rebellion against the adult world. Also, smoking can be seen as a sort of camaraderie. It has been shown that even opening a packet of cigarettes, or offering a cigarette to other people, can increase the level of dopamine (the "happy feeling") in the brain, and it is doubtless that people who smoke form relationships with fellow smokers, in a way that only proliferates the habit, particularly in countries where smoking inside public places has been made illegal. Other than recreational drug use, it can be used to construct identity and a development of self-image by associating it with personal experiences connected with smoking. The rise of the modern anti-smoking movement in the late 19th century did more than create awareness of the hazards of smoking; it provoked reactions of smokers against what was, and often still is, perceived as an assault on personal freedom and has created an identity among smokers as rebels or outcasts, apart from non-smokers:
1406:. In the United States, about 500,000 deaths per year are attributed to smoking-related diseases and a recent study estimated that as much as one-third of China's male population will have significantly shortened lifespans due to smoking. Male and female smokers lose an average of 13.2 and 14.5 years of life, respectively. At least half of all lifelong smokers die earlier as a result of smoking. The risk of dying from lung cancer before age 85 is 22.1% for a male smoker and 11.9% for a female current smoker, in the absence of competing causes of death. The corresponding estimates for lifelong nonsmokers are a 1.1% probability of dying from lung cancer before age 85 for a man of European descent, and a 0.8% probability for a woman. Smoking just one cigarette a day results in a risk of
52:
1166:(TFI) in order to reduce rates of consumption in the developing world. However, it was not until 2003 that the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) was accepted in WHA and entered into force in 2005. FCTC marked a milestone as the first international treaty concerning a global health issue that aims to combat tobacco in multiple aspects including tobacco taxes, advertisement, trading, environmental affects, health influences, etc. The birth of this evidence-based and systematic approach has resulted in the reinforcement of tobacco taxes and the implementation of smoke-free laws in 128 countries that led to the decrease of smoking prevalence in developing nations. In Nepal, "Smokers are not selfish", a
1385:
2136:
1900:
1924:
1809:
1063:
7847:
1936:
2079:
1912:
1987:
tobacco and cigarette allowances to soldiers in the field. It was asserted that regular use of tobacco while under duress would not only calm the soldiers but allow them to withstand greater hardship. Until the mid-20th century, the majority of the adult population in many
Western nations were smokers and the claims of anti-smoking activists were met with much skepticism, if not outright contempt. Today the movement has considerably more weight and evidence of its claims, but a considerable proportion of the population remains steadfast smokers.
7481:
1958:
1566:
1267:. The substance is considered illegal in most countries in the world and in the countries that tolerate public consumption, it is sometimes only pseudo-legal. Despite this, a considerable percentage of the adult population in many countries have tried it with smaller minorities doing it on a regular basis. Since cannabis is illegal or only tolerated in many jurisdictions, there is no industrial mass-production of cigarettes, meaning that the most common form of smoking is with hand-rolled cigarettes (often called
1554:
1595:
forms of the substance itself. Not all drugs can be smoked, for example the sulphate derivative that is most commonly inhaled through the nose, though purer free base forms of substances can, but often require considerable skill in administering the drug properly. The method is also somewhat inefficient since not all of the smoke will be inhaled. The inhaled substances trigger chemical reactions in nerve endings in the brain due to being similar to naturally occurring substances such as
1966:
44:
2025:
7954:
91:
8850:
7346:
712:
1582:
8194:
7475:
906:
2244:
6559:
832:
8408:
2098:, someone who shunned the conservative middle class values and displayed his contempt for conservatism. But this was a pleasure that was to be confined to a male world; women smokers were associated with prostitution and smoking was not considered an activity fit for proper ladies. It was not until the start of the 20th century that smoking women would appear in paintings and photos, giving a chic and charming impression.
1275:
1893:
review showed that the combination of medication and behavioural support was more effective than minimal interventions or usual care. Another
Cochrane review "suggests that neither reducing smoking to quit nor quitting abruptly results in superior quit rates; people could therefore be given a choice of how to quit, and support provided to people who would specifically like to reduce their smoking before quitting."
63:
575:
8860:
8016:
1974:
tobacco and cannabis can be a social activity which serves as a reinforcement of social structures and is part of the cultural rituals of many and diverse social and ethnic groups. Many smokers begin smoking in social settings and the offering and sharing of a cigarette is often an important rite of initiation or simply a good excuse to start a conversation with strangers in many settings; in bars,
2399:
1071:
rates of lung cancer among males increased 220% between 1935β39 and 1950β54. In the UK, the share of lung cancer among all cancer deaths in men increased from 1.5% in 1920 to 19.7% in 1947. Nevertheless, these increases were questioned as potentially caused by increased reporting and improved methods of diagnosis. Although several carcinogens were already known at the time (for example,
7720:
1501:. These are laws enforced to stop individuals from smoking in indoor public places, such as bars, pubs and restaurants, thus reducing nonsmokers' exposure to secondhand smoke. A common concern among legislators is to discourage smoking among minors and many states have passed laws against selling tobacco products to underage customers (establishing a
1021:, and anti-tobacco activist) was "against the habitual use of tobacco" because he believed it (a) "led to a desire for strong drink," (b) "was injurious both to health and morals," (c) "is generally offensive to" nonsmokers, (d) "produces a want of respect for" nonsmokers, and (e) "always disposes to unkind and unjust behavior towards them."
857:, tried to curb the new trend by enforcing a whopping 4000% tax increase on tobacco in 1604, it proved a failure, as London had some 7,000 tobacco sellers by the early 17th century. Later, scrupulous rulers would realise the futility of smoking bans and instead turned tobacco trade and cultivation into lucrative government monopolies.
2123:. It was not until the 1970s when the negative aspects of smoking began to appear, yielding the image of the unhealthy lower-class individual, reeking of cigarette smoke and lack of motivation and drive, which was especially prominent in art inspired or commissioned by anti-smoking campaigns. In his painting "Holy Smokes", artist
2111:
also nervous anxiety; the cigar was a sign of authority, wealth and power. The decades following World War II, during the apex of smoking when the practice had still not come under fire by the growing anti-smoking movement, a cigarette casually tucked between the lips represented the young rebel, epitomized in actors like
2387:. A male smoker in the United States that smokes more than one pack a day can expect an average increase of $ 19,000 just in medical expenses over the course of his lifetime. A U.S. female smoker that also smokes more than a pack a day can expect an average of $ 25,800 additional healthcare costs over her lifetime.
2008:, power and is an iconic image associated with the stereotypical capitalist. In fact, some evidence suggests that men with higher than average testosterone levels are more likely to smoke. Smoking in public has for a long time been something reserved for men and when done by women has been associated with
2044:
were among the first to paint portraits of people smoking and still lifes of pipes and tobacco. For southern
European painters of the 17th century, a pipe was much too modern to include in the preferred motifs inspired by mythology from Greek and Roman antiquity. At first smoking was considered lowly
1892:
Education and counselling by physicians of children and adolescents has been found to be effective in decreasing the risk of tobacco use. Systematic reviews show that psychosocial interventions can help women stop smoking in late pregnancy, reducing low birthweight and preterm births. A 2016 Cochrane
1320:
Even the most primitive form of smoking requires tools of some sort to perform. This has resulted in a staggering variety of smoking tools and paraphernalia from all over the world. Whether tobacco, cannabis, opium or herbs, some form of receptacle is required along with a source of fire to light the
1113:
From 1965 to 2006, rates of smoking in the United States have declined from 42% to 20.8%. A significant majority of those who quit were professional, affluent men. Despite this decrease in the prevalence of consumption, the average number of cigarettes consumed per person per day increased from 22 in
860:
By the mid-17th century every major civilization had been introduced to tobacco smoking and in many cases had already assimilated it into its culture, despite the attempts of many rulers to stamp the practice out with harsh penalties or fines. Tobacco, both product, and plant followed the major trade
547:
and priests to alter their minds for purposes of divination or spiritual enlightenment. After the
European exploration and conquest of the Americas, the practice of smoking tobacco quickly spread to the rest of the world. In regions like India and Sub-Saharan Africa, it merged with existing practices
2206:
According to a 2019 study, the introduction of television in the United States led to a substantial increase in smoking, in particular among 16β21-year-olds. The study suggested "that television increased the share of smokers in the population by 5β15 percentage points, generating roughly 11 million
2202:
Since World War II, smoking has gradually become less frequent on screen as the obvious health hazards of smoking have become more widely known. With the anti-smoking movement gaining greater respect and influence, conscious attempts not to show smoking on screen are now undertaken in order to avoid
2093:
In the 19th century smoking was common as a symbol of simple pleasures; the pipe smoking "noble savage", solemn contemplation by
Classical Roman ruins, scenes of an artist becoming one with nature while slowly toking a pipe. The newly empowered middle class also found a new dimension of smoking as a
2039:
The earliest depictions of smoking can be found on
Classical Mayan pottery from around the 9th century. The art was primarily religious in nature and depicted deities or rulers smoking early forms of cigarettes. Soon after smoking was introduced outside of the Americas it began appearing in painting
1197:
grew. However, overproduction and tighter legal enforcement for the illegal product caused drug dealers to convert the powder to "crack" β a solid, smokable form of cocaine that could be sold in smaller quantities to more people. This trend abated in the 1990s as increased police action coupled with
770:
in 1560. From France tobacco spread to
England. The first report documents an English sailor in Bristol in 1556, seen "emitting smoke from his nostrils". Like tea, coffee and opium, tobacco was just one of many intoxicants that was originally used as a form of medicine. Tobacco was introduced around
2318:
was from early on closely intertwined with the smoking that was practiced in the venues where it was played, such as bars, dance halls, jazz clubs and even brothels. The rise of jazz coincided with the expansion of the modern tobacco industry, and in the United States also contributed to the spread
1986:
The importance of tobacco to soldiers was early on recognized as something that could not be ignored by commanders. By the 17th century allowances of tobacco were a standard part of the naval rations of many nations and by World War I cigarette manufacturers and governments collaborated in securing
1594:
that altogether have an area of over 70 m (about the area of a tennis court). This can be used to administer useful medical as well as recreational drugs such as aerosols, consisting of tiny droplets of a medication, or as gas produced by burning plant material with a psychoactive substance or pure
1589:
Inhaling the vaporized gas form of substances into the lungs is a quick and very effective way of delivering drugs into the bloodstream (as the gas diffuses directly into the pulmonary vein, then into the heart and from there to the brain) and affects the user within less than a second of the first
1512:
Despite the many bans, European countries still hold 18 of the top 20 spots, and according to the ERC, a market research company, the heaviest smokers are from Greece, averaging 3,000 cigarettes per person in 2007. Rates of smoking have leveled off or declined in the developed world but continue to
1070:
In the UK and the US, an increase in lung cancer rates, formerly "among the rarest forms of disease", was noted by the 1930s, but its cause remained unknown and even the credibility of this increase was sometimes disputed as late as 1950. For example, in
Connecticut, reported age-adjusted incidence
1516:
The effects of addiction on society vary considerably between different substances that can be smoked and the indirect social problems that they cause, in great part because of the differences in legislation and the enforcement of narcotics legislation around the world. Though nicotine is a highly
1045:
The movement in Nazi
Germany did reach across enemy lines during the Second World War, as anti-smoking groups quickly lost popular support. By the end of the Second World War, American cigarette manufacturers quickly reentered the German black market. Illegal smuggling of tobacco became prevalent,
2110:
fatalism. While the symbolism of the cigarette, pipe and cigar respectively were consolidated in the late 19th century, it was not until the 20th century that artists began to use it fully; a pipe would stand for thoughtfulness and calm; the cigarette symbolized modernity, strength and youth, but
2066:
controversially believe this portrayal was a means of projecting an image of
European superiority over its colonies and a perception of the male dominance of a feminized Orient. Proponents believe the theme of the exotic and alien "Other" escalated in the 19th century, fueled by the rise in the
1973:
Smoking, primarily of tobacco, is an activity that is practiced by some 1.1 billion people, and up to 1/3 of the adult population. The image of the smoker can vary considerably, but is very often associated, especially in fiction, with individuality and aloofness. Even so, smoking of both
1832:
leads to reduced stress. Far from acting as an aid for mood control, nicotine dependency seems to exacerbate stress. This is confirmed in the daily mood patterns described by smokers, with normal moods during smoking and worsening moods between cigarettes. Thus, the apparent relaxant effect of
1823:
Most tobacco smokers begin during adolescence or early adulthood. Smoking has elements of risk-taking and rebellion, which often appeal to young people. The presence of high-status models and peers may also encourage smoking. Because teenagers are influenced more by their peers than by adults,
1451:
depend on the number of cigarettes smoked daily and the duration of the habit. A study showed that smokers had 2.7 times and former smokers 2.3 times greater probabilities to have established periodontal disease than nonβsmokers, independent of age, sex and plaque index, however, the effect of
1024:
With the modernization of cigarette production compounded with the increased life expectancies during the 1920s, adverse health effects began to become more prevalent. In Germany, anti-smoking groups, often associated with anti-liquor groups, first published advocacy against the consumption of
2049:
rose to considerable power and wealth, smoking became more common amongst the affluent and portraits of elegant gentlemen tastefully raising a pipe appeared. Smoking represented pleasure, transience and the briefness of earthly life as it, quite literally, went up in smoke. Smoking was also
742:
from its failed expeditions in search for gold in the Americas. In order to meet demands from the old world, tobacco was grown in succession, quickly depleting the land. This became a motivator to settle west into the unknown continent, and likewise an expansion of tobacco production.
535:. Diseases related to tobacco smoking have been shown to kill approximately half of long-term smokers when compared to average mortality rates faced by non-smokers. Smoking caused over five million deaths a year from 1990 to 2015. Non-smokers account for 600,000 deaths globally due to
971:
became virtual "opium capitals". While opium dens that catered primarily to emigrant Chinese continued to exist in Chinatowns around the world, the trend among the European artists largely abated after the outbreak of World War I. The consumption of Opium abated in China during the
2220:. Other than being a frequent part of short stories and novels, smoking has spawned endless eulogies, praising its qualities and affirming the author's identity as a devoted smoker. Especially during the late 19th century and early 20th century, a panoply of books with titles like
2289:
These works were all published in an era before the cigarette had become the dominant form of tobacco consumption and pipes, cigars, and chewing tobacco were still commonplace. Many of the books were published in novel packaging that would attract the learned smoking gentleman.
2000:, until recently one of the most common forms of smoking, is today often associated with solemn contemplation, old age and is often considered quaint and archaic. Cigarette smoking, which did not begin to become widespread until the late 19th century, has more associations of
1110:, originally between the four largest US tobacco companies and the Attorneys General of 46 states, restricted certain types of tobacco advertisement and required payments for health compensation; which later amounted to the largest civil settlement in United States history.
1114:
1954 to 30 in 1978. This paradoxical event suggests that those who quit smoked less, while those who continued to smoke moved to smoke more light cigarettes. This trend has been paralleled by many industrialized nations as rates have either leveled-off or declined. In the
2215:
Just as in other types of fiction, smoking has had an important place in literature and smokers are often portrayed as characters with great individuality, or outright eccentrics, something typically personified in one of the most iconic smoking literary figures of all,
1827:
Smokers often report that cigarettes help relieve feelings of stress. However, the stress levels of adult smokers are slightly higher than those of nonsmokers. Adolescent smokers report increasing levels of stress as they develop regular patterns of smoking, and
1332:
A less common but increasingly popular alternative to smoking is vaporizers, which use hot air convection to deliver the substance without combustion, which may reduce health risks. A portable vaporization alternative appeared in 2003 with the introduction of
661:. Smoking, especially after the introduction of tobacco, was an essential component of Muslim society and culture and became integrated with important traditions such as weddings, funerals and was expressed in architecture, clothing, literature and poetry.
2057:
became popular. Smoking a pipe was again relegated to portraits of lowly commoners and country folk and the refined sniffing of shredded tobacco followed by sneezing was rare in art. When smoking appeared it was often in the exotic portraits influenced by
1622:, which impairs the ability of blood to carry oxygen when inhaled into the lungs. There are several other toxic compounds in tobacco that constitute serious health hazards to long-term smokers from a whole range of causes; vascular abnormalities such as
2192:
have been closely identified with their smoker persona, and some of their most famous portraits and roles have involved them being haloed by a mist of cigarette smoke. Hepburn often enhanced the glamor with a cigarette holder, most notably in the film
1041:
condemned his earlier smoking habit as a waste of money, and later with stronger assertions. This movement was further strengthened with Nazi reproductive policy as women who smoked were viewed as unsuitable to be wives and mothers in a German family.
1054:
steadily rose from 460 in 1950 to 1,523 in 1963. By the end of the 20th century, anti-smoking campaigns in Germany were unable to exceed the effectiveness of the Nazi-era climax in the years 1939β41 and German tobacco health research was described by
2232:(1905) were written in the UK and the US. The titles were written by men for other men and contained general tidbits and poetic musings about the love for tobacco and all things related to it, and frequently praised the refined bachelor's life.
5186:
688:
Reports from the first European explorers and conquistadors to reach the Americas tell of rituals where native priests smoked themselves into such high degrees of intoxication that it is unlikely that the rituals were limited to just tobacco.
1247:. There are many different tobacco cultivars which are made into a wide variety of mixtures and brands. Tobacco is often sold flavored, often with various fruit aromas, something which is especially popular for use with water pipes, such as
876:, a society called Bena Diemba ("People of Cannabis") was organized in the late 19th century in Lubuko ("The Land of Friendship"). The Bena Diemba were collectivist pacifists that rejected alcohol and herbal medicines in favor of cannabis.
539:. The health hazards of smoking have caused many countries to institute high taxes on tobacco products, publish advertisements to discourage use, limit advertisements that promote use, and provide help with quitting for those who do smoke.
542:
Smoking can be dated to as early as 5000 BCE, and has been recorded in many different cultures across the world. Early smoking evolved in association with religious ceremonies; as offerings to deities; in cleansing rituals; or to allow
1505:). Many developing countries have not adopted anti-smoking policies, leading some to call for anti-smoking campaigns and further education to explain the negative effects of ETS (Environmental Tobacco Smoke) in developing countries.
1844:
was associated with smoking, and smokers tended to be sociable, impulsive, risk taking, and excitement-seeking individuals. Although personality and social factors may make people likely to smoke, the actual habit is a function of
1118:, however, tobacco consumption continues to rise at 3.4% in 2002. In Africa, smoking is in most areas considered to be modern, and many of the strong adverse opinions that prevail in the West receive much less attention. Today
1452:
tobacco on periodontal tissues seems to be more pronounced in men than in women. Studies have found that smokers had greater odds for more severe dental bone loss compared to nonβsmokers; also, people who smoke and drink
672:
and the east African coast by either Indian or Arab traders in the 13th century or earlier and spread on the same trade routes as those that carried coffee, which originated in the highlands of Ethiopia. It was smoked in
1337:, battery-operated, cigarette-shaped devices which produce an aerosol intended to mimic the smoke from burning tobacco, delivering nicotine to the user without some of the harmful substances released in tobacco smoke.
