1022:... they are nevertheless almost undetectable: In just one second several tens of billions of neutrinos pass through every square centimetre of our bodies without us ever noticing. ... No magnetic field diverts them from their course, shooting straight ahead at almost the speed of light. ... Almost nothing stops them. ... Neutrinos are remarkably tricky customers. There are three types or flavours: electron, muon, and tau neutrinos, named after three other particles to which they give rise when they collide with an atom.
603:
357:" interactions with the protons in the water, producing positrons and neutrons. The resulting positrons annihilate with electrons, creating pairs of coincident photons with an energy of about 0.5 MeV each, which could be detected by the two scintillation detectors above and below the target. The neutrons were captured by cadmium nuclei, resulting in delayed gamma rays of about 8 MeV that were detected a few microseconds after the photons from a positron annihilation event.
1969:
551:. Scientists detected 19 neutrinos from an explosion of a star inside the Large Magellanic Cloud – only 19 out of the octo-decillion (10) neutrinos emitted by the supernova. The Kamiokande detector was able to detect the burst of neutrinos associated with this supernova, and in 1988 it was used to directly confirm the production of solar neutrinos. The largest such detector is the water-filled
31:
532:. This radiation is detected by the photomultiplier tubes and shows up as a characteristic ring-like pattern of activity in the array of photomultiplier tubes. As neutrinos can interact with atomic nuclei to produce charged leptons which emit Cherenkov radiation, this pattern can be used to infer direction, energy, and (sometimes) flavor information about incident neutrinos.
184:, and others are generated by nuclear reactions inside stars, planets, and by other interstellar processes. According to scientists' speculations, some may also originate from events in the universe such as "colliding black holes, gamma ray bursts from exploding stars, and/or violent events at the cores of distant galaxies".
365:. The detected antineutrinos thus all carried an energy greater than 1.8 MeV, which is the threshold for the reaction channel used (1.8 MeV is the energy needed to create a positron and a neutron from a proton). Only about 3% of the antineutrinos from a nuclear reactor carry enough energy for the reaction to occur.
666:
observatory, eventually increasing the volume of the detector array to one cubic kilometer. Ice Cube sits deep underneath the South Pole in a cubic kilometre of perfectly clear, bubble-free ancient ice. Like AMANDA it relies on detecting the flickers of light emitted on the exceedingly rare occasions
461:
transformation which is sensitive to lower-energy neutrinos. A neutrino is able to react with an atom of gallium-71, converting it into an atom of the unstable isotope germanium-71. The germanium was then chemically extracted and concentrated. Neutrinos were thus detected by measuring the radioactive
797:
The higher-energy (>50 MeV or so) neutrino experiments often cover or surround the primary detector with a "veto" detector which reveals when a cosmic ray passes into the primary detector, allowing the corresponding activity in the primary detector to be ignored ("vetoed"). Since the atmospheric
1101:
The $ 272M (ÂŁ170M) IceCube instrument is not your typical telescope. Instead of collecting light from the stars, planets or other celestial objects, IceCube looks for ghostly particles called neutrinos that hurtle across space with high-energy cosmic rays. If all goes to plan, the observatory will
566:
contained in a 12 metre-diameter vessel made of acrylic plastic surrounded by a cylinder of ultrapure ordinary water 22 metres in diameter and 34 metres high. In addition to the neutrino interactions visible in a regular water detector, a neutrino can break up the deuterium in heavy
1091:
New evidence confirms last year's indication that one type of neutrino emerging from the Sun's core does switch to another type en route to the Earth. ... The data were obtained from the underground
Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) in Canada. ... Neutrinos are ghostly particles with no electric
590:
would be prohibitively expensive, detection volumes of this magnitude can be achieved by installing
Cherenkov detector arrays deep inside already existing natural water or ice formations, with several other advantages. Firstly, hundreds of meters of water or ice partly protect the detector from
703:
detectors use alternating planes of absorber material and detector material. The absorber planes provide detector mass while the detector planes provide the tracking information. Steel is a popular absorber choice, being relatively dense and inexpensive and having the advantage that it can be
250:, the neutrino enters and then leaves the detector after having transferred some of its energy and momentum to a 'target' particle. If the target particle is charged and sufficiently lightweight (e.g. an electron), it might be accelerated to a relativistic speed and consequently emit
288:). However, if the neutrino does not have sufficient energy to create its heavier partner's mass, the charged current interaction is effectively unavailable to it. Neutrinos from the Sun and from nuclear reactors have enough energy to create electrons. Most
718:
range) neutrinos. At these energies, neutral current interactions appear as a shower of hadronic debris and charged current interactions are identified by the presence of the charged lepton's track (possibly alongside some form of hadronic debris).
