5068:
2545:
6460:
2584:
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at the single photoelectron level is 0.1 photoelectrons and 0.3 ns respectively, both are better than the intrinsic resolution of the 20-in. PMTs used in SK. The QBEE achieves good charge linearity over a wide dynamic range. The integrated charge linearity of the electronics is better than 1%. The thresholds of the discriminators in the QTC are set to â0.69 mV (equivalent to 0.25 photoelectron, which is the same as for SK-III). This threshold was chosen to replicate the behavior of the detector during its previous ATM-based phases.
2609:
mine air. A "Radon Hut" (Rn Hut) was constructed near the Atotsu tunnel entrance to house equipment for the dome air system: a 40 hp air pump with 10 m min /15 PSI pump capacity, air dehumidifier, carbon filter tanks, and control electronics. In autumn 1997, an extended intake air pipe was installed at a location approximately 25 m above the Atotsu tunnel entrance. This low level satisfies that goals of air quality so that carbon filter regeneration operations would no longer be required.
1915:
1137:
neutrino hits a proton and second when gadolinium absorbs a neutron. The brightness of the first flash allows physicists to distinguish between low energy antineutrinos from the Earth and high energy antineutrinos from supernovas. In addition to observing neutrinos from distant supernovas, the Super-Kamiokande will be able to set off an alarm to inform astronomers around the world of the presence of a supernova in the Milky Way within one second of it occurring.
6715:
2439:. The observed atmospheric neutrino events fall into four categories. Fully contained (FC) events have all their tracks in the inner detector, while partially contained (PC) events have escaping tracks from the inner detector. Upward through-going muons (UTM) are produced in the rock beneath the detector and go through the inner detector. Upward stopping muons (USM) are also produced in the rock beneath the detector, but stop in the inner detector.
51:
723:
6727:
2575:
degasifier (MD) removes radon dissolved in water, and the measured removal efficiency for radon is about 83%. The concentration of radon gases is miniaturized by realtime detectors. In June 2001, typical radon concentrations in water coming into the purification system from the Super-Kamiokande tank were less than 2 mBq m, and in water output by the system, 0.4±0.2 mBq m.
1183:
systematically bias photoelectron trajectories and timing in the PMTs. To counteract this 26 sets of horizontal and vertical
Helmholtz coils are arranged around the inner surfaces of the tank. With these in operation the average field in the detector is reduced to about 50 mG. The magnetic field at various PMT locations were measured before the tank was filled with water.
1210:
burst with no dead-time, up to 30,000 events within the first second of a burst. Theoretical calculations of supernova explosions suggest that neutrinos are emitted over a total time-scale of tens of seconds with about a half of them emitted during the first one or two seconds. The Super-K will search for event clusters in specified time windows of 0.5, 2 and 10 s.
1141:
in 2018 and showed that the new water purification system would remove impurities while keeping the gadolinium concentration stable. It also showed that gadolinium sulfate would not significantly impair the transparency of the otherwise ultrapure water, or cause corrosion or deposition on existing equipment or on the new valves that will later be installed in the
703:. The Cherenkov light is projected as a ring on the wall of the detector and recorded by the PMTs. Using the timing and charge information recorded by each PMT, the interaction vertex, ring direction and flavor of the incoming neutrino is determined. From the sharpness of the edge of the ring the type of particle can be inferred. The
2447:; this discovery indicates the finite mass of neutrinos and suggests an extension of the Standard Model. Neutrinos oscillate in three flavors, and all neutrinos have their rest mass. Later analysis in 2004 suggested a sinusoidal dependence of the event rate as a function of "Length/Energy", which confirmed the neutrino oscillations.
2560:. Surviving bacteria are killed by a UV sterilizer stage. A cartridge polisher (CP) eliminates heavy ions, which also reduce water transparency and include radioactive species. The CP module increases the typical resistivity of recirculating water from 11 MΩ cm to 18.24 MΩ cm, approaching chemical limit.
1029:
are a newly developed custom charge-to-time converter (QTC) in the form of an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), a multi-hit time-to-digital converter (TDC), and field-programmable gate array (FPGA). Each QTC input has three gain ranges "Small", "Medium" and "Large" â the resolutions for each are shown in Table.
844:
significant upgrades were made to the electronics. After the upgrade, the new phase of the experiment has been referred to as Super-Kamiokande-IV. SK-IV collected data on various natural sources of neutrinos, as well as acted as the far detector for the Tokai-to-Kamioka (T2K) long baseline neutrino oscillation experiment.
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resolution for charge and from â300 to 1000 ns with 0.4 ns resolution for time. There were two pairs of QAC/TAC for each PMT input signal, this prevented dead time and allowed the readout of multiple sequential hits that may arise, e.g. from electrons that are decay products of stopping muons.