1490:. Smoking can affect the immune-inflammatory processes which may increase susceptibility to infections; it can alter the oral mycobiota and facilitate colonization of the oral cavity with fungi and pathogenic molds.
2298:(1901) came bound in leather, packaged in an imitation cardboard cigar box. By the late 1920s, the publication of this type of literature largely abated and was only sporadically revived in the later 20th century.
931:). The narcotic was also outlawed in China sometime in the early 18th century due the societal issues it caused. Due to a massive trade imbalance, however, foreign merchants started to smuggle opium into China via
3707:
Thun MJ, Hannan LM, Adams-Campbell LL, Boffetta P, Buring JE, Feskanich D, Flanders WD, Jee SH, Katanoda K, Kolonel LN, Lee IM, Marugame T, Palmer JR, Riboli E, Sobue T, Avila-Tang E, Wilkens LR, Samet JM (2008).
962:
around South and Southeast Asia, Europe and the Americas. In the latter half of the 19th century, opium smoking became popular in the artistic community in Europe, especially Paris; artists' neighborhoods such as
1153:
At the global scale, initial ideas of an international convention towards the prevention of tobacco had been initiated in the World Health Assembly (WHA) in 1996. In 1998, along with the successful election of
2382:
Estimates claim that smokers cost the U.S. economy $ 97.6 billion a year in lost productivity and that an additional $ 96.7 billion is spent on public and private health care combined. This is over 1% of the
1995:
Smoking has been accepted into culture, in various art forms, and has developed many distinct, and often conflicting or mutually exclusive, meanings depending on time, place and the practitioners of smoking.
6549:
2319:
of cannabis. The latter went under names like "tea", "muggles" and "reefer" in the jazz community and was so influential in the 1920s and 30s that it found its way into songs composed at the time such as
586:
The history of smoking dates back to as early as 5000 BCE for shamanistic rituals. Many ancient civilizations, such as the Babylonian and Chinese, burnt incense as a part of religious rituals, as did the
5158:
2203:
encouraging smoking or giving it positive associations, particularly for family films. Smoking on screen is more common today among characters who are portrayed as anti-social or even criminal.
5208:
Tompkins EM, McLuckie KI, Jones DJ, Farmer PB, Brown K (2009). "Mutagenicity of DNA adducts derived from ethylene oxide exposure in the pSP189 shuttle vector replicated in human Ad293 cells".
1106:
as the adverse health effects were previously unknown or lacked substantial credibility. Health authorities sided with these claims up until 1998, from which they reversed their position. The
1091:, a study of some 40 thousand doctors over 20 years, confirmed the link, based on which the government issued advice that smoking and lung cancer rates were related. In 1964 the United States
1618:
Inhaling smoke into the lungs, no matter the substance, has adverse effects on one's health. The incomplete combustion produced by burning plant material, like tobacco or cannabis, produces
5880:
1321:
mixture. The most common today is by far the cigarette, consisting of a mild inhalant strain of tobacco in a tightly rolled tube of paper, usually manufactured industrially and including a
481:, but the use of these is very limited as they are usually not commercially available. Cigarettes are primarily industrially manufactured but also can be hand-rolled from loose tobacco and
5251:
Fabiani R, Rosignoli P, De Bartolomeo A, Fuccelli R, Morozzi G (2007). "DNA-damaging ability of isoprene and isoprene mono-epoxide (EPOX I) in human cells evaluated with the comet assay".
843:
forbade the sale of tobacco and sentenced men and women who flouted the ban to have their nostrils slit and their backs whipped until skin came off their backs. The Western church leader
6515:
4339:
Monteiro-da-Silva, Filipa; Sampaio-Maia, Benedita; Pereira, Maria de Lurdes; Araujo, Ricardo (4 March 2013). "Characterization of the oral fungal microbiota in smokers and non-smokers".
6547:
5627:
3810:
2358:, is believed to have been introduced to Jamaica in the mid-19th century by Indian immigrant labor and was primarily associated with Indian workers until it was appropriated by the
1653:
since such damage appears to be the primary underlying cause of cancer. Cunningham et al. combined the microgram weight of the compound in the smoke of one cigarette with the known
4317:
1899:
7392:
3582:
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2002). "Annual smoking-attributable mortality, years of potential life lost, and economic costs β United States, 1995β1999".
1066:
A lengthy study conducted in order to establish the strong association necessary for legislative action (US cigarette consumption per person blue, male lung cancer rate green)
657:
Cannabis smoking was common in the Middle East before the arrival of tobacco, and was early on a common social activity that centered around the type of water pipe called a
6135:
U.S. Department of Treasury. "The Economic Costs of Smoking in the United States and the Benefits of Comprehensive Tobacco Legislation". Retrieved 10 September 2008 from
4048:
Tomar, S. L.; Asma, S. (May 2000). "Smoking-attributable periodontitis in the United States: findings from NHANES III. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey".
872:
Tobacco and cannabis were used in Sub-Saharan Africa, much like elsewhere in the world, to confirm social relations, but also created entirely new ones. In what is today
6548:
1178:
to motiviate individuals to quit smoking as a sacrifice for their loved ones and making it a meaningful decision of life. This campaign is attracting public attention.
4227:
Axeix, Tony; Hedin, C. Anders (December 1982). "Epidemiologic study of excessive oral melanin pigmentation with special reference to the influence of tobacco habits".
719:
4546:
Cosnes J, Carbonnel F, Carrat F, Beaugerie L, Cattan S, Gendre J (1999). "Effects of current and former cigarette smoking on the clinical course of Crohn's disease".
1095:'s Report on Smoking and Health demonstrated the relationship between smoking and cancer. Further reports confirmed this link in the 1980s and concluded in 1986 that
8238:
5456:"Summaries for patients. Primary care interventions to prevent tobacco use in children and adolescents: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement"
3269:
1833:
smoking only reflects the reversal of the tension and irritability that develop during nicotine depletion. Dependent smokers need nicotine to remain feeling normal.
1163:
6124:
2512:"Smoking prevalence and attributable disease burden in 195 countries and territories, 1990β2015: a systematic analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015"
8797:
7122:
828:
as being a threat to the military economy by letting valuable farmland go to waste for the use of a recreational drug instead of being used to plant food crops.
2199:. Smoking could also be used as a means to subvert censorship, as two cigarettes burning unattended in an ashtray were often used to suggest sexual activity.
4940:
Cunningham FH, Fiebelkorn S, Johnson M, Meredith C (2011). "A novel application of the Margin of Exposure approach: segregation of tobacco smoke toxicants".
555:
and deadly health hazard. In the last decade of the 20th century, smoking came to be viewed in a decidedly negative light, especially in Western countries.
7385:
5717:
1861:
become the key motivations. Like all addictive substances, the amount of exposure required to become dependent on nicotine can vary from person to person.
787:
and the Portuguese brought the commodity (and the plant) to southern Africa, establishing the popularity of tobacco throughout all of Africa by the 1650s.
2575:
1603:, which are associated with sensations of pleasure. The result is what is usually referred to as a "high" that ranges between the mild stimulus caused by
2679:
6433:
Kulikoff, Allan. Tobacco & Slaves: The Development of Southern Cultures in the Chesapeake. North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1986.
4184:
Harris, C.; Warnakulasuriya, K.A.A.S.; Gelbier, S.; Johnson, N.W.; Peters, T.J. (December 1997). "Oral and Dental Health in Alcohol Misusing Patients".
8725:
1493:
Many governments are trying to deter people from smoking with anti-smoking campaigns in mass media stressing the harmful long-term effects of smoking.
1050:, the United States shipped free tobacco to Germany; with 24,000 tons in 1948 and 69,000 tons in 1949. Per capita yearly cigarette consumption in
705:
5657:
548:
of smoking (mostly of cannabis). In Europe, it introduced a new type of social activity and a form of drug intake which previously had been unknown.
5747:
4271:
2180:
Female smokers in film were also early on associated with a type of sensuous and seductive sexuality, most notably personified by German film star
1661:
compounds in cigarette smoke. The seven most important carcinogens in tobacco smoke are shown in the table, along with DNA alterations they cause.
1565:
5687:
3516:
1982:
There is a new Marlboro land, not of lonesome cowboys, but of social-spirited urbanites, united against the perceived strictures of public health.
8622:
7464:
7378:
2016:, prostitutes and their clients would often approach one another under the guise of offering a smoke; the same was true for 19th-century Europe.
5777:
1923:
847:
likewise condemned smoking in a papal bull of 1590. Despite many concerted efforts, restrictions and bans were almost universally ignored. When
630:(literally "drinking smoke"), has been practiced for at least 2,000 years. Before modern times these substances have been consumed through
6512:
5973:
3909:"Risk factors for acute myocardial infarction in Copenhagen. I: Hereditary, educational and socioeconomic factors. Copenhagen City Heart Study"
2343:. The popularity of marijuana among jazz musicians remained high until the 1940s and 50s, when it was partially replaced by the use of heroin.
4683:
3291:
1513:
rise in developing countries. Smoking rates in the United States have dropped by half from 1965 to 2006, falling from 42% to 20.8% in adults.
1271:) or with pipes. Water pipes are also fairly common; water pipes used for cannabis include designs known as bongs and bubblers, among others.
591:
and the later Catholic and Orthodox Christian churches. Smoking in the Americas probably had its origins in the incense-burning ceremonies of
6080:
5617:
4751:
6471:
5807:
5108:
Koturbash I, Scherhag A, Sorrentino J, Sexton K, Bodnar W, Swenberg JA, Beland FA, Pardo-Manuel Devillena F, Rusyn I, Pogribny IP (2011).
4449:
3886:
3802:
1075:
was isolated from coal tar and demonstrated to be a potent carcinogen in 1933), none were known to be contained in adequate quantities in
8787:
7112:
3547:
2306:
There have been few examples of tobacco in music in early modern times, though there are occasional signs of influence in pieces such as
5495:
Chamberlain, Catherine; O'Mara-Eves, Alison; Porter, Jessie; Coleman, Tim; Perlen, Susan M.; Thomas, James; McKenzie, Joanne E. (2017).
4475:
6507:
6169:
5398:
Ozga-Hess, Jenny E.; Romm, Katelyn F.; Felicione, Nicholas J.; Dino, Geri; Blank, Melissa D.; Turiano, Nicholas A. (1 September 2020).
1911:
7256:
6137:
5888:
4721:
1935:
1517:
addictive drug, its effects on cognition are not as intense or noticeable as other drugs such as cocaine, amphetamines or any of the
1010:
3227:
8508:
3883:
3500:
2488:
6125:
https://web.archive.org/web/20081212025257/http://articles.moneycentral.msn.com/Insurance/InsureYourHealth/HighCostOfSmoking.aspx
2094:
harmless pleasure enjoyed in smoking saloons and libraries. Smoking a cigarette or a cigar would also become associated with the
461:. Tobacco smoking is the most popular form, being practised by over one billion people globally, of whom the majority are in the
182:
551:
Perception surrounding smoking has varied over time and from one place to another: holy and sinful, sophisticated and vulgar, a
1238:
1824:
attempts by parents, schools, and health professionals at preventing people from trying cigarettes are not always successful.
8720:
6611:
6448:
6401:
6358:
5314:
3391:
3359:
3263:
2833:
1497:, or secondhand smoking, which affects people in the immediate vicinity of smokers, is a major reason for the enforcement of
1433:
985:
839:
Religious leaders have often been prominent among those who considered smoking immoral or outright blasphemous. In 1634, the
752:
524:
3181:
2960:
8344:
1372:, tobacco cutters, match stands, pipe tampers, cigarette companions and so on. Some examples of these have become valuable
1092:
759:
as slavery became regarded as unprofitable. However the practice was revived in 1794 with the invention of the cotton gin.
4270:
Brocklehurst, Paul; Kujan, Omar; O'Malley, Lucy A; Ogden, Graham; Shepherd, Simon; Glenny, Anne-Marie (19 November 2013).
3253:
8820:
8772:
7749:
5020:"Evaluation of mutagenic effects of formaldehyde in vitro: detection of crosslinks and mutations in mouse lymphoma cells"
2855:
1107:
840:
51:
3417:"Impact of the WHO FCTC over the first decade: a global evidence review prepared for the Impact Assessment Expert Group"
3329:
1033:
of Dresden, Germany, published a paper containing formal statistical evidence of a lung cancerβtobacco link. During the
8777:
7157:
7152:
7107:
4499:"Cigarette Smoking is a Risk Factor for Alzheimer's Disease: an Analysis Controlling for Tobacco Industry Affiliation"
3159:
8576:
8551:
7241:
7057:
6425:
6382:
6310:
6260:
6234:
6220:
6207:
6194:
2437:
2412:
1952:
927:. Previously, opium had only been ingested via consumption, and then only for its medicinal properties (opium was an
327:
137:
5110:"Epigenetic mechanisms of mouse interstrain variability in genotoxicity of the environmental toxicant 1,3-butadiene"
802:
1623β40 was among the first to attempt a smoking ban by claiming it was a threat to public morality and health. The
8762:
7233:
7218:
2633:
2362:
in the middle of the 20th century. The Rastafari considered cannabis smoking to be a way to come closer to God, or
2195:
1051:
887:. This compounded with a change in demand, lead to the industrialization of tobacco production with the cigarette.
873:
423:
6495:
1553:
8627:
8518:
8439:
7306:
2457:
1402:
globally and is the cause of over 8 million deaths annually, 1.2 million of which are non-smokers who die due to
5709:
2045:
and was associated with peasants. Many early paintings were of scenes set in taverns or brothels. Later, as the
8904:
8873:
7830:
7359:
7281:
7177:
2567:
1414:
1384:
6438:
4137:
Grossi, S.G.; Genco, R.J.; Machtet, E.E.; Ho, A.W.; Koch, G.; Dunford, R.; Zambon, J.J.; Hausmann, E. (1995).
2676:
2156:
crime thrillers, cigarette smoke often frames characters and is frequently used to add an aura of mystique or
1641:
Tobacco smoke is a complex mixture of over 5,000 identified chemicals, of which 98 are known to have specific
8700:
7927:
7770:
7223:
6893:
6430:
Burns, Eric. The Smoke of the Gods: A Social History of Tobacco. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2007.
6296:
5159:"[13C2]-Acetaldehyde promotes unequivocal formation of 1,N2-propano-2'-deoxyguanosine in human cells"
1877:
3415:
Chung-Hall, Janet; Craig, Lorraine; Gravely, Shannon; Sansone, Natalie; Fong, Geoffrey T. (17 August 2018).
8715:
8649:
8301:
8263:
7606:
7422:
7092:
6955:
6292:
5649:
2314:. However, from the early 20th century and onwards smoking has been closely associated with popular music.
915:
5157:
Garcia CC, Angeli JP, Freitas FP, Gomes OF, de Oliveira TF, Loureiro AP, Di Mascio P, Medeiros MH (2011).
3156:"Smoking and Health: Report of the Advisory Committee to the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service"
1585:
A graph that shows the efficiency of smoking as a way to absorb nicotine compared to other forms of intake
8705:
8215:
7067:
6564:
5739:
5400:"Personality and impulsivity as predictors of tobacco use among emerging adults: A latent class analysis"
3894:
2135:
1865:
1399:
6244:
4901:"DNA damage responses: mechanisms and roles in human disease: 2007 G.H.A. Clowes Memorial Award Lecture"
8710:
8243:
7812:
6969:
6739:
5679:
4094:
Ramon, Jose-Maria; Echeverria, Jose-Javier (August 2002). "Effects of smoking on periodontal tissues".
3880:
3524:
3207:
Geyelin, Milo (23 November 1998). "Forty-Six States Agree to Accept $ 206 Billion Tobacco Settlement".
1729:
853:
3759:
Kenneth Johnson (24 January 2018). "Just one cigarette a day seriously elevates cardiovascular risk".
8825:
8677:
8538:
8291:
8220:
7807:
7754:
7588:
7052:
7027:
6818:
6604:
6583:
5769:
1393:
1159:
504:
112:
17:
7846:
6066:
Eugene Umberger, "In Praise of Lady Nicotine: A Bygone Era of Prose, Poetry... and Presentation" in
6053:
Eugene Umberger, "In Praise of Lady Nicotine: A Bygone Era of Prose, Poetry... and Presentation" in
5965:
4001:"Exposures to environmental toxicants and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in U.S. children"
595:
but was later adopted for pleasure, or as a social tool. The smoking of tobacco, as well as various
8863:
8815:
8337:
8210:
7584:
6982:
6501:
4691:
4441:
4138:
3710:"Lung cancer occurrence in never-smokers: An analysis of 13 cohorts and 22 cancer registry studies"
3295:
512:
35:
2004:
and the faster pace of the industrialized world. Cigars have been, and still are, associated with
1062:
371:
plant, which have been rolled with a small rectangle of paper into an elongated cylinder called a
30:
This article is about smoking of tobacco and other drugs. For the method of food preparation, see
8752:
8747:
8281:
8248:
8202:
8047:
7879:
7611:
7532:
7459:
7401:
7102:
6744:
6653:
5622:
3954:
3834:"Environmental tobacco smoke exposure and ischaemic heart disease: an evaluation of the evidence"
2510:
Reitsma, Marissa B; Fullman, Nancy; Ng, Marie; Salama, Joseph S; Abajobir, Amanuel (April 2017).
2427:
2053:
In the 18th century smoking became far more sparse in painting as the elegant practice of taking
1849:. During the early stages, smoking provides pleasurable sensations (because of its action on the
1103:
1084:
387:
4743:
3294:. World Health Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific. 28 May 2002. Archived from
3005:"Research on Smoking and Lung Cancer: A Landmark in the History of Chronic Disease Epidemiology"
8830:
8792:
8667:
8617:
8591:
8276:
8230:
8172:
8078:
7945:
7552:
7426:
7246:
7117:
6790:
6719:
6714:
6669:
6477:
5799:
5334:
2703:
2384:
2346:
Another form of modern popular music that has been closely associated with cannabis smoking is
2173:
1858:
1854:
1634:. 8% of long-term smokers develop the characteristic set of facial changes known to doctors as
1529:
1407:
1326:
1279:
861:
routes to major ports and markets, and then on into the hinterlands. The English language term
407:
5306:
3539:
1808:
1285:
A few other recreational drugs are smoked by smaller minorities. Most of these substances are
8914:
8899:
8286:
8167:
7580:
7182:
7077:
6977:
6679:
6389:
6346:
5061:"Acrylonitrile-induced oxidative stress and oxidative DNA damage in male Sprague-Dawley rats"
4471:
3925:
3908:
2307:
1631:
1468:
1289:, and some are considerably more intoxicating than either tobacco or cannabis. These include
1155:
1088:
992:
806:
of China issued an edict banning smoking two years before his death and the overthrow of the
520:
458:
320:
6282:
5472:
5455:
4975:
Liu XY, Zhu MX, Xie JP (2010). "Mutagenicity of acrolein and acrolein-induced DNA adducts".