582:, so charged particles without sufficient energy to produce Cherenkov light still produce scintillation light. Low-energy muons and protons, invisible in water, can be detected. Thus the use of natural environment as a measurement medium emerged.
805:
neutrons and radioisotopes produced by the cosmic rays may mimic the desired signals. For these experiments, the solution is to place the detector deep underground so that the earth above can reduce the cosmic ray rate to acceptable levels.
1102:
reveal where these mysterious rays come from, and how they get to be so energetic. But that is just the start. Neutrino observatories such as IceCube will ultimately give astronomers fresh eyes with which to study the universe.
1170:
IceCube
Collaboration; Fermi-LAT; MAGIC; AGILE; ASAS-SN; HAWC; INTEGRAL; Swift/NuSTAR; VERITAS; VLA/17B-403 teams (2018). "Multimessenger observations of a flaring blazar coincident with high-energy neutrino IceCube-170922A".
758:) information. An electron in the detector produces an electromagnetic shower, which can be distinguished from hadronic showers if the granularity of the active detector is small compared to the physical extent of the shower.
2703:
523:
tubes. A charged lepton produced with sufficient energy and moving through such a detector does travel somewhat faster than the speed of light in the detector medium (although somewhat slower than the speed of light in
630:
will have a total instrumented volume of about 5 km. The detector will be distributed over three installation sites in the
Mediterranean. Implementation of the first phase of the telescope was started in 2013.
1082:
In 1987, astronomers counted 19 neutrinos from an explosion of a star in the nearby Large
Magellanic Cloud, 19 out of the billion trillion trillion trillion trillion neutrinos that flew from the supernova.
585:
Since the neutrino flux incoming to earth decreases with increasing energy, the size of neutrino detectors must increase too. Though building a kilometer-sized cube detector underground covered by thousands of
1115:
near
Chicago will begin shooting trillions of subatomic "neutrino" particles through 450 miles of solid earth, their target a detector at the Soudan Underground Laboratory beneath this Iron Range town.
360:
This experiment was designed by Cowan and Reines to give a unique signature for antineutrinos, to prove the existence of these particles. It was not the experimental goal to measure the total antineutrino
722:
A muon produced in a charged current interaction leaves a long penetrating track and is easy to spot; The length of this muon track and its curvature in the magnetic field provide energy and charge (
1073:
Neutrino astronomy was given a strong push in 1987 when a supernova in a galaxy only one-quarter of a million light-years away from Earth flared into view – the closest supernova in 400 years.
567:
water. The resulting free neutron is subsequently captured, releasing a burst of gamma rays that can be detected. All three neutrino flavors participate equally in this dissociation reaction.
54:
with other particles of matter, neutrino detectors must be very large to detect a significant number of neutrinos. Neutrino detectors are often built underground, to isolate the detector from
2632:
1092:
charge and very little mass. They are known to exist in three types related to three different charged particles - the electron and its lesser-known relatives, the muon and the tau. ...
2729:
300:. A detector which can distinguish among these leptons can reveal the flavor of the neutrino incident to a charged current interaction; because the interaction involves the exchange of a
2345:
500:
as reaction mass. The price of gallium is prohibitive, so this experiment is difficult to afford on large-scale. Larger experiments have therefore turned to a less costly reaction mass.
2154:
180:
Neutrinos are omnipresent in nature: every second, tens of billions of them "pass through every square centimetre of our bodies without us ever noticing." Many were created during the
943:
782:. This effect has been used to make an extremely small neutrino detector. Unlike most other detection methods, coherent scattering does not depend on the flavor of the neutrino.
704:
magnetised. The active detector is often liquid or plastic scintillator, read out with photomultiplier tubes, although various kinds of ionisation chambers have also been used.