4038:
Abe, K.; Hayato, Y.; Iyogi, K.; Kameda, J.; Miura, M.; Moriyama, S.; Nakahata, M.; Nakayama, S.; Wendell, R. A.; Sekiya, H.; Shiozawa, M.; Suzuki, Y.; Takeda, A.; Takenaga, Y.; Ueno, K.; Yokozawa, T.; Kaji, H.; Kajita, T.; Kaneyuki, K.; Lee, K. P.; Okumura, K.; McLachlan, T.; Labarga, L.; Kearns, E.;
2608:
In order to keep radon levels in the dome area and water purification system below 100 Bq m, fresh air is continually pumped at approximately 10 m/min from outside the mine which generates a slight over-pressure in the Super-Kamiokande experimental area to minimize the entry of ambient
2604:
in the ventilation pattern of the mine tunnel system; in cold seasons, fresh air flows into the Atotsu tunnel entrance that is a relatively short path through exposed rock before reaching the experimental area, while in the summer, air flows out the tunnel, drawing radon-rich air from deep within the
1779:
There is a process called the "slow control" monitor, as part of the online monitoring system, watches the status of the HV systems, the temperatures of electronics crates and the status of the compensating coils used to cancel the geomagnetic field. When any deviation from norms is detected, it will
1652:
The system will run special processes to check for spallation muons when burst candidates meeting "alarm" criteria and make a primary decision for further process. If the burst candidate passes these checks, the data will be reanalyzed using an offline process and a final decision will be made within
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Each supermodule was assembled on the tank floor and then hoisted into its final position. Thus the ID is in effect tiled with supermodules. During installation, ID PMTs were pre-assembled in units of three for easy installation. Each supermodule has two OD PMTs attached on its back side. The support
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The outer shell of the water tank is a cylindrical stainless-steel tank 39 m in diameter and 42 m in height. The tank is self-supporting, with concrete backfilled against the rough-hewn stone walls to counteract water pressure when the tank is filled. The capacity of the tank exceeds 50 kilotonnes of
1083:
For each range, analog to digital conversion is conducted separately, but the only range used is that with the highest resolution that is not being saturated. The overall charge dynamic range of the QTC is 0.2â2500 pC, five times larger than the old . The charge and timing resolution of the QBEE
1028:
The SK system was upgraded in
September 2008 in order to maintain the stability in the next decade and improve the throughput of the data acquisition systems, QTC-based electronics with Ethernet (QBEE). The QBEE provides high-speed signal processing by combining pipelined components. These components
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The data reduction for the high energy analysis was mainly for atmospheric neutrino events and proton decay search while the low energy analysis was mainly for the solar neutrino events. The reduced data for the high energy analysis was further filtered by other reduction processes and the resulting
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The 50 kilotons of pure water is continually reprocessed at rate about 30 tons/hour in a closed system since early 2002. Now, raw mine water is recycled through the first step (particle filters and RO) for some time before other processes, which involve expensive expendables, are imposed. Initially,
2654:
in Stony Brook, NY to process raw data sent from
Kamioka. Most of the reformatted raw data is copied from system facility in Kamioka. At Stony Brook, a system was set up for analysis and further processing. At Stony Brook the raw data were processed with a multi-tape DLT drive. The first stage data
2641:
Offline system was designed to meet demand of all these: tape storage of a large database (14 Tbytes yrâ1), stable semi-realtime processing, nearly continuous re-processing and Monte Carlo simulation. The computer system consists of 3 major sub-systems: the data server, the CPU farm and the network
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Event data from Super-Kamiokande online DAQ system basically contains a list of number of hit PMT, TDC and ADC counts, GPS time-stamps and other housekeeping data. For solar neutrino analysis, lowering the energy threshold is a constant goal, so it is a continual effort to improve the efficiency of
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The offline data processing system is located in
Kenkyuto and is connected to Super-Kamiokande detector with 4 km FDDI optical fiber link. Data flow from online system is 450 kbytes s on average, corresponding to 40 Gbytes day or 14 Tbytes yr. Magnetic tapes are used in offline system to store
2595:
filters. A total of 8 m of activated charcoal is used. The last 50 L of charcoal is cooled to â40 °C to increase removal efficiency for radon. Typical flow rates, dew point, and residual radon concentration are 18 m/h, â65 °C (@+1 kg/cm), and a few mBq m, respectively.
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where N is the number of events produced by the Îœâe scattering. The angular resolution, therefore, can be as good as ΎΞ~3° for a supernova at the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. In this case, not only time profile and the energy spectrum of a neutrino burst, but also the information on direction of
1209:
To detect and identify such bursts as efficiently and promptly as possible Super-Kamiokande is equipped with an online supernova monitor system. About 10,000 total events are expected in Super-Kamiokande for a supernova explosion at the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. Super-Kamiokande can measure a
1200:
An online monitor computer located in the control room reads data from the DAQ host computer via an FDDI link. It provides shift operators with a flexible tool for selecting event display features, makes online and recent-history histograms to monitor detector performance, and performs a variety of
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The basic unit for the ID PMTs is a "supermodule", a frame which supports a 3Ă4 array of PMTs. Supermodule frames are 2.1 m in height, 2.8 m in width and 0.55 m in thickness. These frames are connected to each other in both the vertical and horizontal directions. Then the whole support structure is
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The biggest challenge was whether the detector's water could be continuously filtered to remove impurities without removing the gadolinium at the same time. A 200-ton prototype called EGADS with added gadolinium sulfate was installed in the
Kamioka mine and operated for years. It finished operation
866:
In order to prevent further accidents, all of the ID-PMTs were covered by fiber-reinforced plastic with acrylic front windows. This phase from
October 2002 to another closure for an entire reconstruction in October 2005 is called "SK-II". In July 2006, the experiment resumed with the full number of
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In July 2005, preparations began to restore the detector to its original form by reinstalling about 6,000 PMTs. The work was completed in June 2006, whereupon the detector was renamed Super-Kamiokande-III. This phase of the experiment collected data from
October 2006 till August 2008. At that time,
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The Super-Kamiokande project was approved by the
Japanese Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture in 1991 for total funding of approximately $ 100 million. The US portion of the proposal, which was primarily to build the OD system, was approved by the US Department of Energy in 1993