2078:
8868:
8835:
8639:
8480:
8387:
8131:
7976:
7894:
7839:
7759:
7744:
7547:
7213:
7129:
6909:
6785:
6749:
6694:
6684:
6597:
6579:
5260:
5217:
4589:
Calkins BM (1989). "A meta-analysis of the role of smoking in inflammatory bowel disease".
2417:
2072:
1846:
1483:
1418:
1334:
1286:
888:
748:
744:
626:
for medical purposes, and have been practiced for at least 3,000 years while smoking,
528:
431:
172:
7172:
6144:
4713:
3950:"ABC of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Definition, epidemiology, and risk factors"
1857:. After an individual has smoked for many years, the avoidance of withdrawal symptoms and
1698:
Reacts with deoxyguanine and forms DNA crosslinks, DNA-protein crosslinks and DNA adducts
1198:
a robust economy caused many potential consumers to give up or fail to take up the habit.
1005:
Many people have been critical about tobacco use since it gained popularity. In 1798, Dr.
8:
8853:
8556:
8372:
8330:
8184:
7921:
7802:
7797:
7517:
7413:
7370:
7354:
7082:
7036:
6919:
6734:
6729:
6288:
5552:
Stead, Lindsay F; Koilpillai, Priya; Fanshawe, Thomas R; Lancaster, Tim (24 March 2016).
3223:
2452:
1532:. While smoking more than 15 cigarettes per day has been shown to worsen the symptoms of
1506:
1440:
973:
818:, would proclaim smoking "a more heinous crime than that even of neglecting archery". In
756:
727:
532:
167:
117:
7167:
7162:
6123:
Smith, Hilary. "The high costs of smoking". MSN money. Retrieved 10 September 2008 from
5586:
5553:
5264:
5221:
4139:"Assessment of Risk for Periodontal Disease. II. Risk Indicators for Alveolar Bone Loss"
3497:
8672:
8561:
8367:
8258:
8052:
8007:
7704:
7449:
7326:
7286:
7031:
6929:
6924:
6858:
6853:
6848:
6838:
6828:
6823:
6813:
6797:
6769:
6648:
6333:
6277:
6270:
5618:"Featured Review: Can people stop smoking by cutting down the amount they smoke first?"
5599:
5529:
5496:
5432:
5399:
5330:
5134:
5109:
5085:
5060:
5000:
4876:
4849:
4825:
4800:
4660:
4633:
4614:
4571:
4523:
4498:
4304:
4240:
4197:
4025:
4000:
3976:
3949:
3858:
3833:
3784:
3736:
3709:
3684:
3659:
3449:
3432:
3416:
3119:
3094:
3070:
3045:
3021:
3004:
2536:
2511:
2484:
2422:
2359:
2032:
1747:
1591:
1537:
1533:
1306:
1218:
1171:
1162:
set tobacco control as its leading health concern and has begun a program known as the
1115:
880:
698:
682:
665:
564:
552:
462:
279:
217:
4107:
3635:
3610:
2527:
2106:, who was a pipe smoker himself, would also begin to associate smoking with gloom and
8757:
8586:
8523:
8485:
8392:
8108:
8103:
7941:
7682:
7444:
7301:
7144:
7097:
6945:
6914:
6888:
6883:
6878:
6873:
6868:
6843:
6833:
6764:
6759:
6444:
6421:
6397:
6378:
6354:
6337:
6306:
6256:
6230:
6216:
6203:
6190:
6163:
5591:
5573:
5534:
5516:
5477:
5437:
5419:
5367:
5310:
5299:
5276:
5233:
5178:
5139:
5090:
5041:
4992:
4957:
4922:
4881:
4830:
4665:
4606:
4563:
4559:
4528:
4423:
4415:
4374:
4366:
4309:
4291:
4252:
4244:
4209:
4201:
4166:
4158:
4119:
4111:
4073:
4065:
4030:
3981:
3930:
3863:
3776:
3741:
3689:
3640:
3591:
3473:
3454:
3436:
3397:
3387:
3365:
3355:
3259:
3124:
3075:
3026:
2890:
2882:
2829:
2541:
2236:, published in 1907, contained, among many others, the following lines from the poem
2234:
The Fragrant Weed: Some of the Good Things Which Have been Said or Sung about Tobacco
1873:
1829:
1056:
1018:
803:
399:
391:
225:
122:
31:
5603:
3788:
3222:
VJ Rock; A Malarcher; JW Kahende; K Asman; C Husten; R Caraballo (9 November 2007).
3095:"The mortality of doctors in relation to their smoking habits. A preliminary report"
1087:
showing a close link between smoking and lung cancer. Four years later, in 1954 the
398:
within the burnt dried plant leaves vaporize and can be airborne-delivered into the
8894:
8782:
8659:
8612:
8581:
8571:
8465:
8434:
8377:
8042:
7349:
7331:
7208:
7072:
7062:
7047:
6863:
6754:
6724:
6709:
6689:
6674:
6643:
6524:
6325:
6114:
J. Edward Chamberlin & Barry Chevannes, "Ganja in Jamaica" in Smoke, pp. 144β53
6034:
6024:
5581:
5569:
5565:
5524:
5512:
5508:
5467:
5427:
5411:
5359:
5272:
5268:
5229:
5225:
5170:
5129:
5121:
5080:
5072:
5031:
5004:
4984:
4949:
4912:
4871:
4861:
4820:
4812:
4655:
4645:
4618:
4598:
4575:
4555:
4518:
4510:
4405:
4356:
4348:
4299:
4287:
4283:
4236:
4193:
4150:
4103:
4057:
4020:
4012:
3971:
3963:
3920:
3853:
3845:
3768:
3731:
3721:
3679:
3671:
3630:
3622:
3444:
3428:
3114:
3106:
3065:
3057:
3016:
2531:
2523:
2181:
2103:
2086:
2041:
1905:
Average price of a pack of 20 cigarettes, measured in international dollars in 2014
1635:
1357:
1340:
Other than actual smoking equipment, many other items are associated with smoking;
1322:
1314:
1302:
1268:
1252:
1226:
1210:
1034:
999:
951:
944:
739:
669:
599:
drugs, was used to achieve trances and to come into contact with the spirit world.
579:
466:
395:
313:
236:
177:
150:
132:
127:
74:
6255:
edited by Anna Alexander and Mark S. Roberts. State University of New York Press.
4917:
4900:
3611:"Mortality in relation to smoking: 50 years' observations on male British doctors"
3185:
3143:
Marketing Health: Smoking and the Discourse of Public Health in Britain, 1945β2000
1957:
8909:
8767:
8607:
8566:
8528:
8495:
7932:
7616:
7480:
7042:
6992:
6950:
6704:
6699:
6620:
6519:
5951:
Benno Tempel, "Symbol and File: Smoking in Art since the Seventeenth Century" in
3890:
3726:
3504:
2966:
2683:
2432:
2404:
2320:
2217:
2185:
2165:
2140:
2127:
pokes fun at the smoking debate and its newly found focus on morality and guilt.
2063:
2054:
1619:
1612:
1544:
1494:
1453:
1403:
1294:
1263:
1257:
1244:
1202:
1175:
1167:
1096:
1014:
940:
891:, a craftsman, in 1881 produced a machine to speed the production of cigarettes.
865:
was coined in the late 18th century; before then the practice was referred to as
536:
411:
289:
230:
157:
100:
6039:
5363:
3626:
3581:
2740:
Tanya Pollard, "The Pleasures and Perils of Smoking in Early Modern England" in
1969:
Share adults who smoke any tobacco product on a daily or non-daily basis in 2016
1046:
and leaders of the Nazi anti-smoking campaign were assassinated. As part of the
738:. The demand quickly grew as tobacco, referred to as "golden weed", revived the
8644:
8503:
8475:
8460:
7993:
7626:
7311:
6105:
J. Edward Chamberlin & Barry Chevannes, "Ganja in Jamaica" in Smoke, p. 148
5415:
2559:
2189:
2046:
1772:
1658:
1646:
1547:
than non-smokers, and the risk increases with the number of cigarettes smoked.
1479:
1373:
1341:
1187:
1072:
848:
844:
799:
635:
261:
56:
6329:
5554:"Combined pharmacotherapy and behavioural interventions for smoking cessation"
5497:"Psychosocial interventions for supporting women to stop smoking in pregnancy"
5036:
5019:
4988:
4953:
4848:
Talhout R, Schulz T, Florek E, van Benthem J, Wester P, Opperhuizen A (2011).
4816:
4061:
3967:
3337:
2050:
associated with representations of both the sense of smell and that of taste.
8888:
8546:
8429:
8136:
8058:
8027:
7792:
7621:
7276:
7134:
6987:
5577:
5520:
5423:
4419:
4370:
4295:
4248:
4205:
4162:
4154:
4115:
4069:
3849:
3440:
3369:
2849:
2845:
2112:
2099:
1869:
1812:
1738:
1720:
1429:
1365:
1325:, or hand-rolled with loose tobacco. Other popular smoking tools are various
1298:
1290:
1214:
1206:
1076:
1047:
1030:
1006:
884:
811:
578:
Aztec women are handed flowers and smoking tubes before eating at a banquet,
482:
451:
299:
249:
5125:
5076:
4272:"Screening programmes for the early detection and prevention of oral cancer"
3897:) The Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General. 2004.
3401:
3110:
1965:
1467:(mouth and lip) compared with people who do neither. Smoking can also cause
883:
in the 1860s, from which the primary labor force transition from slavery to
685:
invention which was later conveyed to eastern, southern and central Africa.
8177:
8113:
8098:
8073:
7911:
7631:
7321:
7316:
7002:
5595:
5538:
5481:
5441:
5371:
5280:
5237:
5182:
5143:
5094:
5045:
4996:
4961:
4926:
4885:
4669:
4567:
4532:
4427:
4378:
4313:
4123:
4077:
4034:
3985:
3780:
3745:
3675:
3644:
3595:
3474:"Senior cardiologist Anil urges to quit smoking for the sake of loved ones"
3458:
3128:
3079:
3061:
2894:
2545:
2442:
2124:
2120:
1997:
1841:
1837:
1757:
1705:
1667:
1654:
1448:
1369:
1080:
1038:
964:
924:
815:
807:
631:
596:
486:
376:
6567:
was created from a revision of this article dated 9 October 2022
4866:
4834:
4610:
4514:
4338:
4256:
4213:
4170:
3934:
3867:
3693:
3155:
3030:
2024:
1388:
A diagram of the human body showing some of the diseases caused by smoking
935:, to the chagrin of the Chinese authorities. Attempts by Chinese official
794:, tobacco came under frequent criticism from state and religious leaders.
8683:
8271:
8159:
8032:
7988:
7966:
7953:
7884:
7854:
7788:
7637:
7576:
7405:
7291:
7196:
7087:
6029:
6012:
5922:
4394:"Tobacco and oral diseases. Update on the evidence, with recommendations"
3660:"Excess mortality among cigarette smokers: changes in a 20-year interval"
3200:
2447:
2328:
2252:
2177:), where men mesmerized by card playing smoke cigarettes while gambling.
2147:
2095:
2059:
2009:
2005:
1881:
1816:
1502:
1498:
1487:
1475:
1461:
928:
516:
360:
7251:
6189:(1998) edited by S. Lock, L.A. Reynolds and E.M. Tansey 2nd ed. Rodopi.
4650:
4361:
1713:
DNA-protein crosslinks causing chromosome deletions and re-arrangements
923:
In the 19th century, the practise of smoking opium became widespread in
90:
8193:
8155:
8126:
7686:
7660:
7522:
6214:
Tobacco: A Cultural History of How an Exotic Plant Seduced Civilization
5494:
4602:
2886:
2826:
Imperial Twilight: the Opium War and the End of China's Last Golden Age
2371:
2367:
2336:
2161:
2116:
2013:
1975:
1840:
developed a personality profile for the typical smoker of that period;
1650:
1642:
1596:
1581:
1444:
1411:
1201:
Recent years shows an increase in the consumption of vaporized heroin,
1102:
As scientific evidence mounted in the 1980s, tobacco companies claimed
968:
819:
772:
763:
731:
711:
678:
651:
588:
515:. Smoking tobacco is among the leading causes of many diseases such as
508:
344:
7474:
5174:
4410:
4393:
4352:
4016:
2366:, an association that was greatly popularized by reggae icons such as
43:
8353:
7765:
7655:
7507:
7497:
6489:
5294:
5250:
3772:
2563:
2257:
2152:
2150:, smoking has had a major part in film symbolism. In the hard-boiled
2068:
2001:
1627:
1571:
The number of deaths attributed to smoking per 100,000 people in 2017
1410:
that is halfway between that of a heavy smoker and a non-smoker. The
1345:
1310:
1222:
1123:
959:
955:
947:
resulted in the legalization of the importation of opium into China.
932:
910:
791:
766:(from whose name the word nicotine is derived) introduced tobacco to
735:
592:
372:
202:
2240:
by Tom Hall that were typical of the attitude of many of the books:
835:
Bonsack's cigarette rolling machine, as shown on U.S. patent 238,640
824:
822:
Japan, some of the earliest tobacco plantations were scorned by the
734:
was credited as the first settler to successfully grow tobacco as a
638:. Archaeological findings also show the existence of pipes to smoke
47:
A woman smoking a tobacco cigarette, the most common form of smoking
8307:
8296:
8088:
8068:
8063:
8037:
7981:
7874:
7864:
7859:
7562:
7527:
7512:
7454:
7296:
7007:
6997:
4939:
4183:
3221:
2243:
2157:
1868:, research has found smoking to be correlated with lower levels of
1850:
1787:
1690:
1623:
1604:
1600:
1590:
inhalation. The lungs consist of several million tiny bulbs called
1522:
1425:
936:
905:
795:
784:
674:
623:
603:
474:
439:
435:
419:
294:
162:
8407:
6589:
6096:
Stephen Cottrell, "Smoking and All That Jazz" in Smoke, pp. 154β59
4269:
3658:
Thun MJ, Day-Lally CA, Calle EE, Flanders WD, Heath CW Jr (1995).
831:
610:), fish offal, dried snake skins and various pastes molded around
507:, because smoke inhalation inherently poses challenges to various
8470:
8455:
8424:
8093:
8022:
7961:
7906:
7901:
7869:
7665:
7542:
5107:
4785:
Leslie Iverson, "Why do We Smoke?: The Physiology of Smoking" in
4772:
Leslie Iverson, "Why do We Smoke?: The Physiology of Smoking" in
3568:
Leslie Iverson, "Why do We Smoke?: The Physiology of Smoking" in
2351:
1608:
1376:
and particularly ornate and antique items can fetch high prices.
1361:
1349:
1274:
1194:
1135:
1131:
780:
776:
611:
447:
415:
368:
256:
107:
8015:
5551:
3706:
3255:
Smoking in British Popular Culture, 1800β2000: Perfect Pleasures
1474:
Smoking has been also associated with oral conditions including
574:
62:
8513:
8382:
8083:
8003:
7916:
7736:
7647:
7537:
7502:
7489:
3999:
Braun JM, Kahn RS, Froehlich T, Auinger P, Lanphear BP (2006).
2347:
1518:
1248:
1143:
1139:
1119:
767:
658:
643:
544:
498:
478:
352:
284:
212:
207:
27:
Practice of inhaling a burnt substance for psychoactive effects
6483:
5994:
Noah Iserberg, "Cinematic Smoke: From Weimar to Hollywood" in
4847:
4545:
1424:
Among the diseases that can be caused by smoking are vascular
430:. Other notable active substances inhaled via smoking include
418:
particles that includes the pharmacologically active alkaloid
402:, where they are rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream of the
8397:
8322:
7971:
7696:
7598:
7557:
7436:
6013:"Was Television Responsible for a New Generation of Smokers?"
5336:
The Nurture Assumption: Why children turn out the way they do
3414:
3330:
WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic: The MPOWER Package
2614:
P. Ram Manohar, "Smoking and Ayurvedic Medicine in India" in
1536:, smoking has been shown to actually lower the prevalence of
1353:
1147:
900:
647:
639:
494:
490:
470:
443:
427:
356:
348:
195:
6376:
The Smoking Gods: Tobacco in Maya Art, History, and Religion
4634:"Smoking in inflammatory bowel diseases: good, bad or ugly?"
3226:. United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
3182:"Reports of the Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service"
1509:
is also sometimes regulated to make smoking less appealing.
1436:(COPD). Smoking during pregnancy may cause ADHD to a fetus.
363:
of a person. Most commonly, the substance used is the dried
8634:
5350:
Parrott AC (1999). "Does cigarette smoking cause stress?".
5207:
3906:
3803:"Just one cigarette a day can cause serious heart problems"
2315:
1193:
In the early 1980s, organized international trafficking of
1127:
607:
403:
380:
364:
7719:
7400:
5397:
3657:
3352:
History of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control
2763:
2160:. One of the forerunners of this symbolism can be seen in
704:
For more about the commercial development of tobacco, see
697:
For more about the impact and development of tobacco, see
7835:
7780:
3998:
3608:
3240:
In 2006, an estimated 20.8% (45.3 million) of U.S. adults
2640:
2363:
5822:
5156:
3386:. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. 2003.
3310:
2775:
984:
For more about the movement in the 1930s and 1940s, see
614:
sticks dates back at least 2000 years. Fumigation (
8798:
Protocol to Eliminate Illicit Trade in Tobacco Products
7123:
Protocol to Eliminate Illicit Trade in Tobacco Products
6508:
NY Times: Responses to the targeting of teenage smokers
5857:
W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia and London. p. 265.
3336:(Report). Geneva. 2008. pp. 267β88. Archived from
3046:"Smoking and carcinoma of the lung. Preliminary report"
2876:
2630:
Psicoactivos, misticismo y religiΓ³n en el mundo antiguo
4496:
4472:"Cigarette Smoking Among Adults β United States, 2006"
3224:"Cigarette Smoking Among Adults β United States, 2006"
2509:
6253:
High Culture: Reflections on Addiction and Modernity.
5855:
A Text-book of Pharmacology and Some Allied Sciences.
4631:
3537:
2294:
came in a leather bag resembling a tobacco pouch and
1251:. The second most common substance that is smoked is
1243:
The most popular type of substance that is smoked is
998:
For more about the development of public policy, see
771:
1600 by French merchants in what today is modern-day
6513:
Study ties more deaths, types of disease, to smoking
4136:
2965:. Dimensions, Anti-Defamation League. Archived from
2394:
1815:, whose doctor assisted with his suicide because of
6316:Phillips J.E. (1983). "African Smoking and Pipes".