187:
Despite how common they are, neutrinos are extremely difficult to detect, due to their low mass and lack of electric charge. Unlike other particles, neutrinos only interact via
2698:
618:(Astronomy with a Neutrino Telescope and Abyss environmental Research) has been fully operational since 30 May 2008. Consisting of an array of twelve separate 350
2708:
1747:
2673:
515:. Cherenkov radiation is produced whenever charged particles such as electrons or muons are moving through a given detector medium somewhat faster than the
380:
detector was able to measure the most important components of the neutrino spectrum from the Sun, as well as antineutrinos from Earth and nuclear reactors.
766:, and cannot be observed directly in this kind of detector. (To directly observe taus, one typically looks for a kink in tracks in photographic emulsion.)
2355:
2251:
1779:
Akimov, D.; Albert, J.B.; An, P.; Awe, C.; Barbeau, P.S.; Becker, B.; et al. (2017). "Observation of coherent elastic neutrino-nucleus scattering".
503:
Radiochemical detection methods are only useful for counting neutrinos; they provide almost no information on neutrino energy or direction of travel.
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2225:
369:
2502:
1409:
1364:
419:-37 via the charged current interaction. The threshold neutrino energy for this reaction is 0.814 MeV. The fluid is periodically purged with
1232:
798:
muon incident flux is isotropic, a localised and anisotropic detection is discriminated in relation to the background betraying a cosmic event.
1031:
Sensors in the ice have detected the rare and fleeting flashes of light caused when neutrinos interact with the ice. ... Amanda 2 (Second
443:) of fluid, was the first to detect the solar neutrinos, and made the first measurement of the deficit of electron neutrinos from the sun (see
2322:
650:
using a three-dimensional array of detector modules each containing one photomultiplier tube. This method allows detection of neutrinos above
2552:
2426:
2194:
886:
481:
262:(electronic, muonic, and tauonic) can participate, regardless of the neutrino energy. However, no neutrino flavor information is left behind.
2001:
2230:
2467:
1032:
862:
774:
At low energies, a neutrino can scatter from the entire nucleus of an atom, rather than the individual nucleons, in a process known as
646:. The ice itself is the detector medium. The direction of incident neutrinos is determined by recording the arrival time of individual
635:
626:
optical modules, this detector uses the surrounding sea water as the detector medium. The next generation deep sea neutrino telescope
423:
gas which would remove the argon. The helium is then cooled to separate out the argon, and the argon atoms are counted based on their
2572:
2451:
2441:
2159:
906:
827:
2663:
658:. AMANDA was used to generate neutrino maps of the northern sky to search for extraterrestrial neutrino sources and to search for
555:. This detector uses 50,000 tons of pure water surrounded by 11,000 photomultiplier tubes buried 1 km underground.
2330:
1732:
Radovic, Alexander (12 January 2018). "Latest
Oscillation Results from NOvA from NOvA" (Joint Experimental-Theoretical Physics).
1064:, and historically possession of the region has alternated between France and Germany; thus the joke in the technique's nickname.
638:(AMANDA) operated from 1996–2004. This detector used photomultiplier tubes mounted in strings buried deep (1.5–2 km) inside
82:
about 3.7 billion light years away. Neutrino observatories will "give astronomers fresh eyes with which to study the universe".
2547:
814:
Neutrino detectors can be aimed at astrophysics observations, since many astrophysical events are believed to emit neutrinos.
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1872:
1112:
540:
2602:
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2024:
972:
949:
688:
330:
17:
1501:
Halzen, Francis; Klein, Spencer R. (2010-08-30). "Invited Review
Article: IceCube: An instrument for neutrino astronomy".
2780:
2144:
1973:
981:
892:
680:
1283:
1143:
2739:
2658:
1919:
1895:
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atmospheric muons. Secondly, these environments are transparent and dark, vital criteria in order to detect the faint
2734:
2693:
1947:
1660:
Aguilar, J.A.; et al. (2021). "Design and sensitivity of the Radio
Neutrino Observatory in Greenland (RNO-G)".
2668:
2597:
2312:
2051:
1994:
1754:
1474:
1252:
519:. In a Cherenkov detector, a large volume of clear material such as water or ice is surrounded by light-sensitive
2816:
2612:
2507:
2204:
676:
231:
have mass, but only a "smidgen of rest mass" – perhaps less than a "millionth as much as an electron" – so the
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2790:
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2532:
2482:
2179:
2010:
993:
955:
924:
559:
493:
392:
106:
2826:
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1987:
1060:, so the analogue is France → Germany → France. The Alsace-Lorraine territory sits on the two countries'
882:
711:
proposal suggests eliminating the absorber planes in favor of using a very large active detector volume.