1803:
The energy of the Sun comes from the nuclear fusion in its core where a helium atom and an electron neutrino are generated by 4 protons. These neutrinos emitted from this reaction are called solar neutrinos. Photons, created by the nuclear fusion in the center of the Sun, take millions of years to
1178:
To protect against low energy background radiation from radon decay products in the air, the roof of the cavity and the access tunnels were sealed with a coating called
Mineguard. Mineguard is a spray-applied polyurethane membrane developed for use as a rock support system and radon gas barrier in
785:
To increase the chance of detecting such decays, a larger detector was needed. A higher sensitivity was also necessary to obtain a higher statistical confidence in other detections. This led to the design and construction of Super-Kamiokande, with fifteen times the volume of water and ten times as
749:
The detector, named
KamiokaNDE for Kamioka Nucleon Decay Experiment, was a tank 16.0 m (52 ft) in height and 15.6 m (51.2 ft) in width, containing 3,058 tonnes (3,400 US tons) of pure water and about 1,000 photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) attached to its inner surface. The detector
672:. The tank volume is divided by a stainless steel superstructure into an inner detector (ID) region, which is 36.2 m (119 ft) in height and 33.8 m (111 ft) in diameter, and outer detector (OD) which consists of the remaining tank volume. Mounted on the superstructure are 11,146
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encourages the growth of bacteria. The removal efficiency is about 96%. Then, the ultra filter (UF) is introduced to remove particles whose minimum size corresponds to molecular weight approximately 10,000 (or about 10 nm diameter) thanks to hollow fiber membrane filters. Finally, a membrane
1132:
in the Sun and other stars turns protons into neutrons with the emission of neutrinos. Beta decay in the Earth and in supernovas turns neutrons into protons with the emission of anti-neutrinos. The Super-Kamiokande detects electrons knocked off a water molecule producing a flash of blue Cherenkov
862:
The Super-Kamiokande (SK) is a Cherenkov detector used to study neutrinos from different sources including the Sun, supernovae, the atmosphere, and accelerators. It is also used to search for proton decay. The experiment began in April 1996 and was shut down for maintenance in July 2001, a period
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To monitor and control the offline processes that analyze and transfer data, a sophisticated set of software was developed. This monitor allows non-expert shift physicists to identify and repair common problems to minimize down time, and the software package was a significant contribution to the
1136:
Gadolinium has an affinity for neutrons and produces a bright flash of gamma rays when it absorbs one. Adding gadolinium to the Super-Kamiokande allows it to distinguish between neutrinos and antineutrinos. Antineutrinos produce a double flash of light about 30 microseconds apart, first when the
2442:
The number of observed number of neutrinos is predicted uniformly regardless of the zenith angle. However, Super-Kamiokande found that the number of upward going muon neutrinos (generated on the other side of the Earth) is half of the number of downward going muon neutrinos in 1998. This can be
1929:
In the early 1990s, particularly with the uncertainties that accompanied the initial results from Kamioka II and the Ga experiments, no individual experiment required a non-astrophysical solution of the solar neutrino problem. But in aggregate, the Cl, Kamioka II, and Ga experiments indicated a
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Yamada, S.; Awai, K.; Hayato, Y.; Kaneyuki, K.; Kouzuma, Y.; Nakayama, S.; Nishino, H.; Okumura, K.; Obayashi, Y.; Shimizu, Y.; Shiozawa, M.; Takeda, A.; Heng, Y.; Yang, B.; Chen, S.; Tanaka, T.; Yokozawa, T.; Koshio, Y.; Moriyama, S.; Arai, Y.; Ishikawa, K.; Minegishi, A.; Uchida, T. (2010).
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The average geomagnetic field is about 450 mG and is inclined by about 45° with respect to the horizon at the detector site. This presents a problem for the large and very sensitive PMTs which prefer a much lower ambient field. The strength and uniform direction of the geomagnetic field could
1024:
In the previous phases, the ID-PMTs processed signals by custom electronics modules called analog timing modules (ATMs). Charge-to-analog converters (QAC) and time-to-analog converters (TAC) are contained in these modules that had dynamic range from 0 to 450 picocoulombs (pC) with 0.2 pC
1914:
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additional tasks needed to efficiently monitor status and diagnose detector and DAQ problems. Events in the data stream can be skimmed off and elementary analysis tools can be applied to check data quality during calibrations or after changes in hardware or online software.
1804:
reach the surface; on the other hand, solar neutrinos arrive at the earth in eight minutes due to their lack of interactions with matter. Hence, solar neutrinos make it possible for us to observe the inner Sun in "real-time" that takes millions of years for visible light.
2567:(RO) step that removes additional particulates, and the introduction of Rn-reduced air into the water that increases radon removal efficiency in the vacuum degasifier (VD) stage which follows were installed in 1999. After that, a VD removes dissolved gases in the water.
2634:
reduction algorithms; however, changes in calibrations or reduction methods require reprocessing of earlier data. Typically, 10 Tbytes of raw data is processed every month so that a large amount of CPU power and high-speed I/O access to the raw data. Extensive
2626:
data and most of the analysis is accomplished here. The offline processing system is designed platform-independent because different computer architectures are used for data analysis. Because of this, the data structures are based on ZEBRA bank system developed in
1174:
The thickness of the OD varies slightly, but is on average about 2.6 m on top and bottom, and 2.7 m on the barrel wall, giving the OD a total mass of 18 kilotons. OD PMTs were distributed with 302 on the top layer, 308 on the bottom, and 1275 on the barrel wall.
2553:
water from the Super-Kamiokande tank is passed through nominal 1 ÎŒm mesh filters to remove dust and particles, which reduce the transparency of the water for Cherenkov photons and provide a possible radon source inside the Super-Kamiokande detector.
2599:
Radon levels in the mine tunnel air, near the tank cavity dome, typically reach 2000â3000 Bq m during the warm season, from May until October, while from November to April the radon level is approximately 100â300 Bq m. This variation is due to the
2506:. T2K has made a search for oscillations from muon neutrinos to electron neutrinos, and announced the first experimental indications for them in June 2011. The Super-Kamiokande detector plays as the "far detector". The Super-K detector will record the
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777:
and neutrino astrophysics, Kamiokande never detected a proton decay, the primary goal for its construction. The absence of any such observation pushed back the possible half-life of any potential proton decay far enough to eliminate some of the
2530:
into lighter energetic charged particles such as electrons, muons, pions, or others which can be observed. Kamiokande helps to rule out some of these theories. Super-Kamiokande is currently the largest detector for observation of proton decay.