5058:
3092:
3086:
3043:
2844:
5298:
3907:Nyboe J, Jensen G, Appleyard M, Schnohr P (1989).
1780:Hydroxyethyl DNA adducts with adenine and guanine
1439:Smoking is a risk factor strongly associated with
1029:(The Tobacco Opponent) in 1912 and 1932. In 1929,
939:to eliminate the trade led to the outbreak of the
706:History of commercial tobacco in the United States
6187:Ashes to Ashes: The History of Smoking and Health
6085:J. S. Bach: An Introduction to His Keyboard Music
5929:in the Harem: On Smoking and Orientalist Art" in
2851:Essays, Literary, Moral and Philosophical, 2nd ed
2803:
2801:
2799:
1122:leads as the top consumer of tobacco followed by
8886:
5305:. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. pp.
4089:
4087:
3609:Doll R, Peto R, Boreham J, Sutherland I (2004).
3284:
3258:. Manchester University Press. pp. 229β41.
2881:. Scott, Foresman & Co. p. 43 and 427.
2756:Timon Screech, "Tobacco in Edo Period Japan" in
2752:
2750:
1170:lasting two weeks is started on the occasion of
473:. Some of the substances are classified as hard
6388:Gilman, Sander L.; Xun, Zhou (15 August 2004).
6241:Tobacco in History and Culture. An Encyclopedia
4093:
3758:
3215:
2627:
2503:
6498:β U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
4186:Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research
2796:
2708:Liberty and Slavery: Southern Politics to 1860
2354:in the late 1950s and early 60s. Cannabis, or
2230:Pipe and Pouch: The Smokers Own Book of Poetry
1836:In the mid-20th century psychologists such as
1186:For more about the rise of crack cocaine, see
375:. Other forms of smoking include the use of a
8338:
7386:
6605:
6315:
5966:"Smoking Prevalence in UK Films | Doctor-4-U"
5866:Matthew Hilton, "Smoking and Sociability" in
5840:Matthew Hilton, "Smoking and Sociability" in
4801:"Smoker's face: an underrated clinical sign?"
4084:
3831:
2787:
2747:
2719:The People's Chronology, 1994 by James Trager
1765:Reacts with deoxyguanine to form DNA adducts
321:
5710:"Enforcement of bans on tobacco advertising"
5448:
5244:
5201:
5150:
5101:
5052:
5011:
4968:
4892:
4841:
4497:Cataldo JK, Prochaska JJ, Glantz SA (2010).
3992:
3602:
3575:
2558:
8788:WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control
7113:WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control
5501:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
3825:
3651:
3384:WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control
3354:. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2009.
3044:Doll R, Hill AB; Hill (30 September 1950).
2879:Abnormal Psychology and Modern Life, 5th ed
2710:, Univ of South Carolina Press, 2001, p. 9.
2207:additional smokers between 1946 and 1970."
1670:cancer causing chemicals in cigarette smoke
1232:
726:In 1612, six years after the settlement of
457:Smoking is one of the most common forms of
414:, these active substances are a mixture of
8345:
8331:
7393:
7379:
6612:
6598:
6392:. In Gilman, Sander L.; Xun, Zhou (eds.).
6349:. In Gilman, Sander L.; Xun, Zhou (eds.).
5349:
4933:
4688:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
4226:
3947:
3900:
2727:
2725:
1929:Types of bans on tobacco advertising, 2014
1657:effect per microgram to identify the most
1607:to the intense euphoria caused by heroin,
1543:Smokers are 30-40% more likely to develop
851:, a staunch anti-smoker and the author of
328:
314:
8693:
6387:
6081:Enlightening Thoughts of a Tobacco Smoker
6038:
6028:
5828:
5585:
5528:
5471:
5431:
5133:
5084:
5035:
5017:
4974:
4916:
4875:
4865:
4824:
4659:
4649:
4632:Lakatos PL, Szamosi T, Lakatos L (2007).
4522:
4409:
4360:
4303:
4047:
4024:
3975:
3924:
3857:
3735:
3725:
3683:
3634:
3448:
3118:
3069:
3020:
2986:
2984:
2942:
2940:
2769:
2646:
2535:
2479:
2477:
2475:
2473:
2312:Enlightening Thoughts of a Tobacco-Smoker
1917:Taxes as a share of cigarette price, 2014
1645:properties. The most important chemicals
1009:(early American physician, signer of the
8509:Cigarette smoking among college students
6575:, and does not reflect subsequent edits.
6558:
5059:Pu X, Kamendulis LM, Klaunig JE (2009).
3926:10.1093/oxfordjournals.eurheartj.a059401
3145:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
3009:The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine
2952:
2242:
2134:
2077:
2040:in Europe and Asia. The painters of the
2023:
1964:
1956:
1807:
1580:
1417:may be explained by smoking's effect on
1383:
1273:
1061:
991:For more about the modern movement, see
979:
904:
830:
747:became the primary labor force up until
710:
573:
465:. Less common drugs for smoking include
61:
50:
42:
6437:Proctor, Robert N. (15 November 2000).
6436:
6344:
5650:"Average price of a pack of cigarettes"
5558:Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
5473:10.7326/0003-4819-159-8-201310150-00699
4798:
4588:
4276:Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
3427:(Suppl 2): tobaccocontrolβ2018β054389.
3316:
3206:
2990:
2958:
2946:
2931:
2919:
2907:
2781:
2722:
1853:system) and thus serves as a source of
1795:Single and double strand breaks in DNA
1626:, lung cancer, heart attacks, strokes,
14:
8887:
6419:Tobacco and Shamanism in South America
6168:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
6010:
6006:
6004:
5404:Personality and Individual Differences
5329:
4898:
4850:"Hazardous compounds in tobacco smoke"
4391:
3251:
3093:Doll R, Hill AB; Hill (26 June 1954).
2981:
2962:Nazi Medicine and Public Health Policy
2937:
2925:
2913:
2901:
2470:
2350:, a style of music that originated in
1990:
1941:Support to help quit tobacco use, 2014
1630:, low birth weight of infants born by
1209:(PCP). Along with a smaller number of
943:. The Chinese defeat in the First and
343:is a practice in which a substance is
8326:
7374:
6593:
5904:
5770:"Share of people who smoke every day"
5680:"Taxes as a share of cigarette price"
3813:from the original on 22 December 2020
3471:
3002:
2578:from the original on 28 February 2021
2222:Tobacco: Its History and associations
2119:or mainstays of advertising like the
1434:chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
1255:, made from the flowers or leaves of
986:Anti-tobacco movement in Nazi Germany
879:The growth remained stable until the
8859:
6345:Roberts, Allen F. (15 August 2004).
5630:from the original on 23 January 2022
5189:from the original on 6 November 2020
4754:from the original on 27 January 2020
3550:from the original on 30 January 2023
3272:from the original on 14 January 2023
2858:from the original on 24 October 2021
2255:, otherwise best known for his play
2029:An Apothecary Smoking in an Interior
783:brought tobacco to the areas around
386:Smoking is primarily practised as a
8773:Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement
7750:Heated humidified high-flow therapy
6619:
6496:Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence
6267:Encyclopedia of smoking and tobacco
6001:
5881:"Testosterone The good and the bad"
5293:
5287:
4478:from the original on 16 August 2019
3941:
3832:Law MR, Morris JK, Wald NJ (1997).
3230:from the original on 16 August 2019
3162:from the original on 25 August 2019
1961:Prevalence of daily smoking in 2012
1746:Global loss of DNA methylation (an
1728:Oxidative stress causing increased
1181:
1108:Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement
790:Soon after its introduction to the
664:Cannabis smoking was introduced to
634:, with stems of various lengths or
505:Smoking has negative health effects
485:. Other smoking implements include
24:
8778:Tobacco packaging warning messages
8406:
8014:
7952:
7845:
7108:Tobacco packaging warning messages
6545:
6394:Smoke: A Global History of Smoking
6353:. Reaktion Books. pp. 46β57.
6351:Smoke: A Global History of Smoking
6180:
5810:from the original on 17 March 2020
5780:from the original on 17 March 2020
5750:from the original on 17 March 2020
5740:"Support to help quit tobacco use"
5720:from the original on 17 March 2020
5690:from the original on 17 March 2020
5660:from the original on 17 March 2020
4724:from the original on 17 March 2020
4241:10.1111/j.1600-0722.1982.tb00760.x
4198:10.1111/j.1530-0277.1997.tb04511.x
4096:Journal of Clinical Periodontology
3433:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2018-054389
2249:My Lady Nicotine: A Study in Smoke
1559:Share of deaths from smoking, 2017
1083:in 1950 published research in the
755:. This trend abated following the
25:
8926:
8552:Cigarette smoking for weight loss
6465:
6396:. Reaktion Books. pp. 9β28.
5976:from the original on 14 June 2021
4341:European Journal of Oral Sciences
4320:from the original on 12 July 2022
4229:European Journal of Oral Sciences
4108:10.1034/j.1600-051x.2002.290815.x
2552:
2438:Schizophrenia and tobacco smoking
2413:Cigarette smoking for weight loss
1953:Prevalence of tobacco consumption
1379:
1239:List of drugs which can be smoked
779:. At the same time caravans from
751:, from which the focus turned to
692:
424:nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
8858:
8849:
8848:
8826:Countries by tobacco consumption
8763:Smoking bans in private vehicles
8192:
7718:
7479:
7473:
7345:
7344:
7219:Smoking bans in private vehicles
6557:
6522:(Feb 2015), Marilynn Marchione,
6129:
6117:
6108:
6099:
6090:
6073:
6060:
6047:
5988:
5958:
5945:
5936:
5916:
5895:
5873:
5860:
5847:
5834:
5792:
5762:
5732:
5702:
5672:
5642:
5610:
4560:10.1046/j.1365-2036.1999.00630.x
4452:from the original on 7 July 2017
4442:"Which country smokes the most?"
2877:James C. Coleman, Ph.D. (1976).
2677:Jamestown, Virginia: An Overview
2634:Complutense University of Madrid
2628:GonzΓ‘lez Wagner, Carlos (1984).
2491:from the original on 28 May 2010
2397:
1934:
1922:
1910:
1898:
1564:
1552:
950:Opium smoking later spread with
841:Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus'
89:
8519:Smoking in association football
7307:Smoking in association football
6347:"Smoking in Sub-Saharan Africa"
6229:. 5th ed. Thomson Brooks/Cole.
5887:. December 1999. Archived from
5545:
5488:
5391:
5386:Smoking, health and personality
5378:
5343:
5323:
4854:Int J Environ Res Public Health
4792:
4779:
4766:
4736:
4706:
4690:. 23 April 2018. Archived from
4676:
4625:
4582:
4539:
4490:
4464:
4434:
4398:Medical Principles and Practice
4385:
4332:
4263:
4220:
4177:
4130:
4041:
3874:
3795:
3752:
3700:
3562:
3531:
3509:
3491:
3465:
3408:
3376:
3344:
3322:
3245:
3174:
3148:
3135:
3037:
3003:White, Colin (September 1989).
2996:
2870:
2838:
2818:
2734:
2713:
2697:
2688:
2670:
2661:
2458:Smoking in association football
2279:In bachelordom, β it's cheaper.
2083:Skull with a Burning Cigarette
1750:effect) as well as DNA adducts
8352:
7282:Tobacco consumption by country
7178:Smoking and female infertility
6443:. Princeton University Press.
6318:The Journal of African History
6305:(1999), editor: Gabriel Nahas
5570:10.1002/14651858.cd008286.pub3
5513:10.1002/14651858.CD001055.pub5
5273:10.1016/j.mrgentox.2006.12.007
5230:10.1016/j.mrgentox.2009.05.011
4714:"Share of deaths from smoking"
4503:Journal of Alzheimer's Disease
4288:10.1002/14651858.CD004150.pub4
3893:; their cited source is: CDC (
3252:Hilton, Matthew (4 May 2000).
2652:
2621:
2608:
2599:
2590:
2130:
1876:, as well as higher levels of
1398:Smoking is one of the leading
13:
1:
7518:Effervescent powder or tablet
7224:Tobacco-free college campuses
6486:β Centers for Disease Control
6297:The Book of General Ignorance
4918:10.1158/1541-7786.MCR-08-0020
3546:. World Health Organization.
3523:. 11 May 1999. Archived from
3292:"WHO/WPRO-Smoking Statistics"
2528:10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30819-X
2463:
2210:
1946:
1887:
1803:
1576:
1158:as the Director-General, the
681:smoking bowls, apparently an
569:
66:A woman smoking crack cocaine
8650:Nicotine replacement therapy
8302:Patient-controlled analgesia
7607:Orally disintegrating tablet
7093:Smoking and male infertility
6504:β National Health Service UK
6478:Cigarette Smoking and Cancer
6243:(2 vol, Gage Cengage, 2005)
6017:Journal of Consumer Research
3727:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050185
3584:MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep
2377:
2296:Cigarettes in Fact and Fancy
2226:Cigarettes in Fact and Fancy
2139:Film star and iconic smoker
1528:Smoking is a risk factor in
1447:. The effects of smoking on
1400:preventable causes of deaths
7:
8821:Cigarette smoke carcinogens
7068:Smokeless tobacco keratosis
6480:β National Cancer Institute
5800:"Share of adults who smoke"
5364:10.1037/0003-066X.54.10.817
3895:Centers for Disease Control
3627:10.1136/bmj.38142.554479.AE
3538:World Health Organization.
2959:Proctor, Robert N. (1996).
2828:(NY: Knopf, 2018), 166-73.
2390:
2269:Of him who has to keep her;
1866:Big Five personality traits
1791:
1776:
1761:
1742:
1724:
1709:
1694:
1305:are also smoked, including
1011:Declaration of Independence
183:Religious and spiritual use
10:
8931:
7813:Relative analgesia machine
7153:Breastfeeding difficulties
6299:". Faber & Faber, 2006
6283:A Counterblaste to Tobacco
5416:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110076
5301:Freud: A Life for Our Time
3881:American Legacy Foundation
2485:"Tobacco Fact sheet NΒ°339"
1950:
1415:doseβresponse relationship
1391:
1236:
1185:
997:
990:
983:
954:and spawned many infamous
898:
854:A Counterblaste to Tobacco
703:
696:
562:
558:
55:A man smoking cannabis in
29:
8844:
8808:
8753:Plain cigarette packaging
8738:
8658:
8600:
8577:Schizophrenia and smoking
8537:
8494:
8448:
8417:
8404:
8360:
8257:
8229:
8201:
8190:
8154:
8121:
8002:
7940:
7893:
7829:
7779:
7735:
7716:
7695:
7681:
7646:
7597:
7575:
7488:
7471:
7435:
7421:
7412:
7340:
7269:
7232:
7204:
7195:
7143:
7058:Schizophrenia and smoking
7053:Prevalence of tobacco use
7028:Health effects of tobacco
7023:
7016:
6968:
6938:
6902:
6806:
6778:
6662:
6636:
6627:
6484:Smoking & Tobacco Use
6417:Wilbert, Johannes (1993)
6374:Robicsek, Francis (1978)
6330:10.1017/s0021853700022039
6251:Greaves, Lorraine (2002)
6227:Drugs Across the Spectrum
5853:Sollmann, Torald. (1906)
4989:10.3109/15376510903530845
4954:10.1016/j.fct.2011.07.019
4817:10.1136/bmj.291.6511.1760
4744:"Death rate from smoking"
4143:Journal of Periodontology
4062:10.1902/jop.2000.71.5.743
4050:Journal of Periodontology
3968:10.1136/bmj.332.7550.1142
3498:DoJ-DEA-History-1985-1990
3334:World Health Organization
2184:. Similarly, actors like
1679:Micrograms per cigarette
1456:heavily have much higher
1394:Health effects of tobacco
1278:An elaborately decorated
1160:World Health Organization
1156:Dr. Gro Harlem Brundtland
138:Prevalence of consumption
8768:Tobacco control movement
7402:Routes of administration
6983:Islamic views on tobacco
6518:14 February 2015 at the
6265:Hirschfelder, Arlene B.
6201:America's first cuisines
6011:Thomas, Michael (2019).
5388:. New York: Basic Books.
5018:Speit G, Merk O (2002).
4548:Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther
4155:10.1902/jop.1995.66.1.23
4005:Environ. Health Perspect
3884:factsheet on lung cancer
3850:10.1136/bmj.315.7114.973
3503:25 February 2009 at the
2301:
1684:
1678:
1675:
1233:Substances and equipment
976:in the 1960s and 1970s.
894:
622:) are prescribed in the
36:Smoking (disambiguation)
8678:Disinformation playbook
7928:Extra-amniotic infusion
7533:Molecular encapsulation
7465:Osmotic delivery system
7460:Time release technology
7103:Tobacco-free pharmacies
6087:, p. 23. Accessed 2016.
5384:Eysenck, H. J. (1965).
5339:. New York: Free Press.
5037:10.1093/mutage/17.3.183
4392:Reibel, Jesper (2003).
3761:British Medical Journal
3111:10.1136/bmj.1.4877.1451
3099:British Medical Journal
3050:British Medical Journal
2682:7 February 2009 at the
2428:Plain tobacco packaging
1730:8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine
1649:are those that produce
1480:dental implant failures
1164:Tobacco Free Initiative
1104:contributory negligence
1085:British Medical Journal
1025:tobacco in the journal
422:, which stimulates the
388:route of administration
8668:Cultivation of tobacco
8618:Heated tobacco product
8592:Tobacco harm reduction
8411:
8231:Central nervous system
8019:
7957:
7885:Mucoadhesive microdisc
7850:
6553:
6533:Listen to this article
6440:The Nazi War on Cancer
6303:Marihuana and Medicine
6199:Coe, Sophie D. (1994)
4977:Toxicol. Mech. Methods
4805:Br Med J (Clin Res Ed)
4684:"Smoking and Diabetes"
4638:World J. Gastroenterol
3676:10.2105/ajph.85.9.1223
3062:10.1136/bmj.2.4682.739
2731:Lloyd & Mitchinson
2605:Robicsek (1978), p. 30
2385:gross domestic product
2374:in the 1960s and 70s.
2287:
2261:
2196:Breakfast at Tiffany's
2174:Dr Mabuse, the Gambler
2169:Dr Mabuse, der Spieler
2146:Ever since the era of
2143:
2090:
2036:
2019:
2012:. In Japan during the
1984:
1970:
1962:
1859:negative reinforcement
1855:positive reinforcement
1820:
1586:
1521:(including heroin and
1408:coronary heart disease
1389:
1282:
1067:
920:
909:An illustration of an
836:
723:
716:A Persian girl smoking
618:) and fire offerings (
583:
408:central nervous system
392:psychoactive chemicals
359:and absorbed into the
67:
59:
48:
34:. For other uses, see
8905:Drug delivery devices
8874:Electronic cigarettes
8410:
8074:Transfersome vesicles
8018:
7956:
7933:Intravesical infusion
7849:
7360:Electronic cigarettes
7183:Smoking and pregnancy
6978:Smoking in Jewish law
6552:
6239:Goodman, Jordan, ed.