62:
is still very much in its infancy – the only confirmed extraterrestrial sources as of 2018 are the
259:
255:
1061:
1003:
691:
is being built, exploiting the
Askaryan effect in ice to detect neutrinos with energies >10 PeV.
2522:
1979:
1753:. Physics & Astronomy. Los Angeles, CA: University of California – Los Angeles. Archived from
342:
227:, or one of their antiparticles, if an antineutrino). According to the laws of physics neutrinos
1035:) is designed to look not up, but down, through the Earth to the sky of the Northern Hemisphere.
2028:
444:
71:
2184:
1226:
2537:
2411:
2105:
1845:
1798:
1679:
1589:
1520:
1436:
1190:
587:
516:
450:
A similar detector design, with a much lower detection threshold of 0.233 MeV, uses a
373:
289:
150:
679:
uses antennas to detect Cherenkov radiation from high-energy neutrinos in Antarctica. The
8:
2775:
2562:
2542:
2149:
1691:
929:
833:
801:
For lower-energy experiments, the cosmic rays are not directly the problem. Instead, the
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326:
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94:
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Zaborov, D. N. (2009-09-01). "Coincidence analysis in ANTARES: Potassium-40 and muons".
1524:
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1337:
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decay, even the abyss is not completely dark, so this decay must be used as a baseline.
345:
detectors were placed next to the water targets. Antineutrinos with an energy above the
129:, respectively, which are created by neutrinos interacting with the original substance.
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998:
432:
354:
75:
59:
2648:
2110:
1448:
687:
produced by ultra-high-energy neutrinos interacting with the ice below. Currently the
376:
of antineutrinos from 53 Japanese nuclear power plants. A smaller, but more radiopure
2256:
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2082:
1826:
1814:
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DeepCore and PINGU, an existing extension and a proposed extension of IceCube
79:
1810:
1202:
113:
as the detecting medium. Other detectors have consisted of large volumes of
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1257:
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602:
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350:
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142:
134:
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659:
575:
563:
511:"Ring-imaging" Cherenkov detectors take advantage of a phenomenon called
341:
used two targets containing a solution of cadmium chloride in water. Two
338:
110:
1169:
622:-long vertical detector strings 70 meters apart, each with 75
2517:
2421:
2261:
802:
791:
759:
683:(ANITA) is a balloon-borne device flying over Antarctica and detecting
643:
536:
440:
55:
2266:
1532:
606:
An illustration of the Antares neutrino detector deployed under water.
235:
caused by neutrinos has so far proved too weak to detect, leaving the
2271:
1924:
1875:. Oak Ridge National Laboratory (Press release). Department of Energy
639:
571:
456:
436:
126:
90:
35:
407:, consist of a tank filled with a chlorine-containing fluid such as
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2350:
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2009:
1793:
1674:
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916:
896:
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412:
377:
277:
216:
181:
138:
114:
98:
67:
47:
1873:"World's smallest neutrino detector finds big physics fingerprint"
1584:
1515:
762:
decay essentially immediately to either another charged lepton or
2592:
1057:
868:
663:
528:). The charged lepton generates a visible "optical shockwave" of
497:
485:
452:
395:
which used heavy water and detected Cherenkov light (see below).
195:. The two types of weak interactions they (rarely) engage in are
188:
165:
118:
708:
146:
2785:
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2527:
2512:
2446:
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1968:
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489:
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212:
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2078:
920:
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851:
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619:
416:
384:
297:
285:
224:
130:
122:
1659:
854:(prospective telescope; path finders deployed in 2018, 2020)
776:
coherent neutral current neutrino-nucleus elastic scattering
667:
when a neutrino does interact with an atom of ice or water.
30:
2286:
2281:
763:
362:
293:
281:
220:
102:
715:
391:
as a liquid scintillator, in contrast to its predecessor
63:
1920:"Minnesota neutrino project to get under way this month"
1840:
Grant, Andrew (2017). "Neutrino detection goes small".