1170:
Cables from each group of 3 PMTs are bundled together. All cables run up the outer surface of the PMT support structure, i.e., on the OD PMT plane, pass through cable ports at the top of the tank, and are then routed into the electronics huts.
2421:
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structure for the bottom PMTs is attached to the bottom of the stainless-steel tank by one vertical beam per supermodule frame. The support structure for the top of the tank is also used as the support structure for the top PMTs.
1186:
A standard fiducial volume of approximately 22.5 kilotonnes is defined as the region inside a surface drawn 2.00 m from the ID wall to minimize the anomalous response caused by natural radioactivity in the surrounding rock.
2666:
This offset analysis system continued for three years until their analysis chains were proved to produce equivalent results. Thus, in order to limit manpower, collaborations were concentrated to a single combined analysis
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1930:
pattern of neutrino fluxes that was not compatible with any adjustment of the SSM. This in turn helped motivate a new generation of spectacularly capable active detectors. These experiments are Super-Kamiokande, the
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PMTs and stopped in September 2008 for electronics upgrades. This period was known as "SK-III". The period after 2008 is known as "SK-IV". The phases and their main characteristics are summarised in table 1.
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1717:
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s and heavy-flavor neutrinos of ~7:1. Since the direction of the recoil electron is constrained to be very forward, the direction of the neutrinos are kept in the direction of recoil electrons. Here,
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in Hida's Kamioka area. It consists of a cylindrical stainless steel tank that is 41.4 m (136 ft) tall and 39.3 m (129 ft) in diameter holding 50,220 tonnes (55,360 US tons) of
2591:
Purified air is supplied in the gap between the water surface and the top of the Super-Kamiokande tank. The air purification system contains three compressors, a buffer tank, dryers, filters, and
1924:
The left frame shows the three principal cycles comprising the p-p chain (p-p I, p-p II and p-p III), and the neutrinos sources associated with these cycles. The right frame shows the CNO-I cycle.
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836:
from the concussion of each imploding tube cracked its neighbours. The detector was partially restored by redistributing the photomultiplier tubes which did not implode, and by adding protective
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2004:
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a few hours. During the Super-Kamiokande I running, this never occurred. One of the important capabilities for is to reconstruct the direction to supernova. By neutrinoâelectron scattering,
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Raaf, J. L.; Stone, J. L.; Sulak, L. R.; Goldhaber, M.; Bays, K.; et al. (14 October 2014). "Search for proton decay via p â ÎœKĂŸ using 260 kiloton · year data of Super-Kamiokande".
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light, and these are produced both by neutrinos and antineutrinos. A rarer instance is when an antineutrino interacts with a proton in water to produce a neutron and a positron.
2099:
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1618:
1560:
1531:
1502:
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1437:{\displaystyle {R_{\text{mean}}}={\frac {\sum _{i=1}^{{N_{\text{multi}}}-1}\sum _{j=i+1}^{N_{\text{multi}}}|{r_{\text{i}}}-{r_{\text{j}}}|}{{N_{\text{multi}}}{C_{\text{2}}}}}}
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in conditions that both source and detector are under control. The Super-Kamiokande detector plays an important role in the experiment as the far detector. Later experiment
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1163:
connected to the bottom of the tank and to the top structure. In addition to serving as rigid structural elements, supermodules simplified the initial assembly of the ID.
1095:
was introduced into the Super-Kamiokande water tank in 2020 in order to distinguish neutrinos from antineutrinos that arise from supernova explosions. This is known as the
2820:
1719:, a total of 100â150 events are expected in case of a supernova at the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. The direction to supernova can be measured with angular resolution
1213:
Data are transmitted to realtime SN-watch analysis process every 2 min and analysis is completed typically in 1 min. When supernova (SN) event candidates are found,
847:
SK-IV continued until June 2018. After that, the detector underwent a full refurbishment during Autumn of 2018. On 29 January 2019 the detector resumed data acquisition.
2162:
2461:
The K2K experiment was a neutrino experiment from June 1999 to November 2004. This experiment was designed to verify oscillations observed by Super-Kamiokande through
2060:
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in February 1987, and to observe solar neutrinos in 1988. The ability of the Kamiokande experiment to observe the direction of electrons produced in solar neutrino
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was upgraded, starting in 1985, to allow it to observe solar neutrinos. As a result, the detector (KamiokaNDE-II) had become sensitive enough to detect ten
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1126:) were added to the ultrapure water in 2020, giving 0.02% (by mass) of the salt. This amount is about a tenth of the planned final target concentration.
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known as "SK-I". Since an accident occurred during maintenance, the experiment resumed in October 2002 with only half of its original number of ID-PMTs.
540:
477:
555:
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SK has set limits on proton lifetime and other rare decays and neutrino properties. SK set a lower bound on protons decaying to kaons of 5.9 Ă 10 yr
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Atmospheric neutrinos are secondary cosmic rays produced by the decay of particles resulting from interactions of primary cosmic rays (mostly
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Originally, an ion-exchanger (IE) was included in system, but it was removed when IE resin was found to be a significant radon source. The
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These dissolved gases in water are a serious background event source for solar neutrinos in the MeV energy range and the dissolved
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Neutrinos from supernovae interact with free protons, producing positrons which are distributed so uniformly in the detector that
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533:
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264:
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A heat exchanger is used to cool down the water in order to reduce the PMT dark noise level as well as suppress the growth of
676:(PMT) 50 cm (20 in) in diameter that face the ID and 1,885 20 cm (8 in) PMTs that face the OD. There is a
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5928:
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for SN events should be significantly larger than for ordinary spatial clusters of events. In the Super-Kamiokande detector,
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project by adding a Gd salt to the ultrapure water in order to enable detection of antineutrinos from supernova explosions.