6225:Goldberg, Ray (2005)
5891:on 17 September 2011.
5829:Gilman & Xun 2004
5352:American Psychologist
5126:10.1093/toxsci/kfr133
5077:10.1093/toxsci/kfp133
4867:10.3390/ijerph8020613
4515:10.3233/JAD-2010-1240
2770:Gilman & Xun 2004
2647:Gilman & Xun 2004
2308:Johann Sebastian Bach
2263:
2246:
2138:
2089:, oil on canvas, 1885
2081:
2062:. Many proponents of
2027:
1980:
1968:
1960:
1951:Further information:
1811:
1584:
1387:
1335:electronic cigarettes
1277:
1089:British Doctors Study
1065:
993:Anti-smoking movement
980:Anti-tobacco movement
908:
834:
714:
577:
459:recreational drug use
65:
54:
46:
8640:Electronic cigarette
7760:Metered-dose inhaler
7745:Anesthetic vaporizer
7214:List of smoking bans
7173:Ptosis of the breast
7130:World No Tobacco Day
6584:More spoken articles
6502:How to stop smoking
6212:Gately, Iain (2003)
5970:www.doctor-4-u.co.uk
3340:on 17 February 2010.
2807:Jos Ten Berge, "The
2694:Kulikoff, pp. 38β39.
2658:Phillips, pp. 303β19
2418:Electronic cigarette
2277:Let's spend our life
2035:, oil on panel, 1646
1847:operant conditioning
1484:premalignant lesions
1419:platelet aggregation
1301:. A small number of
1116:developing countries
889:James Albert Bonsack
606:, clarified butter (
529:erectile dysfunction
463:developing countries
432:tetrahydrocannabinol
8748:Cigarette smuggling
8673:Tobacco advertising
8557:Nicotine dependence
8185:Transdermal implant
8145:(into tissue/blood)
7922:Intrauterine device
7803:Anaesthetic machine
7798:Oxygen concentrator
7083:Stomatitis nicotina
7037:Nicotine withdrawal
6492:β Our World in Data
5265:2007MRGTE.629....7F
5222:2009MRGTE.678..129T
4651:10.3748/wjg.13.6134
3948:Devereux G (2006).
3809:. 3 February 2020.
3527:on 2 December 2008.
3209:Wall Street Journal
2596:See Gately; Wilbert
2522:(10082): 1885β906.
2267:To her, β but think
1991:Society and culture
1672:
1530:Alzheimer's disease
1507:Tobacco advertising
1449:periodontal tissues
974:Cultural Revolution
757:American Revolution
745:Indentured servants
602:Substances such as
406:and then reach the
8562:Nicotine poisoning
8412:
8297:Nanocell injection
8020:
7958:
7851:
7705:Dry-powder inhaler
7327:Nicotine marketing
7287:History of smoking
7234:Country and region
7078:Smoker's melanosis
7032:Nicotine poisoning
6554:
6278:James I of England
6150:on 15 October 2008
6079:Willard A. Palmer
6040:10.1093/jcr/ucz024
6030:10.1093/jcr/ucz024
4942:Food Chem. Toxicol
4899:Kastan MB (2008).
4603:10.1007/BF01536701
4404:(Suppl 1): 22β32.
3889:2007-09-27 at the
3664:Am J Public Health
3298:on 8 November 2009
2824:Stephen R. Platt,
2793:Burns, pp. 134β35.
2704:Cooper, William J.
2423:Outline of smoking
2360:Rastafari movement
2262:
2238:A Bachelor's Views
2144:
2091:
2037:
2033:Adriaen van Ostade
1971:
1963:
1821:
1664:
1587:
1538:ulcerative colitis
1390:
1283:
1099:was also harmful.
1068:
952:Chinese immigrants
921:
881:American Civil War
837:
762:A Frenchman named
724:
699:History of tobacco
666:Sub-Saharan Africa
584:
565:History of smoking
511:processes such as
347:and the resulting
219:Papaver somniferum
68:
60:
49:
8882:
8881:
8758:Legal smoking age
8734:
8733:
8587:Smoking cessation
8524:Smoking fetishism
8320:
8319:
8316:
8315:
8147:
8109:Transdermal spray
8104:Transdermal patch
8094:Medicated shampoo
7825:
7824:
7821:
7820:
7808:Medical inhalants
7755:Medical inhalants
7683:Respiratory tract
7677:
7676:
7571:
7570:
7368:
7367:
7302:Smoking fetishism
7265:
7264:
7191:
7190:
7145:Women and smoking
7098:Smoking cessation
6964:
6963:
6550:
6450:978-0-691-07051-3
6403:978-1-86189-200-3
6360:978-1-86189-200-3
5804:Our World in Data
5774:Our World in Data
5744:Our World in Data
5714:Our World in Data
5684:Our World in Data
5654:Our World in Data
5466:(8): 1β36. 2013.
5316:978-0-393-32861-5
5175:10.1021/ja2004686
4811:(6511): 1760β62.
4748:Our World in Data
4718:Our World in Data
4694:on 24 August 2019
4411:10.1159/000069845
4353:10.1111/eos.12030
4017:10.1289/ehp.10274
3962:(7550): 1142β44.
3393:978-92-4-159101-0
3361:978-92-4-156392-5
3319:, pp. 46β57.
3265:978-0-7190-5257-6
3105:(4877): 1451β55.
2834:978-0-307-96173-0
2784:, pp. 53β54.
2772:, pp. 15β16.
2649:, pp. 20β21.
2572:Our World in Data
2341:Chant of The Weed
1874:conscientiousness
1830:smoking cessation
1819:caused by smoking
1801:
1800:
1404:second-hand smoke
1360:, cigar holders,
1358:cigarette holders
1303:psychedelic drugs
1211:psychedelic drugs
1057:Robert N. Proctor
1019:George Washington
945:Second Opium Wars
804:Chongzhen Emperor
749:Bacon's Rebellion
677:water pipes with
537:second-hand smoke
410:. In the case of
400:respiratory tract
396:active substances
338:
337:
226:Psychoactive drug
32:Smoking (cooking)
16:(Redirected from
8922:
8862:
8861:
8852:
8851:
8816:Cigarette brands
8783:Tobacco politics
8691:
8690:
8660:Tobacco industry
8613:Herbal cigarette
8601:Related products
8582:Sidestream smoke
8572:Third-hand smoke
8347:
8340:
8333:
8324:
8323:
8196:
8152:
8151:
8143:
7730:
7726:
7722:
7693:
7692:
7622:Sublingual drops
7595:
7594:
7483:
7477:
7433:
7432:
7419:
7418:
7395:
7388:
7381:
7372:
7371:
7348:
7347:
7332:Tobacco industry
7209:Inflight smoking
7202:
7201:
7063:Sidestream smoke
7048:Third-hand smoke
7021:
7020:
6634:
6633:
6614:
6607:
6600:
6591:
6590:
6574:
6572:
6561:
6560:
6551:
6541:
6539:
6534:
6525:Associated Press
6474:- Smoking advice
6461:
6459:
6457:
6414:
6412:
6410:
6371:
6369:
6367:
6341:
6174:
6173:
6167:
6159:
6157:
6155:
6149:
6143:. Archived from
6142:
6133:
6127:
6121:
6115:
6112:
6106:
6103:
6097:
6094:
6088:
6077:
6071:
6064:
6058:
6051:
6045:
6044:
6042:
6032:
6008:
5999:
5992:
5986:
5985:
5983:
5981:
5962:
5956:
5949:
5943:
5940:
5934:
5920:
5914:
5908:
5902:
5899:
5893:
5892:
5877:
5871:
5864:
5858:
5851:
5845:
5838:
5832:
5826:
5820:
5819:
5817:
5815:
5796:
5790:
5789:
5787:
5785:
5766:
5760:
5759:
5757:
5755:
5736:
5730:
5729:
5727:
5725:
5706:
5700:
5699:
5697:
5695:
5676:
5670:
5669:
5667:
5665:
5646:
5640:
5639:
5637:
5635:
5614:
5608:
5607:
5589:
5549:
5543:
5542:
5532:
5492:
5486:
5485:
5475:
5460:Ann. Intern. Med
5452:
5446:
5445:
5435:
5395:
5389:
5382:
5376:
5375:
5347:
5341:
5340:
5327:
5321:
5320:
5304:
5291:
5285:
5284:
5248:
5242:
5241:
5205:
5199:
5198:
5196:
5194:
5163:J. Am. Chem. Soc
5154:
5148:
5147:
5137:
5105:
5099:
5098:
5088:
5056:
5050:
5049:
5039:
5015:
5009:
5008:
4972:
4966:
4965:
4937:
4931:
4930:
4920:
4896:
4890:
4889:
4879:
4869:
4845:
4839:
4838:
4828:
4799:Model D (1985).
4796:
4790:
4783:
4777:
4770:
4764:
4763:
4761:
4759:
4740:
4734:
4733:
4731:
4729:
4710:
4704:
4703:
4701:
4699:
4680:
4674:
4673:
4663:
4653:
4629:
4623:
4622:
4586:
4580:
4579:
4543:
4537:
4536:
4526:
4494:
4488:
4487:
4485:
4483:
4468:
4462:
4461:
4459:
4457:
4438:
4432:
4431:
4413:
4389:
4383:
4382:
4364:
4336:
4330:
4329:
4327:
4325:
4307:
4282:(11): CD004150.
4267:
4261:
4260:
4224:
4218:
4217:
4181:
4175:
4174:
4134:
4128:
4127:
4091:
4082:
4081:
4045:
4039:
4038:
4028:
3996:
3990:
3989:
3979:
3945:
3939:
3938:
3928:
3904:
3898:
3878:
3872:
3871:
3861:
3844:(7114): 973β80.
3829:
3823:
3822:
3820:
3818:
3799:
3793:
3792:
3773:10.1136/bmj.k167
3756:
3750:
3749:
3739:
3729:
3704:
3698:
3697:
3687:
3655:
3649:
3648:
3638:
3606:
3600:
3599:
3579:
3573:
3566:
3560:
3559:
3557:
3555:
3535:
3529:
3528:
3513:
3507:
3495:
3489:
3488:
3486:
3484:
3469:
3463:
3462:
3452:
3412:
3406:
3405:
3380:
3374:
3373:
3348:
3342:
3341:
3326:
3320:
3314:
3308:
3307:
3305:
3303:
3288:
3282:
3281:
3279:
3277:
3249:
3243:
3242:
3237:
3235:
3219:
3213:
3212:
3204:
3198:
3197:
3195:
3193:
3188:on 22 April 2015
3184:. Archived from
3178:
3172:
3171:
3169:
3167:
3152:
3146:
3139:
3133:
3132:
3122:
3090:
3084:
3083:
3073:
3056:(4682): 739β48.
3041:
3035:
3034:
3024:
3000:
2994:
2988:
2979:
2978:
2976:
2974:
2956:
2950:
2944:
2935:
2929:
2923:
2917:
2911:
2905:
2899:
2898:
2874:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2863:
2842:
2836:
2822:
2816:
2805:
2794:
2791:
2785:
2779:
2773:
2767:
2761:
2754:
2745:
2738:
2732:
2729:
2720:
2717:
2711:
2701:
2695:
2692:
2686:
2674:
2668:
2665:
2659:
2656:
2650:
2644:
2638:
2637:
2625:
2619:
2612:
2606:
2603:
2597:
2594:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2583:
2556:
2550:
2549:
2539:
2507:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2496:
2481:
2453:Smoker's paradox
2407:
2402:
2401:
2400:
2285:
2182:Marlene Dietrich
2104:Vincent van Gogh
2087:Vincent van Gogh
2042:Dutch Golden Age
1938:
1926:
1914:
1902:
1864:In terms of the
1673:
1663:
1613:methamphetamines
1568:
1556:
1464:
1459:
1315:Salvia divinorum
1227:Salvia divinorum
1182:Other substances
1052:post-war Germany
1035:Great Depression
1000:Tobacco politics
916:Le Petit Journal
913:on the cover of
798:, sultan of the
740:Virginia Company
580:Florentine Codex
330:
323:
316:
237:Second Opium War
235:
93:
70:
69:
21:
8930:
8929:
8925:
8924:
8923:
8921:
8920:
8919:
8885:
8884:
8883:
8878:
8840:
8804:
8740:
8730:
8689:
8654:
8608:Candy cigarette
8596:
8567:Passive smoking
8533:
8529:Tobacco smoking
8490:
8486:Vending machine
8444:
8413:
8402:
8356:
8351:
8321:
8312:
8292:Intraperitoneal
8264:musculoskeletal
8262:
8253:
8225:
8221:Intra-articular
8197:
8188:
8148:
8142:
8141:
8117:
7998:
7936:
7889:
7834:
7817:
7775:
7731:
7728:
7727:
7724:
7723:
7714:
7673:
7642:
7567:
7484:
7478:
7469:
7423:Digestive tract
7408:
7399:
7369:
7364:
7336:
7261:
7228:
7187:
7163:Cervical cancer
7139:
7043:Passive smoking
7012:
6993:Ceremonial pipe
6960:
6934:
6898:
6802:
6774:
6658:
6629:
6623:
6621:Tobacco smoking
6618:
6588:
6587:
6576:
6570:
6568:
6565:This audio file
6562:
6555:
6546:
6543:
6537:
6536:
6532:
6520:Wayback Machine
6468:
6455:
6453:
6451:
6408:
6406:
6404:
6365:
6363:
6361:
6183:
6181:Further reading
6178:
6177:
6161:
6160:
6153:
6151:
6147:
6140:
6138:"Archived copy"
6136:
6134:
6130:
6122:
6118:
6113:
6109:
6104:
6100:
6095:
6091:
6078:
6074:
6065:
6061:
6052:
6048:
6009:
6002:
5993:
5989:
5979:
5977:
5964:
5963:
5959:
5950:
5946:
5942:Greaves, p. 266
5941:
5937:
5921:
5917:
5909:
5905:
5901:Robicsek (1978)
5900:
5896:
5879:
5878:
5874:
5865:
5861:
5852:
5848:
5839:
5835:
5827:
5823:
5813:
5811:
5798:
5797:
5793:
5783:
5781:
5768:
5767:
5763:
5753:
5751:
5738:
5737:
5733:
5723:
5721:
5708:
5707:
5703:
5693:
5691:
5678:
5677:
5673:
5663:
5661:
5648:
5647:
5643:
5633:
5631:
5616:
5615:
5611:
5564:(3): CD008286.
5550:
5546:
5507:(3): CD001055.
5493:
5489:
5454:
5453:
5449:
5396:
5392:
5383:
5379:
5348:
5344:
5328:
5324:
5317:
5292:
5288:
5249:
5245:
5206:
5202:
5192:
5190:
5169:(24): 9140β43.
5155:
5151:
5106:
5102:
5057:
5053:
5016:
5012:
4973:
4969:
4948:(11): 2921β33.
4938:
4934:
4905:Mol. Cancer Res
4897:
4893:
4846:
4842:
4797:
4793:
4784:
4780:
4771:
4767:
4757:
4755:
4742:
4741:
4737:
4727:
4725:
4712:
4711:
4707:
4697:
4695:
4682:
4681:
4677:
4644:(46): 6134β39.
4630:
4626:
4597:(12): 1841β54.
4587:
4583:
4554:(11): 1403β11.
4544:
4540:
4495:
4491:
4481:
4479:
4470:
4469:
4465:
4455:
4453:
4448:. 12 May 2008.
4440:
4439:
4435:
4390:
4386:
4337:
4333:
4323:
4321:
4268:
4264:
4225:
4221:
4182:
4178:
4135:
4131:
4092:
4085:
4046:
4042:
4011:(12): 1904β09.
3997:
3993:
3946:
3942:
3905:
3901:
3891:Wayback Machine
3879:
3875:
3830:
3826:
3816:
3814:
3801:
3800:
3796:
3757:
3753:
3705:
3701:
3656:
3652:
3607:
3603:
3580:
3576:
3567:
3563:
3553:
3551:
3536:
3532:
3515:
3514:
3510:
3505:Wayback Machine
3496:
3492:
3482:
3480:
3470:
3466:
3421:Tobacco Control
3413:
3409:
3394:
3382:
3381:
3377:
3362:
3350:
3349:
3345:
3328:
3327:
3323:
3315:
3311:
3301:
3299:
3290:
3289:
3285:
3275:
3273:
3266:
3250:
3246:
3233:
3231:
3220:
3216:
3205:
3201:
3191:
3189:
3180:
3179:
3175:
3165:
3163:
3154:
3153:
3149:
3140:
3136:
3091:
3087:
3042:
3038:
3001:
2997:
2989:
2982:
2972:
2970:
2957:
2953:
2945:
2938:
2930:
2926:
2918:
2914:
2906:
2902:
2875:
2871:
2861:
2859:
2848:, M.D. (1798).
2843:
2839:
2823:
2819:
2806:
2797:
2792:
2788:
2780:
2776:
2768:
2764:
2755:
2748:
2739:
2735:
2730:
2723:
2718:
2714:
2702:
2698:
2693:
2689:
2684:Wayback Machine
2675:
2671:
2666:
2662:
2657:
2653:
2645:
2641:
2626:
2622:
2613:
2609:
2604:
2600:
2595:
2591:
2581:
2579:
2566:(23 May 2013).