1378:
1376:
1374:
1331:
1329:
714:
Tracking calorimeters are only useful for high-energy (
160:
effect is the subject of dedicated studies done by the
1914:
1912:
978:
Tauwer experiment (construction date to be determined)
427:
radioactive decays. A chlorine detector in the former
27:
Physics apparatus which is designed to study neutrinos
1629:
1627:
403:
Chlorine detectors, based on the method suggested by
272:, a high-energy neutrino transforms into its partner
254:, which can be observed directly. All three neutrino
156:
The proposed acoustic detection of neutrinos via the
1468:
1466:
1371:
1326:
1909:
1246:
1244:
1242:
790:Most neutrino experiments must address the flux of
1624:
1472:
1277:
1275:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1131:
1048:of the technique comes from the reaction sequence
654:with a spatial resolution of approximately 2
578:as its detection medium. Mineral oil is a natural
211:and causes the neutrino to convert into a charged
46:is a physics apparatus which is designed to study
1778:
1463:
842:(future telescope; under construction since 2013)
145:scintillator also watched by phototubes; and the
2803:
1745:
1239:
484:experiment in Russia used about 50 tons of
2011:Neutrino detectors, experiments, and facilities
1272:
1128:
610:Located at a depth of about 2.5 km in the
149:detector uses a liquid scintillator watched by
121:which are periodically checked for excesses of
1141:
58:and other background radiation. The field of
1995:
97:emitted when an incoming neutrino creates an
1408:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1363:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
304:, the 'target' particle also changes (e.g.,
1500:
1429:Nuclear Physics B - Proceedings Supplements
1250:
1231:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1163:
1144:"Tiny, plentiful, and really hard to catch"
769:
496:experiments in Italy about 30 tons of
2771:BNO (Baksan or Baxan Neutrino Observatory)
2002:
1988:
1870:
1382:
1335:
1033:Antarctic Muon and Neutrino Detector Array
636:Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array
562:(SNO) used 1,000 tonnes of ultrapure
372:detector used similar techniques to study
85:Various detection methods have been used.
1893:
1792:
1673:
1583:
1514:
1253:"The hunt for neutrinos in the Antarctic"
1184:
907:Jiangmen Underground Neutrino Observatory
828:Baikal Deep Underwater Neutrino Telescope
785:
535:Two water-filled detectors of this type (
89:is a large volume of water surrounded by
1383:Whitehouse, David, Dr. (22 April 2002).
1338:"Icebound telescope probes the Universe"
694:
601:
398:
29:
1569:
1473:Browne, Malcolm W. (28 February 1995).
1336:Whitehouse, David, Dr. (15 July 2003).
473:" technique in a joke-reference to the
312:
14:
2804:
1281:
809:
506:
368:A more recently built and much larger
1983:
1839:
1425:"The SNO Liquid Scintillator Project"
1113:Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory
952:(DUNE), South Dakota, USA to Fermilab
411:. A neutrino occasionally converts a
1746:Winslow, Lindley (18 October 2012).
1422:
973:Daya Bay Reactor Neutrino Experiment
950:Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment
878:Underground neutrino observatories:
689:Radio Neutrino Observatory Greenland
203:and only results in deflection) and
1284:"Tracking down the crafty neutrino"
982:Antarctic Impulse Transient Antenna
681:Antarctic Impulse Transient Antenna
24:
1894:ERNENWEIN, J.P (5–12 March 2005).
1736:. Femilab. Retrieved 30 March 2018
1475:"Four telescopes in neutrino hunt"
1387:. BBC News Online science editor.
1385:"Experiment confirms Sun theories"
958:(SNOLAB), Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
865:(1996–2009, superseded by IceCube)
794:that bombard the Earth's surface.
699:Tracking calorimeters such as the
670:
662:. AMANDA has been upgraded to the
290:accelerator-created neutrino beams
207:(which involves the exchange of a
199:(which involves the exchange of a
25:
2838:
2735:Long Baseline Neutrino Experiment
1961:
1449:10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2005.03.037
239:as the main method of detection:
1967:
1948:"Tauwer aims for cosmic heights"
1896:"THE ANTARES NEUTRINO TELESCOPE"
1635:"Hang on, that's not a neutrino"
1503:Review of Scientific Instruments
1282:Le Hir, Pierre (22 March 2011).
1142:Chang, Kenneth (26 April 2005).