820:
On 12 November 2001, about 6,600 of the photomultiplier tubes, costing about $ 3,000 each, in the Super-Kamiokande detector
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194:
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In January 2023 from data collected during the 1996â2018 period new limits were reported by Super-Kamiokande for sub-GeV
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explained by the neutrinos changing or oscillating into some other neutrinos that are not detected. This is called
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17:
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1921:
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1107:, and similar names). In the first phase of the project, 1.3 tons of a Gd salt (gadolinium sulfate octahydrate,
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5858:
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1807:
In 1999, the Super-Kamiokande detected strong evidence of neutrino oscillation that successfully explained the
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H. Nishino; et al. (2009), "High-speed charge-to-time converter ASIC for the Super-Kamiokande detector",
1811:. The Sun and about 80% of the visible stars produce their energy by the conversion of hydrogen to helium via
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with the help of an international team. It is located 1,000 m (3,300 ft) underground in the Mozumi
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in 1998. This was the first experimental observation supporting the theory that the neutrino has non-zero
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allowed experimenters to directly demonstrate for the first time that the Sun was a source of neutrinos.
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T2K (Tokai to Kamioka) experiment is a neutrino experiment collaborated by several countries including
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Backstory: Once in a decade chance to film inside Super-Kamiokande observatory and you've got one hour
4111:"'Cosmos' Episode 6 Preview: Neil DeGrasse Tyson Explores The Ancient In "Deeper Deeper Deeper Still""
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Hirata, K; et al. (6 April 1987), "Observation of a neutrino burst from the supernova SN1987A",
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data were stored on disks. The reduced data for the low energy were stored on DLT tapes and sent to
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began in 1982 and was completed in April 1983. The purpose of the observatory was to detect whether
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in Hida's Kamioka area. The observatory was designed to detect high-energy neutrinos, to search for
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Sturmer, North Asia correspondent Jake; Asada, Yumi; Spraggon, Ben; Gourlay, Colin (17 June 2019).
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is the angle between the direction of recoil electrons and the Sun's position. This shows that the
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692:
459:
309:
31:
5330:
4335:
3844:
J.N. Bahcall; S. Basu; M.H. Pinsonneault (1998), "How uncertain are solar neutrino predictions?",
3365:
Abe, K.; Bronner, C.; Hayato; et al. (2022). "First gadolinium loading to Super-Kamiokande".
2778:
782:
models which allow for such a decay. Other models predict a longer half-life, with rarer decays.
6719:
6564:
6432:
6422:
5206:
5067:
4905:
4766:
4641:
4573:
4471:
189:
840:
shells that are hoped will prevent another chain reaction from recurring (Super-Kamiokande-II).
790:
for $ 3M. In addition, the US has also contributed about 2000 20 cm PMTs recycled from the
6437:
6410:
5379:
5319:
4919:
4752:
2969:
2651:
2523:
2137:
1808:
806:
763:
714:, in contrast, travel almost straight through the detector and produce rings with sharp edges.
439:
429:
374:
364:
149:
101:
3620:
3488:"Commissioning of the New Electronics and Online System for the Super-Kamiokande Experiment".
2038:
2011:
680:
and blacksheet barrier attached to the superstructure that optically separates the ID and OD.
6685:
6559:
6526:
5535:
2655:
reduction processes were done for the high energy analysis and for the low energy analysis.
2544:
2469:
1784:
smooth operation of the experiment and its overall high lifetime efficiency for data taking.
492:
454:
269:
249:
184:
59:
56:
3294:
6635:
6574:
6569:
6543:
6390:
6307:
6219:
5888:
5762:
5456:
5000:
4862:
4726:
4545:
4495:
4058:
4013:
3979:
3896:
3863:
3811:
3739:
3694:
3650:
3550:
3497:
3454:
3384:
3324:
3260:
3216:
3109:
2944:
2676:
2583:
2503:
2444:
1798:
798:
779:
673:
419:
314:
179:
174:
169:
131:
8:
6783:
6602:
6126:
5913:
5893:
5500:
5279:
5211:
5016:
4885:
4846:
4736:
3663:
3638:
3029:
2507:
2416:{\displaystyle {Data \over SSM_{BP98}}=0.465\pm 0.005(stat.){}_{-0.013}^{+0.015}\!(sys.)}
751:
739:
731:
696:
645:
629:
613:
4062:
4017:
3983:
3867:
3815:
3743:
3698:
3654:
3554:
3501:
3458:
3435:
K. Abe; et al. (11 February 2014), "Calibration of the Super-Kamiokande detector",
3388:
3328:
3264:
3220:
2948:
2510:
of muons and electrons created by interactions between high energy neutrinos and water.
6630:
6400:
6039:
5828:
5767:
5487:
5406:
4939:
4850:
4732:
4569:
4519:
4483:
4401:
4369:
4288:
4203:
4074:
4048:
3879:
3853:
3827:
3801:
3566:
3540:
3513:
3470:
3444:
3408:
3374:
3276:
3250:
2635:
2285:{\displaystyle 2.40\pm 0.03(stat.){}_{-0.07}^{+0.08}\!(sys.)\times 10^{6}cm^{-2}s^{-1}}
1780:
alert physicists to prompt to investigate, take appropriate action, or notify experts.
814:
774:
767:
708:
349:
279:
219:
5999:
5461:
4025:
3991:
3875:
3228:
2995:
2956:
6516:
5607:
5586:
5433:
5309:
5159:
4854:
4828:
4774:
4722:
4680:
4660:
4509:
4505:
4315:
4264:
4254:
3927:
3883:
3831:
3757:
3712:
3608:
3570:
3412:
3400:
3342:
3241:
Fukuda, Y.; et al. (1998). "Evidence for oscillation of atmospheric neutrinos".