2560:Ritchie, Hannah
2557:
2553:
2508:
2504:
2494:
2492:
2483:
2482:
2471:
2466:
2433:Reverse smoking
2405:Medicine portal
2403:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2380:
2333:Smoking Reefers
2321:Louis Armstrong
2304:
2286:
2284:Eugene Umberger
2283:
2278:
2276:
2270:
2268:
2266:
2265:So let us drink
2218:Sherlock Holmes
2213:
2186:Humphrey Bogart
2141:Humphrey Bogart
2133:
2064:postcolonialism
2022:
1993:
1955:
1949:
1942:
1939:
1930:
1927:
1918:
1915:
1906:
1903:
1890:
1806:
1632:smoking mothers
1620:carbon monoxide
1579:
1572:
1569:
1560:
1557:
1545:type 2 diabetes
1534:Crohn's disease
1495:Passive smoking
1462:
1457:
1428:, lung cancer,
1396:
1382:
1374:collector items
1342:cigarette cases
1295:methamphetamine
1264:Cannabis indica
1258:Cannabis sativa
1241:
1235:
1203:methamphetamine
1191:
1184:
1176:Vasant panchami
1168:health campaign
1097:passive smoking
1093:Surgeon General
1027:Der Tabakgegner
1015:Surgeon General
1003:
996:
989:
982:
941:First Opium War
903:
897:
709:
702:
695:
650:as soon as the
572:
567:
561:
412:tobacco smoking
334:
305:
304:
275:
267:
266:
252:
242:
241:
233:
231:First Opium War
198:
188:
187:
153:
143:
142:
103:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8928:
8918:
8917:
8912:
8907:
8902:
8897:
8880:
8879:
8877:
8876:
8871:
8866:
8856:
8845:
8842:
8841:
8839:
8838:
8833:
8831:Rolling papers
8828:
8823:
8818:
8812:
8810:
8806:
8805:
8803:
8802:
8801:
8800:
8795:
8785:
8780:
8775:
8770:
8765:
8760:
8755:
8750:
8744:
8742:
8736:
8735:
8732:
8731:
8729:
8728:
8723:
8718:
8713:
8708:
8703:
8697:
8695:
8688:
8687:
8680:
8675:
8670:
8664:
8662:
8656:
8655:
8653:
8652:
8647:
8645:Nicotine pouch
8642:
8637:
8632:
8631:
8630:
8625:
8615:
8610:
8604:
8602:
8598:
8597:
8595:
8594:
8589:
8584:
8579:
8574:
8569:
8564:
8559:
8554:
8549:
8543:
8541:
8535:
8534:
8532:
8531:
8526:
8521:
8516:
8511:
8506:
8504:Cigarette card
8500:
8498:
8492:
8491:
8489:
8488:
8483:
8478:
8473:
8468:
8463:
8458:
8452:
8450:
8446:
8445:
8443:
8442:
8437:
8432:
8427:
8421:
8419:
8415:
8414:
8405:
8403:
8401:
8400:
8395:
8390:
8385:
8380:
8375:
8370:
8364:
8362:
8358:
8357:
8350:
8349:
8342:
8335:
8327:
8318:
8317:
8314:
8313:
8311:
8310:
8305:
8299:
8294:
8289:
8284:
8279:
8274:
8268:
8266:
8255:
8254:
8252:
8251:
8246:
8241:
8235:
8233:
8227:
8226:
8224:
8223:
8218:
8213:
8211:Intracavernous
8207:
8205:
8199:
8198:
8191:
8189:
8187:
8182:
8181:
8180:
8170:
8165:
8163:
8149:
8140:
8139:
8134:
8129:
8123:
8122:
8119:
8118:
8116:
8111:
8106:
8101:
8096:
8091:
8086:
8081:
8076:
8071:
8066:
8061:
8056:
8050:
8045:
8040:
8035:
8030:
8025:
8013:
8011:
8000:
7999:
7997:
7996:
7994:Nutrient enema
7991:
7986:
7985:
7984:
7979:
7969:
7964:
7951:
7949:
7938:
7937:
7935:
7930:
7925:
7919:
7914:
7909:
7904:
7899:
7897:
7891:
7890:
7888:
7887:
7882:
7877:
7872:
7867:
7862:
7857:
7844:
7842:
7827:
7826:
7823:
7822:
7819:
7818:
7816:
7815:
7810:
7805:
7800:
7795:
7785:
7783:
7777:
7776:
7774:
7773:
7768:
7763:
7757:
7752:
7747:
7741:
7739:
7733:
7732:
7717:
7715:
7713:
7712:
7707:
7701:
7699:
7690:
7679:
7678:
7675:
7674:
7672:
7671:
7668:
7663:
7658:
7652:
7650:
7644:
7643:
7641:
7640:
7635:
7629:
7624:
7619:
7614:
7609:
7603:
7601:
7592:
7573:
7572:
7569:
7568:
7566:
7565:
7560:
7555:
7550:
7545:
7540:
7535:
7530:
7525:
7520:
7515:
7510:
7505:
7500:
7494:
7492:
7486:
7485:
7472:
7470:
7468:
7467:
7462:
7457:
7452:
7447:
7441:
7439:
7430:
7416:
7410:
7409:
7398:
7397:
7390:
7383:
7375:
7366:
7365:
7363:
7362:
7357:
7352:
7341:
7338:
7337:
7335:
7334:
7329:
7324:
7319:
7314:
7312:Smoking jacket
7309:
7304:
7299:
7294:
7289:
7284:
7279:
7273:
7271:
7267:
7266:
7263:
7262:
7260:
7259:
7254:
7249:
7244:
7238:
7236:
7230:
7229:
7227:
7226:
7221:
7216:
7211:
7205:
7199:
7193:
7192:
7189:
7188:
7186:
7185:
7180:
7175:
7170:
7165:
7160:
7155:
7149:
7147:
7141:
7140:
7138:
7137:
7132:
7127:
7126:
7125:
7120:
7110:
7105:
7100:
7095:
7090:
7085:
7080:
7075:
7070:
7065:
7060:
7055:
7050:
7045:
7040:
7034:
7024:
7018:
7014:
7013:
7011:
7010:
7005:
7000:
6995:
6990:
6985:
6980:
6974:
6972:
6966:
6965:
6962:
6961:
6959:
6958:
6953:
6948:
6942:
6940:
6936:
6935:
6933:
6932:
6927:
6922:
6917:
6912:
6906:
6904:
6900:
6899:
6897:
6896:
6894:United Kingdom
6891:
6886:
6881:
6876:
6871:
6866:
6861:
6856:
6851:
6846:
6841:
6836:
6831:
6826:
6821:
6816:
6810:
6808:
6804:
6803:
6801:
6800:
6795:
6793:
6788:
6782:
6780:
6776:
6775:
6773:
6772:
6767:
6762:
6757:
6752:
6747:
6742:
6737:
6732:
6727:
6722:
6717:
6712:
6707:
6702:
6697:
6692:
6687:
6682:
6677:
6672:
6666:
6664:
6660:
6659:
6657:
6656:
6651:
6646:
6640:
6638:
6631:
6625:
6624:
6617:
6616:
6609:
6602:
6594:
6577:
6563:
6556:
6544:
6531:
6530:
6529:
6528:
6510:
6505:
6499:
6493:
6487:
6481:
6475:
6467:
6466:External links
6464:
6463:
6462:
6449:
6434:
6431:
6428:
6415:
6402:
6390:"Introduction"
6385:
6372:
6359:
6342:
6313:
6300:
6286:
6274:
6273:
6263:
6248:
6247:
6237:
6223:
6210:
6197:
6182:
6179:
6176:
6175:
6128:
6116:
6107:
6098:
6089:
6072:
6059:
6046:
6023:(4): 689β707.
6000:
5987:
5957:
5944:
5935:
5915:
5911:Ashes to Ashes
5903:
5894:
5872:
5859:
5846:
5833:
5821:
5791:
5761:
5731:
5701:
5671:
5641:
5609:
5544:
5487:
5447:
5390:
5377:
5358:(10): 817β20.
5342:
5322:
5315:
5286:
5243:
5200:
5149:
5100:
5051:
5010:
4967:
4932:
4891:
4840:
4791:
4778:
4765:
4735:
4705:
4675:
4624:
4581:
4538:
4489:
4463:
4433:
4384:
4331:
4262:
4219:
4192:(9): 1707β09.
4176:
4129:
4083:
4040:
3991:
3940:
3919:(10): 910β16.
3899:
3873:
3824:
3794:
3751:
3699:
3670:(9): 1223β30.
3650:
3621:(7455): 1519.
3601:
3590:(14): 300β03.
3574:
3561:
3530:
3508:
3490:
3464:
3407:
3392:
3375:
3360:
3343:
3321:
3309:
3283:
3264:
3244:
3214:
3199:
3173:
3147:
3134:
3085:
3036:
2995:
2980:
2969:on 31 May 2008
2951:
2936:
2924:
2912:
2900:
2869:
2837:
2817:
2795:
2786:
2774:
2762:
2746:
2733:
2721:
2712:
2696:
2687:
2669:
2667:Coe, pp. 74β81
2660:
2651:
2639:
2620:
2607:
2598:
2589:
2551:
2502:
2468:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2461:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2409:
2408:
2392:
2389:
2379:
2376:
2303:
2300:
2292:Pipe and Pouch
2281:
2212:
2209:
2190:Audrey Hepburn
2132:
2129:
2100:Impressionists
2067:popularity of
2047:Dutch Republic
2021:
2018:
1992:
1989:
1948:
1945:
1944:
1943:
1940:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1897:
1889:
1886:
1805:
1802:
1799:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1790:
1784:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1775:
1773:Ethylene oxide
1769:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1760:
1754:
1753:
1751:
1744:
1741:
1735:
1734:
1732:
1726:
1723:
1717:
1716:
1714:
1711:
1708:
1702:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1693:
1687:
1686:
1683:
1682:Effect on DNA
1680:
1677:
1647:causing cancer
1578:
1575:
1574:
1573:
1570:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1551:
1471:in the mouth.
1460:of developing
1392:Main article:
1381:
1380:Health effects
1378:
1366:silent butlers
1234:
1231:
1188:Crack epidemic
1183:
1180:
981:
978:
899:Main article:
896:
893:
867:drinking smoke
849:James VI and I
845:Pope Urban VII
814:rulers of the
800:Ottoman Empire
722:, 17th century
720:Muhammad Qasim
694:
693:Popularization
691:
597:hallucinogenic
571:
568:
563:Main article:
560:
557:
336:
335:
333:
332:
325:
318:
310:
307:
306:
303:
302:
297:
292:
287:
282:
276:
273:
272:
269:
268:
265:
264:
259:
253:
248:
247:
244:
243:
240:
239:
228:
223:
215:
210:
205:
199:
194:
193:
190:
189:
186:
185:
180:
175:
170:
165:
160:
154:
149:
148:
145:
144:
141:
140:
135:
130:
125:
120:
115:
113:Health effects
110:
104:
99:
98:
95:
94:
86:
85:
79:
78:
57:Kolkata, India
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8927:
8916:
8913:
8911:
8908:
8906:
8903:
8901:
8898:
8896:
8893:
8892:
8890:
8875:
8872:
8870:
8867:
8865:
8857:
8855:
8847:
8846:
8843:
8837:
8834:
8832:
8829:
8827:
8824:
8822:
8819:
8817:
8814:
8813:
8811:
8807:
8799:
8796:
8794:
8791:
8790:
8789:
8786:
8784:
8781:
8779:
8776:
8774:
8771:
8769:
8766:
8764:
8761:
8759:
8756:
8754:
8751:
8749:
8746:
8745:
8743:
8737:
8727:
8726:United States
8724:
8722:
8719:
8717:
8714:
8712:
8709:
8707:
8704:
8702:
8699:
8698:
8696:
8692:
8685:
8681:
8679:
8676:
8674:
8671:
8669:
8666:
8665:
8663:
8661:
8657:
8651:
8648:
8646:
8643:
8641:
8638:
8636:
8633:
8629:
8626:
8624:
8621:
8620:
8619:
8616:
8614:
8611:
8609:
8606:
8605:
8603:
8599:
8593:
8590:
8588:
8585:
8583:
8580:
8578:
8575:
8573:
8570:
8568:
8565:
8563:
8560:
8558:
8555:
8553:
8550:
8548:
8547:Chain smoking
8545:
8544:
8542:
8540:
8539:Health issues
8536:
8530:
8527:
8525:
8522:
8520:
8517:
8515:
8512:
8510:
8507:
8505:
8502:
8501:
8499:
8497:
8493:
8487:
8484:
8482:
8479:
8477:
8474:
8472:
8469:
8467:
8464:
8462:
8459:
8457:
8454:
8453:
8451:
8447:
8441:
8438:
8436:
8433:
8431:
8430:Rolling paper
8428:
8426:
8423:
8422:
8420:
8416:
8409:
8399:
8396:
8394:
8391:
8389:
8386:
8384:
8381:
8379:
8376:
8374:
8371:
8369:
8366:
8365:
8363:
8359:
8355:
8348:
8343:
8341:
8336:
8334:
8329:
8328:
8325:
8309:
8306:
8303:
8300:
8298:
8295:
8293:
8290:
8288:
8285:
8283:
8282:Intramuscular
8280:
8278:
8275:
8273:
8270:
8269:
8267:
8265:
8260:
8256:
8250:
8247:
8245:
8242:
8240:
8239:Intracerebral
8237:
8236:
8234:
8232:
8228:
8222:
8219:
8217:
8214:
8212:
8209:
8208:
8206:
8204:
8200:
8195:
8186:
8183:
8179:
8176:
8175:
8174:
8171:
8169:
8166:
8164:
8161:
8157:
8153:
8150:
8146:
8138:
8135:
8133:
8130:
8128:
8125:
8124:
8120:
8115:
8112:
8110:
8107:
8105:
8102:
8100:
8097:
8095:
8092:
8090:
8087:
8085:
8082:
8080:
8077:
8075:
8072:
8070:
8067:
8065:
8062:
8060:
8059:Iontophoresis
8057:
8054:
8051:
8049:
8046:
8044:
8041:
8039:
8036:
8034:
8031:
8029:
8028:Topical cream
8026:
8024:
8021:
8017:
8012:
8009:
8005:
8001:
7995:
7992:
7990:
7987:
7983:
7980:
7978:
7975:
7974:
7973:
7970:
7968:
7965:
7963:
7960:
7959:
7955:
7950:
7947:
7943:
7939:
7934:
7931:
7929:
7926:
7923:
7920:
7918:
7915:
7913:
7910:
7908:
7905:
7903:
7900:
7898:
7896:
7892:
7886:
7883:
7881:
7878:
7876:
7873:
7871:
7868:
7866:
7863:
7861:
7858:
7856:
7853:
7852:
7848:
7843:
7841:
7837:
7832:
7828:
7814:
7811:
7809:
7806:
7804:
7801:
7799:
7796:
7794:
7793:Nasal cannula
7790:
7787:
7786:
7784:
7782:
7778:
7772:
7769:
7767:
7764:
7761:
7758:
7756:
7753:
7751:
7748:
7746:
7743:
7742:
7740:
7738:
7734:
7721:
7711:
7708:
7706:
7703:
7702:
7700:
7698:
7694:
7691:
7688:
7684:
7680:
7669:
7667:
7664:
7662:
7659:
7657:
7654:
7653:
7651:
7649:
7645:
7639:
7636:
7633:
7630:
7628:
7625:
7623:
7620:
7618:
7615:
7613:
7610:
7608:
7605:
7604:
7602:
7600:
7596:
7593:
7590:
7586:
7582:
7578:
7574:
7564:
7561:
7559:
7556:
7554:
7551:
7549:
7546:
7544:
7541:
7539:
7536:
7534:
7531:
7529:
7526:
7524:
7521:
7519:
7516:
7514:
7511:
7509:
7506:
7504:
7501:
7499:
7496:
7495:
7493:
7491:
7487:
7482:
7476:
7466:
7463:
7461:
7458:
7456:
7453:
7451:
7448:
7446:
7443:
7442:
7440:
7438:
7434:
7431:
7428:
7424:
7420:
7417:
7415:
7411:
7407:
7403:
7396:
7391:
7389:
7384:
7382:
7377:
7376:
7373:
7361:
7358:
7356:
7353:
7351:
7343:
7342:
7339:
7333:
7330:
7328:
7325:
7323:
7320:
7318:
7315:
7313:
7310:
7308:
7305:
7303:
7300:
7298:
7295:
7293:
7290:
7288:
7285:
7283:
7280:
7278:
7277:Chain smoking
7275:
7274:
7272:
7268:
7258:
7257:United States
7255:
7253:
7250:
7248:
7245:
7243:
7240:
7239:
7237:
7235:
7231:
7225:
7222:
7220:
7217:
7215:
7212:
7210:
7207:
7206:
7203:
7200:
7198:
7194:
7184:
7181:
7179:
7176:
7174:
7171:
7169:
7166:
7164:
7161:
7159:
7158:Breast cancer
7156:
7154:
7151:
7150:
7148:
7146:
7142:
7136:
7135:Youth smoking
7133:
7131:
7128:
7124:
7121:
7119:
7116:
7115:
7114:
7111:
7109:
7106:
7104:
7101:
7099:
7096:
7094:
7091:
7089:
7086:
7084:
7081:
7079:
7076:
7074:
7073:Smoker's face
7071:
7069:
7066:
7064:
7061:
7059:
7056:
7054:
7051:
7049:
7046:
7044:
7041:
7038:
7035:
7033:
7029:
7026:
7025:
7022:
7019:
7015:
7009:
7006:
7004:
7001:
6999:
6996:
6994:
6991:
6989:
6988:Tobacco fatwa
6986:
6984:
6981:
6979:
6976:
6975:
6973:
6971:
6967:
6957:
6956:United States
6954:
6952:
6949:
6947:
6944:
6943:
6941:
6939:North America
6937:
6931:
6928:
6926:
6923:
6921:
6918:
6916:
6913:
6911:
6908:
6907:
6905:
6903:South America
6901:
6895:
6892:
6890:
6887:
6885:
6882:
6880:
6877:
6875:
6872:
6870:
6867:
6865:
6862:
6860:
6857:
6855:
6852:
6850:
6847:
6845:
6842:
6840:
6837:
6835:
6832:
6830:
6827:
6825:
6822:
6820:
6817:
6815:
6812:
6811:
6809:
6805:
6799:
6796:
6794:
6792:
6789:
6787:
6784:
6783:
6781:
6777:
6771:
6768:
6766:
6763:
6761:
6758:
6756:
6753:
6751:
6748:
6746:
6743:
6741:
6738:
6736:
6733:
6731:
6728:
6726:
6723:
6721:
6718:
6716:
6713:
6711:
6708:
6706:
6703:
6701:
6698:
6696:
6693:
6691:
6688:
6686:
6683:
6681:
6678:
6676:
6673:
6671:
6668:
6667:
6665:
6661:
6655:
6652:
6650:
6647:
6645:
6642:
6641:
6639:
6635:
6632:
6626:
6622:
6615:
6610:
6608:
6603:
6601:
6596:
6595:
6592:
6585:
6581:
6566:
6527:
6526:
6521:
6517:
6514:
6511:
6509:
6506:
6503:
6500:
6497:
6494:
6491:
6488:
6485:
6482:
6479:
6476:
6473:
6470:
6469:
6452:
6446:
6442:
6441:
6435:
6432:
6429:
6427:
6426:0-300-05790-3
6423:
6420:
6416:
6405:
6399:
6395:
6391:
6386:
6384:
6383:0-8061-1511-4
6380:
6377:
6373:
6362:
6356:
6352:
6348:
6343:
6339:
6335:
6331:
6327:
6323:
6319:
6314:
6312:
6311:0-89603-593-X
6308:
6304:
6301:
6298:
6294:
6293:Mitchinson, J
6290:
6287:
6285:
6284:
6279:
6276:
6275:
6272:
6268:
6264:
6262:
6261:0-7914-5553-X
6258:
6254:
6250:
6249:
6246:
6242:
6238:
6236:
6235:0-495-01345-5
6232:
6228:
6224:
6222:
6221:0-8021-3960-4
6218:
6215:
6211:
6209:
6208:0-292-71159-X
6205:
6202:
6198:
6196:
6195:90-420-0396-0
6192:
6188:
6185:
6184:
6171:
6165:
6146:
6139:
6132:
6126:
6120:
6111:
6102:
6093:
6086:
6082:
6076:
6069:
6063:
6056:
6050:
6041:
6036:
6031:
6026:
6022:
6018:
6014:
6007:
6005:
5997:
5991:
5975:
5971:
5967:
5961:
5954:
5948:
5939:
5932:
5928:
5924:
5919:
5912:
5907:
5898:
5890:
5886:
5882:
5876:
5869:
5863:
5856:
5850:
5843:
5837:
5831:, p. 26.