944:Underground Neutrino Observatory
909:(JUNO), Kaiping, Jiangmen, China
893:Gran Sasso National Laboratories
817:Underwater neutrino telescopes:
331:Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment
317:
1940:
1887:
1864:
1833:
1772:
1739:
1726:
1706:
1653:
1563:
1494:
1416:
1251:Sample, Ian (23 January 2011).
1105:
1095:
1085:
1076:
1067:
1056:, and germanium is named after
1038:
940:, currently under construction.
858:Under-ice neutrino telescopes:
74:. Another likely source (three
1748:"Coherent neutrino scattering"
1692:10.1088/1748-0221/16/03/P03025
1301:
1025:
1016:
975:, (2011–2020), Daya bay, China
848:(under development since 1998)
677:Radio Ice Cherenkov Experiment
327:Savannah River nuclear reactor
13:
1:
2052:Lederman–Schwartz–Steinberger
1122:
1050:gallium → germanium → gallium
517:speed of light in that medium
325:were first detected near the
2791:List of neutrino experiments
1871:Levy, Dawn (3 August 2017).
1009:
994:List of neutrino experiments
956:Sudbury Neutrino Observatory
946:, Mont Blanc, France / Italy
936:(Super-K) and its successor
889:, GGNT and the future BLVSD.
780:coherent neutrino scattering
560:Sudbury Neutrino Observatory
393:Sudbury Neutrino Observatory
296:, and a very few can create
107:Sudbury Neutrino Observatory
7:
987:
883:Baksan Neutrino Observatory
270:charged current interaction
248:neutral current interaction
10:
2843:
1662:Journal of Instrumentation
1423:Chen, M.C. (August 2005).
595:. In practice, because of
2763:
2717:
2641:
2460:
2404:
2379:
2321:
2300:
2244:
2213:
2135:
2120:
2017:
1602:10.1134/S1063778809090130
1340:. Online science editor.
1052:. Gallium is named after
1004:Multi-messenger astronomy
175:
50:. Because neutrinos only
1858:10.1063/PT.6.1.20170817b
1572:Physics of Atomic Nuclei
903:, and other experiments.
770:Coherent Recoil Detector
353:caused charged current "
1811:10.1126/science.aao0990
1203:10.1126/science.aat1378
895:(LNGS), Italy, site of
137:watched by phototubes;
2817:Neutrino observatories
1734:NOvA Document Database
1714:"Collaboration | NOvA"
824:(1976–1995; cancelled)
786:Background suppression
607:
574:detector employs pure
465:This latter method is
445:Solar neutrino problem
435:, containing 520
109:was similar, but used
72:Large Magellanic Cloud
39:
1309:"All About Neutrinos"
695:Tracking calorimeters
642:glacial ice near the
605:
415:-37 atom into one of
399:Radiochemical methods
151:avalanche photodiodes
133:used a solid plastic
33:
2106:Neutrino oscillation
1976:at Wikimedia Commons
1760:on 29 September 2017
462:decay of germanium.
313:Detection techniques
18:Neutrino observatory
2776:Kamioka Observatory
1850:2017PhT..2017h2197G
1803:2017Sci...357.1123C
1787:(6356): 1123–1126.
1684:2021JInst..16P3025A
1594:2009PAN....72.1537Z
1525:2010RScI...81h1101H
1441:2005NuPhS.145...65C
1195:2018Sci...361.1378I
930:Kamioka Observatory
810:Neutrino telescopes
530:Cherenkov radiation
507:Cherenkov detectors
477:reaction sequence.
409:tetrachloroethylene
389:linear alkylbenzene
252:Cherenkov radiation
233:gravitational force
95:Cherenkov radiation
93:that watch for the
76:standard deviations
2827:Particle detectors
2812:Neutrino astronomy
1974:Neutrino detectors
1928:. 11 February 2005
1480:The New York Times
1179:(6398): eaat1378.