2911:
829:
609:
601:
424:
204:
86:
4897:
4078:
3474:
817:
at the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory for their work confirming neutrino oscillation.
6442:
6427:
6368:
6275:
6034:
5958:
5787:
5742:
5686:
5658:
5289:
4973:
4923:
4893:
4824:
4818:
4792:
4718:
4706:
4668:
4609:
4589:
4381:
4365:
4327:
4282:
4224:
4066:
4021:
3987:
3952:
3871:
3819:
3747:
3702:
3658:
3590:"How do you catch something smaller than an atom that's travelled across galaxies?"
3558:
3517:
3505:
3462:
3392:
3332:
3280:
3268:
3224:
3148:
2952:
2592:
2436:
1142:
653:
414:
369:
6617:
6484:
5823:
5627:
4993:
4969:
4949:
4935:
4909:
4872:
4784:
4780:
4762:
4748:
4714:
4700:
4696:
4688:
4623:
4603:
4585:
4551:
4407:
4373:
4357:
4220:
4143:
2894:
In September 2018, the detector was drained for maintenance, affording a team of
2596:
Typical radon concentration in the dome air is measured to be 40 Bq m.
2564:
669:
621:
387:
304:
209:
5180:
3752:
3272:
3061:
6655:
6354:
6100:
6095:
6075:
5908:
5642:
5164:
4957:
4931:
4927:
4836:
4810:
4676:
4664:
4565:
4555:
4527:
4491:
4479:
4475:
4339:
4258:
4172:
4070:
3823:
3707:
3682:
3562:
3466:
3396:
3337:
3312:
2878:
2601:
2519:
2489:
2477:
2473:
2456:
1533:⩜1000 cm. For the "alarm" class of burst, the events are required to have
1129:
825:
810:
797:
Super-Kamiokande started operation in 1996 and announced the first evidence of
641:
111:
106:
72:
1649:>40. These thresholds were determined by extrapolation from SN1987A data.
746:
exists, one of the most fundamental questions of elementary particle physics.
707:
of electrons is large, so electromagnetic showers produce fuzzy rings. Highly
6747:
6625:
6584:
4953:
4901:
4832:
4758:
4740:
4710:
4631:
4627:
4593:
4535:
4463:
4433:
4415:
4377:
4347:
4323:
4294:
4276:
4248:
4163:
3509:
3404:
2899:
2502:
and others. The goal of T2K is to gain deeper understanding of parameters of
2499:
1504:
for uniformly distributed Monte Carlo events shows that no tail exists below
837:
687:
or nuclei of water can produce a charged particle that moves faster than the
570:
557:
399:
332:
234:
214:
3956:
6607:
6538:
6447:
6405:
6395:
6183:
6152:
5848:
4913:
4858:
4840:
4806:
4802:
4672:
4523:
4441:
4331:
4158:
3761:
3716:
3346:
2916:
2689:
excluding the dark matterânucleon elastic scattering cross section between
2527:
743:
637:
409:
394:
359:
319:
126:
3947:
Mine, Shunichi (2023). "Nucleon decay: theory and experimental overview".
3087:
664:
Super-K is located 1,000 m (3,300 ft) underground in the Mozumi
6521:
6415:
6383:
6378:
4814:
4796:
4770:
4744:
4684:
4513:
4455:
4451:
4361:
4232:
4228:
4167:
3858:
2686:
444:
289:
284:
159:
116:
96:
91:
63:
3970:
S. Fukuda; et al. (1 April 2003), "The Super-Kamiokande Detector",
3683:"Gigantic Japanese detector prepares to catch neutrinos from supernovae"
3207:
S. Fukuda; et al. (1 April 2003), "The Super-Kamiokande detector",
2650:
A system dedicated to offsite offline data processing was set up at the
805:, a possibility that theorists had speculated about for years. The 2015
5868:
5772:
5612:
5216:
4788:
4637:
4531:
4437:
4419:
4343:
4270:
3255:
2617:
Offline data processing is produced both in Kamioka and United States.
1092:
833:
704:
700:
617:
254:
5617:
4985:
4004:
Kearns; Kajita; Totsuka (August 1999), "Detecting Massive Neutrinos",
2935:
S. Fukuda; et al. (April 2003), "The Super-Kamiokande detector",
6296:
5622:
4945:
4876:
4385:
4319:
2465:
1938:. Super-Kamiokande was able to detect elastic scattering (ES) events
1905:
1901:
759:
649:
404:
299:
66:
produced by colliding protons decaying into hadron jets and electrons
3843:
6700:
6254:
6249:
6105:
5978:
5968:
5701:
5515:
5360:
4242:
3792:
A.B. Balantekin; et al. (July 2013), "Neutrino oscillations",
3379:
3149:"Logbook entry of first neutrinos seen at Super-K generated at KEK"
2679:
from the observation of muon neutrinos changed into tau-neutrinos.
2557:
1935:
1774:
755:
684:
507:
354:
294:
224:
164:
4053:
3806:
3545:
3449:
3313:"Neutrino hunt resumes, ITER's new confidence and Elsevier's woes"
1761:{\displaystyle \delta \theta \sim {30^{\circ } \over {\sqrt {N}}}}
50:
6373:
6323:
5943:
3915:
3048:"The Super-Kamiokande detector awaits neutrinos from a supernova"
1242:
is calculated if the event multiplicity is larger than 16, where
1271:
is defined as the average spatial distance between events, i.e.
6136:
5918:
5878:
5863:
5797:
5737:
5711:
4613:
4093:"May 2007, WM Issue #3: ANDREAS GURSKY @ MATTHEW MARKS GALLERY"
2571:
2432:
2423:. The result clearly indicates the deficit of solar neutrinos.