5830:
5825:
5809:
5805:
5801:
5795:
5779:
5775:
5771:
5765:
5749:
5745:
5741:
5735:
5719:
5715:
5711:
5705:
5689:
5685:
5681:
5675:
5659:
5655:
5651:
5645:
5629:
5625:
5624:
5619:
5613:
5605:
5601:
5597:
5593:
5588:
5583:
5579:
5575:
5571:
5567:
5563:
5559:
5555:
5548:
5540:
5536:
5531:
5526:
5522:
5518:
5514:
5510:
5506:
5502:
5498:
5491:
5483:
5479:
5474:
5469:
5465:
5461:
5457:
5451:
5443:
5439:
5434:
5429:
5425:
5421:
5417:
5413:
5409:
5405:
5401:
5394:
5387:
5381:
5373:
5369:
5365:
5361:
5357:
5353:
5346:
5338:
5337:
5332:
5326:
5318:
5312:
5308:
5303:
5302:
5296:
5290:
5282:
5278:
5274:
5270:
5266:
5262:
5258:
5254:
5247:
5239:
5235:
5231:
5227:
5223:
5219:
5216:(2): 129β37.
5215:
5211:
5204:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5176:
5172:
5168:
5164:
5160:
5153:
5145:
5141:
5136:
5131:
5127:
5123:
5120:(2): 448β56.
5119:
5115:
5111:
5104:
5096:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5078:
5074:
5070:
5066:
5062:
5055:
5047:
5043:
5038:
5033:
5030:(3): 183β87.
5029:
5025:
5021:
5014:
5006:
5002:
4998:
4994:
4990:
4986:
4982:
4978:
4971:
4963:
4959:
4955:
4951:
4947:
4943:
4936:
4928:
4924:
4919:
4914:
4911:(4): 517β24.
4910:
4906:
4902:
4895:
4887:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4863:
4860:(2): 613β28.
4859:
4855:
4851:
4844:
4836:
4832:
4827:
4822:
4818:
4814:
4810:
4806:
4802:
4795:
4788:
4782:
4775:
4769:
4753:
4749:
4745:
4739:
4723:
4719:
4715:
4709:
4693:
4689:
4685:
4679:
4671:
4667:
4662:
4657:
4652:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4628:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4592:
4591:Dig. Dis. Sci
4585:
4577:
4573:
4569:
4565:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4549:
4542:
4534:
4530:
4525:
4520:
4516:
4512:
4509:(2): 465β80.
4508:
4504:
4500:
4493:
4477:
4473:
4467:
4451:
4447:
4443:
4437:
4429:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4412:
4407:
4403:
4399:
4395:
4388:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4347:(2): 132β35.
4346:
4342:
4335:
4319:
4315:
4311:
4306:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4289:
4285:
4281:
4277:
4273:
4266:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4235:(6): 434β42.
4234:
4230:
4223:
4215:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4180:
4172:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4140:
4133:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4102:(8): 771β76.
4101:
4097:
4090:
4088:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4067:
4063:
4059:
4056:(5): 743β51.
4055:
4051:
4044:
4036:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3995:
3987:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3957:
3956:
3951:
3944:
3936:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3918:
3914:
3910:
3903:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3885:
3882:
3877:
3869:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3828:
3812:
3808:
3807:New Scientist
3804:
3798:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3755:
3747:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3703:
3695:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3665:
3661:
3654:
3646:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3605:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3578:
3571:
3565:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3534:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3512:
3506:
3502:
3499:
3494:
3479:
3475:
3468:
3460:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3411:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3389:
3385:
3379:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3357:
3353:
3347:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3325:
3318:
3313:
3297:
3293:
3287:
3271:
3267:
3261:
3257:
3256:
3248:
3241:
3229:
3225:
3218:
3210:
3203:
3187:
3183:
3177:
3161:
3157:
3151:
3144:
3141:Berridge, V.
3138:
3130:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3089:
3081:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3040:
3032:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
2999:
2993:, p. 228
2992:
2987:
2985:
2968:
2964:
2963:
2955:
2949:, p. 245
2948:
2943:
2941:
2934:, p. 187
2933:
2928:
2922:, p. 219
2921:
2916:
2910:, p. 178
2909:
2904:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2873:
2857:
2853:
2852:
2847:
2846:Benjamin Rush
2841:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2821:
2814:
2810:
2804:
2802:
2800:
2790:
2783:
2778:
2771:
2766:
2759:
2753:
2751:
2743:
2737:
2728:
2726:
2716:
2709:
2705:
2700:
2691:
2685:
2681:
2678:
2673:
2664:
2655:
2648:
2643:
2635:
2631:
2624:
2617:
2611:
2602:
2593:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2555:
2547:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2506:
2490:
2486:
2480:
2478:
2476:
2474:
2469:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2410:
2406:
2395:
2388:
2386:
2375:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2344:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2299:
2297:
2293:
2280:
2274:
2260:
2259:
2254:
2250:
2247:The cover of
2245:
2241:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2198:
2197:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2178:
2176:
2175:
2170:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2154:
2149:
2142:
2137:
2128:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2113:Marlon Brando
2109:
2108:fin-du-siècle
2105:
2101:
2097:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2074:
2073:Enlightenment
2070:
2065:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2048:
2043:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2017:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1988:
1983:
1979:
1977:
1967:
1959:
1954:
1937:
1932:
1925:
1920:
1913:
1908:
1901:
1896:
1895:
1894:
1885:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1870:agreeableness
1867:
1862:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1843:
1839:
1834:
1831:
1825:
1818:
1814:
1813:Sigmund Freud
1810:
1797:
1794:
1789:
1786:
1785:
1782:
1779:
1774:
1771:
1770:
1767:
1764:
1759:
1756:
1755:
1752:
1749:
1745:
1740:
1739:1,3-butadiene
1737:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1727:
1722:
1721:Acrylonitrile
1719:
1718:
1715:
1712:
1707:
1704:
1703:
1700:
1697:
1692:
1689:
1688:
1681:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1662:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1643:toxicological
1639:
1637:
1636:smoker's face
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1616:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1593:
1583:
1567:
1562:
1555:
1550:
1549:
1548:
1546:
1541:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1526:
1524:
1520:
1514:
1510:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1491:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1476:dental caries
1472:
1470:
1466:
1455:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1441:periodontitis
1437:
1435:
1431:
1430:heart attacks
1427:
1422:
1420:
1416:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1395:
1386:
1377:
1375:
1371:
1370:pipe cleaners
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1338:
1336:
1330:
1328:
1324:
1318:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1291:crack cocaine
1288:
1281:
1276:
1272:
1270:
1266:
1265:
1260:
1259:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1240:
1230:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1207:Phencyclidine
1204:
1199:
1196:
1189:
1179:
1177:
1173:
1172:Valentine day
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1151:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1111:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1077:tobacco smoke
1074:
1064:
1060:
1058:
1053:
1049:
1048:Marshall Plan
1043:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1031:Fritz Lickint
1028:
1022:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1007:Benjamin Rush
1001:
994:
987:
977:
975:
970:
966:
961:
957:
953:
948:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
919:, 5 July 1903
918:
917:
912:
907:
902:
892:
890:
886:
885:sharecropping
882:
877:
875:
870:
868:
864:
858:
856:
855:
850:
846:
842:
833:
829:
827:
826:
821:
817:
813:
810:. Later, the
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
788:
786:
782:
778:
774:
769:
765:
760:
758:
754:
750:
746:
741:
737:
733:
729:
721:
717:
713:
707:
700:
690:
686:
684:
680:
676:
671:
667:
662:
660:
655:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
600:
598:
594:
590:
581:
576:
566:
556:
554:
549:
546:
540:
538:
534:
533:birth defects
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
501:, and bongs.
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
483:rolling paper
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
455:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
384:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
351:is typically
350:
346:
342:
331:
326:
324:
319:
317:
312:
311:
309:
308:
301:
298:
296:
293:
291:
288:
286:
283:
281:
278:
277:
271:
270:
263:
260:
258:
255:
254:
251:
246:
245:
238:
232:
229:
227:
224:
222:
221:(opium poppy)
220:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
200:
197:
192:
191:
184:
181:
179:
176:
174:
171:
169:
166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
155:
152:
147:
146:
139:
136:
134:
131:
129:
126:
124:
121:
119:
116:
114:
111:
109:
106:
105:
102:
97:
96:
92:
88:
87:
84:
81:
80:
76:
72:
71:
64:
58:
53:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
8915:Drug culture
8900:Dosage forms
8836:Smoking bans
8287:Intraosseous
8277:Intracardiac
8216:Intravitreal
8178:Injector pen
8173:Subcutaneous
8144:
8114:Jet injector
8099:Dermal patch
7912:Vaginal ring
7880:Insufflation
7709:
7632:Effervescent
7406:dosage forms
7322:Smoking room
7317:Tobacco pipe
7003:Kinnikinnick
6745:Saudi Arabia
6654:South Africa
6523:
6472:BBC Headroom
6454:. Retrieved
6439:
6418:
6407:. Retrieved
6393:
6375:
6364:. Retrieved
6350:
6321:
6317:
6302:
6281:
6266:
6252:
6240:
6226:
6213:
6200:
6186:
6152:. Retrieved
6145:the original
6131:
6119:
6110:
6101:
6092:
6084:
6075:
6070:, pp. 236β47
6067:
6062:
6054:
6049:
6020:
6016:
5998:, pp. 248β55
5995:
5990:
5978:. Retrieved
5969:
5960:
5955:, pp. 206β17
5952:
5947:
5938:
5933:, pp. 218β29
5930:
5926:
5918:
5910:
5906:
5897:
5889:the original
5884:
5875:
5870:, pp. 126β33
5867:
5862:
5854:
5849:
5841:
5836:
5824:
5812:. Retrieved
5803:
5794:
5782:. Retrieved
5773:
5764:
5752:. Retrieved
5743:
5734:
5722:. Retrieved
5713:
5704:
5692:. Retrieved
5683:
5674:
5662:. Retrieved
5653:
5644:
5632:. Retrieved
5621:
5612:
5561:
5557:
5547:
5504:
5500:
5490:
5463:
5459:
5450:
5407:
5403:
5393:
5385:
5380:
5355:
5351:
5345:
5335:
5331:Harris, J.R.
5325:
5300:
5289:
5256:
5252:
5246:
5213:
5209:
5203:
5191:. Retrieved
5166:
5162:
5152:
5117:
5114:Toxicol. Sci
5113:
5103:
5071:(1): 64β71.
5068:
5065:Toxicol. Sci
5064:
5054:
5027:
5023:
5013:
4983:(1): 36β44.
4980:
4976:
4970:
4945:
4941:
4935:
4908:
4904:
4894:
4857:
4853:
4843:
4808:
4804:
4794:
4789:, pp. 320β21
4786:
4781:
4773:
4768:
4756:. Retrieved
4747:
4738:
4726:. Retrieved
4717:
4708:
4696:. Retrieved
4692:the original
4687:
4678:
4641:
4637:
4627:
4594:
4590:
4584:
4551:
4547:
4541:
4506:
4502:
4492:
4482:18 September
4480:. Retrieved
4466:
4454:. Retrieved
4445:
4436:
4401:
4397:
4387:
4362:10216/114867
4344:
4340:
4334:
4322:. Retrieved
4279:
4275:
4265:
4232:
4228:
4222:
4189:
4185:
4179:
4149:(1): 23β29.
4146:
4142:
4132:
4099:
4095:
4053:
4049:
4043:
4008:
4004:
3994:
3959:
3953:
3943:
3916:
3912:
3902:
3876:
3841:
3837:
3827:
3815:. Retrieved
3806:
3797:
3764:
3760:
3754:
3717:
3713:
3702:
3667:
3663:
3653:
3618:
3614:
3604:
3587:
3583:
3577:
3569:
3564:
3552:. Retrieved
3543:
3533:
3525:the original
3520:
3517:"Cracked up"
3511:
3493:
3481:. Retrieved
3478:My Republica
3477:
3467:
3424:
3420:
3410:
3383:
3378:
3351:
3346:
3338:the original
3333:
3324:
3317:Roberts 2004
3312:
3300:. Retrieved
3296:the original
3286:
3274:. Retrieved
3254:
3247:
3239:
3232:. Retrieved
3217:
3208:
3202:
3190:. Retrieved
3186:the original
3176:
3164:. Retrieved
3150:
3142:
3137:
3102:
3098:
3088:
3053:
3049:
3039:
3015:(1): 29β46.
3012:
3008:
2998:
2991:Proctor 2000
2971:. Retrieved
2967:the original
2961:
2954:
2947:Proctor 2000
2932:Proctor 2000
2927:
2920:Proctor 2000
2915:
2908:Proctor 2000
2903:
2878:
2872:
2860:. Retrieved
2850:
2840:
2825:
2820:
2812:
2811:of Opium in
2809:Belle Epoque
2808:
2789:
2782:Roberts 2004
2777:
2765:
2757:
2741:
2736:
2715:
2707:
2699:
2690:
2672:
2663:
2654:
2642:
2629:
2623:
2615:
2610:
2601:
2592:
2580:. Retrieved
2571:
2554:
2519:
2515:
2505:
2493:. Retrieved
2487:. May 2014.
2443:Smoke social
2381:
2355:
2345:
2340:
2332:
2324:
2311:
2305:
2295:
2291:
2288:
2272:
2264:
2256:
2248:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2214:
2205:
2201:
2194:
2179:
2172:
2168:
2151:
2148:silent films
2145:
2125:Brian Whelan
2121:Marlboro Man
2107:
2092:
2082:
2052:
2038:
2028:
1998:Pipe smoking
1994:
1985:
1981:
1972:
1891:
1878:extraversion
1863:
1842:extraversion
1838:Hans Eysenck
1835:
1826:
1822:
1758:Acetaldehyde
1706:Formaldehyde
1665:
1659:carcinogenic
1640:
1617:
1588:
1542:
1527:
1515:
1511:
1499:smoking bans
1492:
1473:
1438:
1423:
1397:
1339:
1331:
1329:and cigars.
1319:
1284:
1262:
1256:
1242:
1200:
1192:
1152:
1112:
1101:
1081:Richard Doll
1069:
1059:as "muted".
1044:
1039:Adolf Hitler
1026:
1023:
1004:
965:Montparnasse
949:
922:
914:
878:
871:
866:
862:
859:
852:
838:
823:
816:Qing dynasty
808:Ming dynasty
789:
761:
725:
715:
687:
663:
656:
627:
619:
615:
601:
585:
550:
541:
521:heart attack
503:
456:
394:because the
385:
377:smoking pipe
340:
339:
218:
82:
40:
8741:and the law
8721:Philippines
8684:Big Tobacco
8623:Composition
8481:Receptacles
8449:Peripherals
8272:Intravenous
8259:Circulatory
8244:Intrathecal
8168:Intradermal
8160:transdermal
8127:Parenterals
8033:Topical gel
7989:Murphy drip
7967:Suppository
7855:Nasal spray
7789:Oxygen mask
7638:Chewing gum
7577:Oral mucosa
7292:Smoking cap
7197:Smoking ban
7088:Smoking age
6791:New Zealand
6740:Philippines
6720:South Korea
6715:North Korea
6670:Afghanistan
5923:Ivan Kalmar
5259:(1): 7β13.
5193:30 November
5024:Mutagenesis
4474:. Cdc.gov.
4456:9 September
3913:Eur Heart J
3720:(9): e185.
3472:Republica.
2760:, pp. 92β99
2618:, pp. 68β75
2448:Varenicline
2329:Larry Adler
2253:J.M. Barrie
2228:(1906) and
2131:Film and TV
2071:during the
2060:Orientalism
2010:promiscuity
2006:masculinity
1976:night clubs
1882:neuroticism
1817:oral cancer
1503:smoking age
1346:cigar boxes
1073:benzopyrene
929:anaesthetic
517:lung cancer
513:respiration
509:physiologic
361:bloodstream
178:Medical use
118:Advertising
8889:Categories
8739:Government
8694:By country
8418:Components
8354:Cigarettes
8132:Injections
7895:Urogenital
7831:Ophthalmic
7687:inhalation
7661:Toothpaste
7589:sublingual
7553:Suspension
7523:Herbal tea
7355:Cigarettes
6680:East Timor
6630:and region
6580:Audio help
6571:2022-10-09
6154:14 October
5980:23 October
5634:16 October
5410:: 110076.
5295:Gay, Peter
5253:Mutat. Res
5210:Mutat. Res
4698:4 November
3554:30 January
3483:5 February
2887:B002KI5YEW
2862:2 November
2564:Roser, Max
2516:The Lancet
2464:References
2372:Peter Tosh
2368:Bob Marley
2337:Don Redman
2251:(1896) by
2211:Literature
2166:Weimar era
2162:Fritz Lang
2117:James Dean
2014:Edo period
1947:Prevalence
1888:Prevention
1804:Psychology
1748:epigenetic
1651:DNA damage
1597:endorphins
1577:Physiology
1445:tooth loss
1412:non-linear
1354:matchboxes
1293:, heroin,
1287:controlled
1237:See also:
969:Montmartre
960:Chinatowns
956:opium dens
820:Edo period
773:The Gambia
764:Jean Nicot
732:John Rolfe
679:terracotta
652:Bronze Age
628:dhumrapana
589:Israelites
570:Early uses
8701:Argentina
8440:Additives
8373:Fire-safe
8137:infusions
8069:Liposomes
7865:Eye drops
7860:Ear drops
7771:Vaporizer
7766:Nebulizer
7656:Mouthwash
7585:sublabial
7508:Electuary
7498:Decoction
7242:Australia
7168:Menopause
6910:Argentina
6786:Australia
6750:Singapore
6695:Indonesia
6685:Hong Kong
6338:161397712
5913:pp. 78β81
5578:1465-1858
5521:1469-493X
5424:0191-8869
4420:1011-7571
4371:0909-8836
4296:1465-1858
4249:0909-8836
4206:0145-6008
4163:0022-3492
4116:0303-6979
4070:0022-3492
3540:"Tobacco"
3521:salon.com
3441:0964-4563
3370:547193748
3302:1 January
3234:1 January
2568:"Smoking"
2378:Economics
2258:Peter Pan
2153:film noir
2069:ethnology
2002:modernity
1676:Compound
1668:genotoxic
1666:The most
1655:genotoxic
1628:impotence
1469:milanosis
1311:5-Meo-DMT
1223:5-Meo-DMT
1124:Indonesia
911:opium den
792:Old World
736:cash crop
728:Jamestown
683:Ethiopian
475:narcotics
373:cigarette
345:combusted
295:Narcotics
123:Cessation
18:Nonsmoker
8854:Category
8716:Pakistan
8378:Flavored
8308:PIC line
8249:Epidural
8089:Lip balm
8064:Hydrogel
8055:solution
8038:Liniment
8023:Ointment
7982:Hydrogel
7977:Solution
7962:Ointment
7902:Ointment
7875:Hydrogel
7870:Ointment
7666:Ointment
7627:Lozenges
7617:Lollipop
7563:Tincture
7548:Solution
7528:Hydrogel
7513:Emulsion
7455:Pastille
7350:Category
7297:Smokeasy
7008:Pipe bag
6998:Chanunpa
6970:Religion
6920:Colombia
6735:Pakistan
6730:Malaysia
6582: Β·
6516:Archived
6456:22 March
6409:22 March
6366:22 March
6324:(3): 3.