1149:The New York Times
1111:Later this month,
999:Neutrino astronomy
969:(1991–1997; ended)
885:, Russia, site of
685:Askaryan radiation
608:
433:Lead, South Dakota
355:Inverse beta decay
105:in the water. The
60:neutrino astronomy
40:
34:The inside of the
2799:
2798:
2533:Heidelberg-Moscow
2400:
2399:
2257:ICARUS (Fermilab)
1972:Media related to
1952:Symmetry Magazine
1641:. 1 December 2010
1533:10.1063/1.3480478
932:, Japan, home of
616:ANTARES telescope
612:Mediterranean Sea
44:neutrino detector
38:neutrino detector
16:(Redirected from
2834:
2684:Neutrino Factory
2437:Hyper-Kamiokande
2200:Super-Kamiokande
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938:Hyper-Kamiokande
934:Super-Kamiokande
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553:Super-Kamiokande
476:
460:
425:electron capture
405:Bruno Pontecorvo
387:experiment uses
335:Frederick Reines
307:
306:neutron → proton
292:can also create
237:weak interaction
193:weak interaction
172:collaborations.
87:Super Kamiokande
78:) is the blazar
21:
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593:Cherenkov light
588:photomultiplier
547:from supernova
521:photomultiplier
513:Cherenkov light
509:
474:
471:Alsace-Lorraine
451:
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265:Charged current
243:Neutral current
205:charged current
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68:supernova 1987A
52:weakly interact
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343:scintillation
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323:Antineutrinos
318:Scintillators
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2740:NEMO Project
2498:Double Chooz
2405:Construction
2137:Astronomical
2025:Cowan–Reines
1951:
1942:
1930:. Retrieved
1923:
1902:
1889:
1879:29 September
1877:. Retrieved
1866:
1844:(8): 12197.
1841:
1835:
1784:
1780:
1774:
1764:29 September
1762:. Retrieved
1755:the original
1741:
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1728:
1717:. Retrieved
1708:
1668:(3): 03025.
1665:
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1655:
1643:. Retrieved
1638:
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1484:. Retrieved
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1392:. Retrieved
1388:
1347:. Retrieved
1341:
1316:. Retrieved
1312:
1303:
1291:. Retrieved
1287:
1262:. Retrieved
1258:The Guardian
1256:
1227:cite journal
1176:
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1153:. Retrieved
1147:
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597:Potassium 40
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580:scintillator
569:
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510:
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479:
475:Ga → Ge → Ga
464:
449:
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382:
374:oscillations
367:
359:
321:
302:W boson
269:
247:
228:
209:W boson
201:Z boson
186:
179:
155:
143:pseudocumene
135:scintillator
84:
80:TXS 0506+056
43:
41:
2346:KamLAND-Zen
2245:Accelerator
2123:(divided by
2018:Discoveries
913:Soudan Mine
792:cosmic rays
760:Tau leptons
660:dark matter
652:50 GeV
576:mineral oil
564:heavy water
441:metric tons
339:Clyde Cowan
111:heavy water
56:cosmic rays
2806:Categories
2563:Kamiokande
2518:Gargamelle
2422:Baikal-GVD
2277:NA61/SHINE
2262:MicroBooNE
1794:1708.01294
1719:2020-05-02
1675:2010.12279
1186:1807.08816
1123:References
915:, home of
803:spallation
644:South Pole
537:Kamiokande
488:, and the
439:(470
437:short tons
91:phototubes
2822:Neutrinos
2718:Cancelled
2538:Homestake
2488:Cuoricino
2452:SuperNEMO
2272:MiniBooNE
2121:Operating
1925:USA Today
1827:206662173
1700:225062021
1610:1562-692X
1585:0812.4886
1541:0034-6748
1516:1007.1247
1457:0920-5632
1435:: 65–68.
1404:cite news
1359:cite news
1010:Footnotes
871:(2004 on)
836:(2006 on)
830:(1993 on)
640:Antarctic
572:MiniBooNE
467:nicknamed
457:germanium
347:threshold
333:in 1956.