722:
665:
633:
1712:{\displaystyle \nu _{\text{x}}+e^{-}\to \nu _{\text{x}}+e^{-}}
5938:
5843:
5838:
5721:
5716:
5691:
5540:
5429:
5299:
5294:
3367:
Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A
2495:
1904:
in lower masses, and for cooler stars, primarily through the
1896:
Consequently, stars are a source of neutrinos, including the
677:
5637:
5632:
4445:
3587:
2627:
2462:
802:
711:
512:
3062:"ăăăăăŒăž - Kamioka Observatory, ICRR, University of Tokyo"
1897:
3486:
1886:{\displaystyle 4p\to {}^{4}\!He+2e^{+}+2\nu _{e}+26.73}
3972:
Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A
3533:
Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A
3437:
Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A
3209:
Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A
2937:
Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A
2828:
2781:
2738:
2695:
2518:
The proton is assumed to be absolutely stable in the
2298:
2170:
2140:
2107:
2068:
2041:
2014:
1946:
1819:
1727:
1659:
1626:
1597:
1568:
1539:
1510:
1481:
1452:
1279:
1248:
1219:
4037:
2476:
continued as the second generation follow up to the
4003:
2861:
2814:
2767:
2724:
2415:
2284:
2156:
2126:
2093:
2054:
2027:
2008:which, due to the charged-current contribution to
1998:
1885:
1760:
1711:
1641:
1612:
1583:
1554:
1525:
1496:
1467:
1436:
1263:
1234:
3128:"Official report on the accident (in PDF format)"
2394:
2221:
2150:
1838:
6745:
4202:
3364:
2675:In 1998, Super-K found first strong evidence of
1999:{\displaystyle \nu _{x}+e^{-}\to \nu _{x}+e^{-}}
1775:Slow control monitor and offline process monitor
5362:Neutrino detectors, experiments, and facilities
3791:
1157:
730:Construction of the predecessor of the present
6490:Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model
1033:Summary of QTC ranges for charge acquisition.
30:"Super-K" redirects here. For other uses, see
6339:
6168:
5346:
5001:
4188:
3025:"Physicists Go Deep in Search of Dark Matter"
1900:. These neutrinos primarily come through the
1204:
534:
6182:
3680:
2539:
2164:solar neutrino flux can be calculated to be
6769:Buildings and structures in Gifu Prefecture
3932:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
3639:"Current status of SK-Gd project and EGADS"
3360:
3358:
3356:
1195:
809:was awarded to Super-Kamiokande researcher
590:Super-Kamioka Neutrino Detection Experiment
6346:
6332:
6175:
6161:
6122:BNO (Baksan or Baxan Neutrino Observatory)
5353:
5339:
5008:
4994:
4195:
4181:
3530:
3240:
2578:
2035:scattering, has a relative sensitivity to
850:In 2020 the detector was upgraded for the
541:
527:
49:
4580:The Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration
4052:
3969:
3857:
3805:
3751:
3729:
3706:
3681:Castelvecchi, Davide (27 February 2019).
3662:
3544:
3448:
3378:
3336:
3254:
3206:
3202:
3200:
3198:
3196:
3194:
3192:
3190:
3188:
3186:
3184:
3182:
2934:
2638:simulation processing is also necessary.
2468:. It gives first positive measurement of
3794:Progress in Particle and Nuclear Physics
3353:
3180:
3178:
3176:
3174:
3172:
3170:
3168:
3166:
3164:
3162:
2582:
2543:
721:
695:. This creates a cone of light known as
5015:
3430:
3428:
3426:
3424:
3422:
2426:
699:, which is the optical equivalent to a
14:
6746:
3434:
2902:video from within the detection tank.
2630:as well as the ZEBRA exchange system.
265:de Sitter invariant special relativity
245:N = 4 supersymmetric YangâMills theory
6327:
6156:
5334:
4989:
4176:
3913:
3676:
3674:
3643:Journal of Physics: Conference Series
3632:
3630:
3583:
3581:
3579:
3159:
2872:
2292:. Comparing to the SSM, the ratio is
6726:
3946:
3897:"Super-Kamiokande Official Homepage"
3775:"Super-Kamiokande Official Homepage"
3490:IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science
3419:
3042:
3040:
3019:
3017:
2898:reporters the opportunity to obtain
1190:
195:6D (2,0) superconformal field theory
3914:Committee, The T2K Public Website.
2896:Australian Broadcasting Corporation
2877:Super-Kamiokande is the subject of
2548:Water purification system schematic
200:Noncommutative quantum field theory
62:particle detector data depicting a
24:
6353:
3671:
3636:
3627:
3576:
2885:and was featured in an episode of
2612:
2094:{\displaystyle \cos \theta _{Sun}}
1642:{\displaystyle {N_{\text{multi}}}}
1584:{\displaystyle {N_{\text{multi}}}}
25:
6795:
6779:Physics beyond the Standard Model
6086:Long Baseline Neutrino Experiment
5129:Institute for Cosmic Ray Research
4152:
4026:10.1038/scientificamerican0899-64
3037:
3014:
2974:Super-Kamiokande Official Website
2663:, Irvine for further processing.
2605:mine past the experimental area.