6289:Lloyd, J
6164:cite web
6057:, p. 241
5974:Archived
5844:, p. 133
5808:Archived
5778:Archived
5748:Archived
5718:Archived
5688:Archived
5658:Archived
5628:Archived
5623:Cochrane
5604:29033457
5596:27009521
5587:10042551
5539:28196405
5482:23974179
5442:34321706
5372:10540594
5333:(1998).
5297:(1988).
5281:17317274
5238:19477295
5187:Archived
5183:21604744
5144:21602187
5095:19546159
5046:11971987
4997:20158384
4962:21802474
4927:18403632
4886:21556207
4776:, p. 318
4752:Archived
4722:Archived
4670:18069751
4568:10571595
4533:20110594
4476:Archived
4450:Archived
4428:12707498
4379:23489903
4318:Archived
4314:24254989
4124:12390575
4078:10872955
4035:17185283
3986:16690673
3887:Archived
3811:Archived
3789:46825572
3781:29367307
3767:: k167.
3746:18788891
3714:PLOS Med
3645:15213107
3596:12002168
3572:, p. 320
3548:Archived
3501:Archived
3459:29880598
3402:54966940
3276:22 March
3270:Archived
3228:Archived
3192:17 April
3166:17 April
3160:Archived
3158:. 1964.
3129:13160495
3080:14772469
2856:Archived
2815:, p. 114
2680:Archived
2576:Archived
2546:28390697
2489:Archived
2391:See also
2282:β
2224:(1876),
2171:, 1922 (
2158:nihilism
2096:Bohemian
1851:dopamine
1788:Isoprene
1691:Acrolein
1624:stenosis
1605:nicotine
1601:dopamine
1523:morphine
1426:stenosis
1362:ashtrays
1350:lighters
1253:cannabis
1213:such as
937:Lin Zexu
796:Murad IV
785:Timbuktu
675:calabash
670:Ethiopia
668:through
636:chillums
624:Ayurveda
604:cannabis
467:cannabis
440:morphine
436:cannabis
420:nicotine
262:Epidemic
173:Legality
158:Cannabis
151:Cannabis
133:Politics
128:Industry
75:a series
73:Part of
8895:Smoking
8869:Smoking
8864:Commons
8496:Culture
8471:Lighter
8456:Ashtray
8425:Tobacco
8393:Menthol
8368:Fashion
8008:topical
7946:enteral
7907:Pessary
7737:Liquids
7710:Smoking
7648:Liquids
7543:Softgel
7490:Liquids
7450:Capsule
7427:enteral
7247:England
6930:Uruguay
6925:Ecuador
6859:Ireland
6854:Iceland
6849:Hungary
6839:Germany
6829:Finland
6824:Croatia
6819:Armenia
6814:Albania
6798:Tokelau
6779:Oceania
6770:Vietnam
6649:Nigeria
6628:Country
6569: (
6540:minutes
6490:Smoking
6269:(1999)
5925:, "The
5814:5 March
5784:5 March
5754:5 March
5724:5 March
5694:5 March
5664:5 March
5530:4022453
5433:8313022
5261:Bibcode
5218:Bibcode
5135:3155089
5086:2726299
5005:8812192
4877:3084482
4835:3936573
4826:1419177
4758:5 March
4728:5 March
4661:4171221
4619:5775169
4611:2598752
4576:6620451
4524:2906761
4446:Gadling
4305:8078625
4257:6961509
4214:9438534
4171:7891246
4026:1764142
3977:1459603
3935:2598948
3868:9365294
3859:2127675
3737:2531137
3694:7661229
3685:1615570
3450:6589489
3120:2085438
3071:2038856
3031:2192501
3022:2589239
2895:1602234
2744:, p. 38
2582:5 March
2537:5439023
2352:Jamaica
2325:Muggles
1762:1448.0
1609:cocaine
1592:alveoli
1519:opiates
1454:alcohol
1249:hookahs
1245:tobacco
1195:cocaine
1136:Belarus
1132:Ukraine
863:smoking
781:Morocco
777:Senegal
753:slavery
612:incense
593:shamans
582:, 1500.
559:History
553:panacea
545:shamans
499:hookahs
477:, like
448:cocaine
426:in the
416:aerosol
369:tobacco
367:of the
353:inhaled
341:Smoking
257:Cocaine
168:Effects
108:Tobacco
101:Tobacco
83:Smoking
8910:Habits
8793:MPOWER
8711:Malawi
8514:Loosie
8466:Holder
8435:Filter
8388:Lights
8383:Kretek
8203:Organs
8084:Lotion
8004:Dermal
7942:Rectal
7917:Douche
7697:Solids
7634:tablet
7599:Solids
7581:buccal
7538:Powder
7503:Elixir
7445:Tablet
7437:Solids
7252:France
7118:MPOWER
7017:Health
6946:Canada
6915:Brazil
6889:Turkey
6884:Sweden
6879:Russia
6874:Norway
6869:Latvia
6844:Greece
6834:France
6807:Europe
6765:Turkey
6760:Taiwan
6637:Africa
6447:
6424:
6400:
6381:
6357:
6336:
6309:
6291:&
6271:online
6259:
6245:online
6233:
6219:
6206:
6193:
5927:Houkah
5602:
5594:
5584:
5576:
5537:
5527:
5519:
5480:
5440:
5430:
5422:
5370:
5313:
5307:650β51
5279:
5236:
5181:
5142:
5132:
5093:
5083:
5044:
5003:
4995:
4960:
4925:
4884:
4874:
4833:
4823:
4668:
4658:
4617:
4609:
4574:
4566:
4531:
4521:
4426:
4418:
4377:
4369:
4312:
4302:
4294:
4255:
4247:
4212:
4204:
4169:
4161:
4122:
4114:
4076:
4068:
4033:
4023:
3984:
3974:
3933:
3866:
3856:
3787:
3779:
3744:
3734:
3692:
3682:
3643:
3636:437139
3633:
3594:
3457:
3447:
3439:
3400:
3390:
3368:
3358:
3262:
3127:
3117:
3078:
3068:
3029:
3019:
2973:1 June
2893:
2885:
2832:
2544:
2534:
2495:13 May
2348:reggae
2335:, and
2275:a wife
1792:952.0
1743:105.0
1695:122.4
1488:cancer
1486:, and
1465:cancer
1323:filter
1313:, and
1269:joints
1225:, and
1215:Changa
1146:, and
1144:Jordan
1140:Greece
1120:Russia
1017:under
933:Canton
825:shΕgun
812:Manchu
768:France
659:hookah
644:Cyprus
531:, and
491:cigars
479:heroin
450:(from
446:) and
442:(from
434:(from
365:leaves
357:tasted
355:to be
285:Heroin
234:
213:Opioid
208:Opiate
8809:Lists
8706:Egypt
8398:Beedi
8361:Types
8079:Cream
8043:Paste
7972:Enema
7924:(IUD)
7840:nasal
7762:(MDI)
7670:Spray
7558:Syrup
7270:Other
6864:Italy
6755:Syria
6725:Macau
6710:Japan
6690:India
6675:China
6644:Egypt
6334:S2CID
6148:(PDF)
6141:(PDF)
6083:, in
6068:Smoke
6055:Smoke
5996:Smoke
5953:Smoke
5931:Smoke
5868:Smoke
5842:Smoke
5600:S2CID
5001:S2CID
4787:Smoke
4774:Smoke
4615:S2CID
4572:S2CID
4324:9 May
3817:6 May
3785:S2CID
3570:Smoke
2813:Smoke
2758:Smoke
2742:Smoke
2616:Smoke
2356:ganja
2302:Music
2102:like
2055:snuff
1725:29.3
1710:60.5
1685:Ref.
1327:pipes
1148:China
925:China
901:Opium
895:Opium
874:Congo
648:Crete
640:opium
632:pipes
616:dhupa
495:bidis
487:pipes
471:opium
452:crack
444:opium
428:brain
404:lungs
379:or a
349:smoke
274:Other
250:Crack
196:Opium
163:Plant
8635:Snus
8628:List
8476:Pack
8461:Case
8304:pump
8156:Skin
8053:DMSO
8048:Film
7836:otic
7791:and
7612:Film
7414:Oral
6951:Cuba
6705:Iraq
6700:Iran
6663:Asia
6458:2009
6445:ISBN
6422:ISBN
6411:2009
6398:ISBN
6379:ISBN
6368:2009
6355:ISBN
6307:ISBN
6257:ISBN
6231:ISBN
6217:ISBN
6204:ISBN
6191:ISBN
6170:link
6156:2008
5982:2019
5816:2020
5786:2020
5756:2020
5726:2020
5696:2020
5666:2020
5636:2019
5592:PMID
5574:ISSN
5562:2016
5535:PMID
5517:ISSN
5478:PMID
5438:PMID
5420:ISSN
5368:PMID
5311:ISBN
5277:PMID
5234:PMID
5195:2019
5179:PMID
5140:PMID
5091:PMID
5042:PMID
4993:PMID
4958:PMID
4923:PMID
4882:PMID
4831:PMID
4760:2020
4730:2020
4700:2019
4666:PMID
4607:PMID
4564:PMID
4529:PMID
4484:2008
4458:2008
4424:PMID
4416:ISSN
4375:PMID
4367:ISSN
4326:2018
4310:PMID
4292:ISSN
4280:2021
4253:PMID
4245:ISSN
4210:PMID
4202:ISSN
4167:PMID
4159:ISSN
4120:PMID
4112:ISSN
4074:PMID
4066:ISSN
4031:PMID
3982:PMID
3931:PMID
3864:PMID
3819:2020
3777:PMID
3742:PMID
3690:PMID
3641:PMID
3592:PMID
3556:2023
3485:2024
3455:PMID
3437:ISSN
3398:OCLC
3388:ISBN
3366:OCLC
3356:ISBN
3304:2009
3278:2009
3260:ISBN
3236:2009
3194:2015
3168:2015
3125:PMID
3076:PMID
3027:PMID
2975:2008
2891:OCLC
2883:ASIN
2864:2019
2830:ISBN
2584:2020
2542:PMID
2497:2015
2370:and
2316:Jazz
2273:sans
2271:And
2188:and
2115:and
1880:and
1872:and
1777:7.0
1611:and
1599:and
1463:oral
1458:risk
1443:and
1432:and
1297:and
1280:pipe
1205:and
1174:and
1128:Laos
967:and
775:and
646:and
620:homa
608:ghee
525:COPD
469:and
390:for
381:bong
290:Meth
7781:Gas
6326:doi
6295:: "
6035:hdl
6025:doi
5885:CNN
5582:PMC
5566:doi
5525:PMC
5509:doi
5468:doi
5464:159
5428:PMC
5412:doi
5408:163
5360:doi
5269:doi
5257:629
5226:doi
5214:678
5171:doi
5167:133
5130:PMC
5122:doi
5118:122
5081:PMC
5073:doi
5069:111
5032:doi
4985:doi
4950:doi
4913:doi
4872:PMC
4862:doi
4821:PMC
4813:doi
4809:291
4656:PMC
4646:doi
4599:doi
4556:doi
4519:PMC
4511:doi
4406:doi
4357:hdl
4349:doi
4345:121
4300:PMC
4284:doi
4237:doi
4194:doi
4151:doi
4104:doi
4058:doi
4021:PMC
4013:doi
4009:114
3972:PMC
3964:doi
3960:332
3955:BMJ
3921:doi
3854:PMC
3846:doi
3842:315
3838:BMJ
3769:doi
3765:360
3732:PMC
3722:doi
3680:PMC
3672:doi
3631:PMC
3623:doi
3619:328
3615:BMJ
3544:WHO
3445:PMC
3429:doi
3115:PMC
3107:doi
3066:PMC
3058:doi
3017:PMC
2532:PMC
2524:doi
2520:389
2364:Jah
2339:'s
2331:'s
2323:'s
2310:'s
2164:'s
2085:by
2031:by
2020:Art
1525:).
1307:DMT
1299:PCP
1261:or
1219:DMT
958:in
718:by
642:in
454:).
438:),
300:PCP
280:DMT
203:Den
8891::
7838:,
7587:,
7583:,
7404:,
6332:.
6322:24
6320:.
6280:,
6166:}}
6162:{{
6033:.
6021:46
6019:.
6015:.
6003:^
5972:.
5968:.
5883:.
5806:.
5802:.
5776:.
5772:.
5746:.
5742:.
5716:.
5712:.
5686:.
5682:.
5656:.
5652:.
5626:.
5620:.
5598:.
5590:.
5580:.
5572:.
5560:.
5556:.
5533:.
5523:.
5515:.
5503:.
5499:.
5476:.
5462:.
5458:.
5436:.
5426:.
5418:.
5406:.
5402:.
5366:.
5356:54
5354:.
5309:.
5275:.
5267:.
5255:.
5232:.
5224:.
5212:.
5185:.
5177:.
5165:.
5161:.
5138:.
5128:.
5116:.
5112:.
5089:.
5079:.
5067:.
5063:.
5040:.
5028:17
5026:.
5022:.
4999:.
4991:.
4981:20
4979:.
4956:.
4946:49
4944:.
4921:.
4907:.
4903:.
4880:.
4870:.
4856:.
4852:.
4829:.
4819:.
4807:.
4803:.
4750:.
4746:.
4720:.
4716:.
4686:.
4664:.
4654:.
4642:13
4640:.
4636:.
4613:.
4605:.
4595:34
4593:.
4570:.
4562:.
4552:13
4550:.
4527:.
4517:.
4507:19
4505:.
4501:.
4444:.
4422:.
4414:.
4402:12
4400:.
4396:.
4373:.
4365:.
4355:.
4343:.
4316:.
4308:.
4298:.
4290:.
4278:.
4274:.
4251:.
4243:.
4233:90
4231:.
4208:.
4200:.
4190:21
4188:.
4165:.
4157:.
4147:66
4145:.
4141:.
4118:.
4110:.
4100:29
4098:.
4086:^
4072:.
4064:.
4054:71
4052:.
4029:.
4019:.
4007:.
4003:.
3980:.
3970:.
3958:.
3952:.
3929:.
3917:10
3915:.
3911:.
3862:.
3852:.
3840:.
3836:.
3805:.
3783:.
3775:.
3763:.
3740:.
3730:.
3716:.
3712:.
3688:.
3678:.
3668:85
3666:.
3662:.
3639:.
3629:.
3617:.
3613:.
3588:51
3586:.
3542:.
3519:.
3476:.
3453:.
3443:.
3435:.
3425:28
3423:.
3419:.
3396:.
3364:.
3332:.
3268:.
3238:.
3123:.
3113:.
3101:.
3097:.
3074:.
3064:.
3052:.
3048:.
3025:.
3013:63
3011:.
3007:.
2983:^
2939:^
2889:.
2854:.
2798:^
2749:^
2724:^
2706:,
2632:.
2574:.
2570:.
2562:;
2540:.
2530:.
2518:.
2514:.
2472:^
2327:,
2075:.
1884:.
1638:.
1615:.
1540:.
1482:,
1478:,
1421:.
1368:,
1364:,
1356:,
1352:,
1348:,
1344:,
1317:.
1309:,
1229:.
1221:,
1217:,
1150:.
1142:,
1138:,
1134:,
1130:,
1126:,
1079:.
1037:,
1013:,
869:.
730:,
654:.
527:,
523:,
519:,
497:,
493:,
489:,
383:.
77:on
8686:"
8682:"
8346:e
8339:t
8332:v
8261:,
8162:)
8158:(
8010:)
8006:(
7948:)
7944:(
7833:,
7729:0
7725:0
7689:)
7685:(
7591:)
7579:(
7429:)
7425:(
7394:e
7387:t
7380:v
7039:)
7030:(
6613:e
6606:t
6599:v
6586:)
6578:(
6573:)
6542:)
6538:5
6535:(
6460:.
6413:.
6370:.
6340:.
6328::
6172:)
6158:.
6043:.
6037::
6027::
5984:.
5818:.
5788:.
5758:.
5728:.
5698:.
5668:.
5638:.
5606:.
5568::
5541:.
5511::
5505:2
5484:.
5470::
5444:.
5414::
5374:.
5362::
5319:.
5283:.
5271::
5263::
5240:.
5228::
5220::
5197:.
5173::
5146:.
5124::
5097:.
5075::
5048:.
5034::
5007:.
4987::
4964:.
4952::
4929:.
4915::
4909:6
4888:.
4864::
4858:8
4837:.
4815::
4762:.
4732:.
4702:.
4672:.
4648::
4621:.
4601::
4578:.
4558::
4535:.
4513::
4486:.
4460:.
4430:.
4408::
4381:.
4359::
4351::
4328:.
4286::
4259:.
4239::
4216:.
4196::
4173:.
4153::
4126:.
4106::
4080:.
4060::
4037:.
4015::
3988:.
3966::
3937:.
3923::
3870:.
3848::
3821:.
3791:.
3771::
3748:.
3724::
3718:5
3696:.
3674::
3647:.
3625::
3598:.
3558:.
3487:.
3461:.
3431::
3404:.
3372:.
3306:.
3280:.
3211:.
3196:.
3170:.
3131:.
3109::
3103:1
3082:.
3060::
3054:2
3033:.
2977:.
2897:.
2866:.
2636:.
2586:.
2548:.
2526::
2499:.
1190:.
1002:.
995:.
988:.
708:.
701:.
329:e
322:t
315:v
38:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
.jpg)