127:germanium
48:neutrinos
36:MiniBooNE
2764:See also
2709:WATCHMAN
2659:JEM-EUSO
2642:Proposed
2628:Soudan 2
2618:SciBooNE
2351:MAJORANA
2301:Collider
2221:Daya Bay
2165:Borexino
2127:neutrino
1819:28775215
1618:14232095
1557:11048440
1549:20815596
1389:BBC News
1343:BBC News
1318:19 April
1219:49734791
1211:30002226
1046:nickname
988:See also
962:Others:
917:Soudan 2
897:Borexino
549:SN 1987A
413:chlorine
378:Borexino
278:electron
260:flavours
217:electron
191:and the
182:Big Bang
139:Borexino
115:chlorine
99:electron
66:and the
2689:Nucifer
2508:EXO-200
2461:Retired
2417:ARIANNA
2313:SND@LHC
2267:MINERνA
2226:KamLAND
2214:Reactor
2180:IceCube
2150:ANTARES
2129:source)
2125:primary
2111:SN 1987
1932:16 June
1846:Bibcode
1799:Bibcode
1781:Science
1680:Bibcode
1645:16 June
1590:Bibcode
1521:Bibcode
1486:16 June
1437:Bibcode
1394:16 June
1349:16 June
1293:16 June
1264:16 June
1191:Bibcode
1173:Science
1155:16 June
1058:Germany
869:IceCube
834:ANTARES
740:versus
664:IceCube
656:degrees
648:photons
498:gallium
486:gallium
455:(Ga) →
453:gallium
370:KamLAND
349:of 1.8
329:by the
256:flavors
223:, or a
189:gravity
166:IceCube
162:ANTARES
119:gallium
2786:SNOLAB
2730:LAGUNA
2674:LEGEND
2593:MINOS+
2568:KARMEN
2543:ICARUS
2513:GALLEX
2468:AMANDA
2447:KM3NeT
2387:KATRIN
2361:PandaX
2236:STEREO
2096:τ
2091:ν
2069:μ
2064:ν
2037:ν
1825:
1817:
1698:
1616:
1608:
1555:
1547:
1539:
1455:
1217:
1209:
1054:France
967:GALLEX
923:, and
863:AMANDA
840:KM3NeT
749:μ
731:μ
628:KM3NeT
614:, the
526:vacuum
490:GALLEX
421:helium
298:tauons
274:lepton
213:lepton
176:Theory
170:KM3NeT
168:, and
2755:BOREX
2694:P-ONE
2664:GRAND
2649:CUPID
2608:OPERA
2588:MINOS
2583:MACRO
2523:GERDA
2493:DONUT
2478:Chooz
2392:WITCH
2380:Other
2371:XMASS
2341:CUORE
2336:COBRA
2331:AMoRE
2308:FASER
2252:ANNIE
2205:SNEWS
2190:NEVOD
2160:BDUNT
2145:ANITA
2079:DONUT
1899:(PDF)
1823:S2CID
1789:arXiv
1758:(PDF)
1751:(PDF)
1696:S2CID
1670:arXiv
1614:S2CID
1580:arXiv
1553:S2CID
1511:arXiv
1215:S2CID
1181:arXiv
921:MINOS
901:CUORE
852:P-ONE
764:pions
701:MINOS
620:meter
469:the "
431:near
417:argon
294:muons
286:tauon
284:, or
268:In a
258:, or
246:In a
225:tauon
215:: an
131:MINOS
123:argon
2781:LNGS
2699:SBND
2679:LENA
2654:nEXO
2633:Utah
2613:RICE
2603:NEMO
2598:NARC
2578:LSND
2548:IGEX
2503:ERPM
2483:CNGS
2473:CDHS
2442:JUNO
2432:DUNE
2427:BEST
2366:SNO+
2356:NEXT
2323:0νββ
2287:NuMI
2282:NOvA
2231:RENO
2195:SAGE
2175:HALO
2170:BUST
1934:2011
1881:2017
1815:PMID
1766:2017
1647:2011
1606:ISSN
1545:PMID
1537:ISSN
1488:2011
1453:ISSN
1410:link
1396:2011
1365:link
1351:2011
1320:2018
1295:2011
1266:2011
1233:link
1207:PMID
1157:2011
1044:The
925:CDMS
887:SAGE
709:NOνA
707:The
675:The
634:The
570:The
558:The
539:and
482:SAGE
480:The
459:(Ge)
385:SNO+
383:The
363:flux
337:and
282:muon
229:must
221:muon
219:, a
147:NOνA
103:muon
2750:SOX
2704:UNO
2669:INO
2623:SNO
2573:KGF
2558:K2K
2553:IMB
2528:GNO
2412:ARA
2292:T2K
2185:LVD
2155:ASD
1854:doi
1807:doi
1785:357
1688:doi
1598:doi
1529:doi
1445:doi
1433:145
1199:doi
1177:361
778:or
716:GeV
541:IMB
494:GNO
447:).
351:MeV
125:or
117:or
101:or
64:Sun
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