2587:Air purification system schematic
2483:
2450:
1792:
1613:{\displaystyle {R_{\text{mean}}}}
1555:{\displaystyle {R_{\text{mean}}}}
1526:{\displaystyle {R_{\text{mean}}}}
1497:{\displaystyle {R_{\text{mean}}}}
1468:{\displaystyle {R_{\text{mean}}}}
1264:{\displaystyle {R_{\text{mean}}}}
1235:{\displaystyle {R_{\text{mean}}}}
736:Institute for Cosmic Ray Research
626:Institute for Cosmic Ray Research
6725:
6714:
6713:
6458:
5066:
3110:"Super-Kamiokande Photo Gallery"
2526:(GUTs) predict that protons can
1913:
1019:
683:A neutrino interaction with the
230:Mathematical universe hypothesis
4129:
4103:
4085:
4031:
3997:
3963:
3940:
3907:
3889:
3837:
3785:
3767:
3723:
3524:
3480:
3305:
3295:"Accident grounds neutrino lab"
3287:
3234:
3141:
2534:
2513:
624:, Japan. It is operated by the
6641:Causal dynamical triangulation
3664:10.1088/1742-6596/718/6/062070
3120:
3102:
3072:
3054:
2988:
2962:
2928:
2862:{\displaystyle 300\ MeV/c^{2}}
2768:{\displaystyle 10^{-27}cm^{2}}
2725:{\displaystyle 10^{-33}cm^{2}}
2410:
2395:
2371:
2353:
2237:
2222:
2198:
2180:
1970:
1826:
1683:
1401:
1369:
659:
435:Causal dynamical triangulation
13:
1:
6480:Spontaneous symmetry breaking
5403:LedermanâSchwartzâSteinberger
5139:Earthquake Research Institute
4159:The Super-Kamiokande Homepage
3992:10.1016/S0168-9002(03)00425-X
3876:10.1016/S0370-2693(98)00657-1
3229:10.1016/S0168-9002(03)00425-X
2957:10.1016/S0168-9002(03)00425-X
2922:
2620:
2127:{\displaystyle \theta _{Sun}}
1148:
1066:0.7 pC/count (0.26 pe/count)
1055:0.1 pC/count (0.04 pe/count)
851:
122:Cosmological constant problem
27:Japanese neutrino observatory
6774:1983 establishments in Japan
6142:List of neutrino experiments
5134:Institute of Medical Science
4488:Sudbury Neutrino Observatory
2815:{\displaystyle 1\ MeV/c^{2}}
1932:Sudbury Neutrino Observatory
1158:PMTs and associate structure
1077:4.9 pC/count (1.8 pe/count)
773:While making discoveries in
155:Cosmic censorship hypothesis
7:
5315:Koishikawa Botanical Garden
5144:Historiographical Institute
4412:Supernova Cosmology Project
4164:Super-Kamiokande experiment
3753:10.1103/PhysRevLett.58.1490
3273:10.1103/PhysRevLett.81.1562
2905:
2888:Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey
1787:
1771:supernova can be provided.
1087:
857:
691:, which is slower than the
10:
6800:
5242:Sports & Organizations
4071:10.1103/PhysRevD.90.072005
3824:10.1016/j.ppnp.2013.03.007
3708:10.1038/d41586-019-00598-9
3563:10.1016/j.nima.2009.09.026
3467:10.1016/j.nima.2013.11.081
3397:10.1016/j.nima.2021.166248
3338:10.1038/d41586-019-00440-2
2970:"Collaboration Institutes"
2670:
2487:
2454:
1796:
1205:Realtime supernova monitor
762:which was observed in the
717:
29:
6709:
6668:
6646:Canonical quantum gravity
6616:
6583:
6552:
6509:
6498:
6467:
6456:
6361:
6289:
6263:
6207:
6191:
6114:
6068:
5992:
5811:
5755:
5730:
5672:
5651:
5595:
5564:
5486:
5471:
5368:
5272:
5241:
5225:
5199:
5173:
5152:
5121:
5075:
5064:
5025:
4651:
4304:
4211:
3901:www-sk.icrr.u-tokyo.ac.jp
3779:www-sk.icrr.u-tokyo.ac.jp
3114:www-sk.icrr.u-tokyo.ac.jp
3066:www-sk.icrr.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2540:Water purification system
2157:{\displaystyle {}^{8}\!B}
1010:
998:
995:
978:
961:
956:
875:
786:many PMTs as Kamiokande.
605:
450:Canonical quantum gravity
275:Black hole thermodynamics
260:Doubly special relativity
43:Beyond the Standard Model
6651:Superfluid vacuum theory
3510:10.1109/TNS.2009.2034854
2661:University of California
2645:
2055:{\displaystyle \nu _{e}}
2028:{\displaystyle \nu _{e}}
1196:Online monitoring system
962:Anti-implosion container
693:speed of light in vacuum
571:36.425722°N 137.310306°E
460:Superfluid vacuum theory
310:Gauge gravitation theory
6433:Quantum electrodynamics
6423:Electroweak interaction
4906:Shankar Balasubramanian
4642:Alexander Zamolodchikov
4574:Peter van Nieuwenhuizen
3957:10.5281/zenodo.10493165
3732:Physical Review Letters
3243:Physical Review Letters
3084:www.phys.washington.edu
2579:Air purification system
689:speed of light in water
6754:Neutrino observatories
6411:Quantum chromodynamics
5320:Nikko Botanical Garden
4920:Clifford P. Brangwynne
4753:Emmanuelle Charpentier
2863:
2816:
2769:
2726:
2652:Stony Brook University
2588:
2549:
2524:Grand Unified Theories
2417:
2286:
2158:
2128:
2095:
2056:
2029:
2000:
1887:
1809:solar neutrino problem
1762:
1713:
1643:
1614:
1585:
1556:
1527:
1498:
1469:
1438:
1367:
1333:
1265:
1236:
807:Nobel Prize in Physics
764:Large Magellanic Cloud
727:
592:, also abbreviated to
440:Causal fermion systems
430:Loop quantum cosmology
375:Large extra dimensions
365:Supersymmetry breaking
270:Causal fermion systems
6759:Laboratories in Japan
6527:Cosmological constant
4424:High-Z Supernova Team
3637:Xu, Chenyuan (2016).
3323:(7742): 12â13. 2019.
2864:
2817:
2770:
2727:
2642:at the end of Run I.
2586:
2547:
2470:neutrino oscillations
2418:
2287:
2159:
2129:
2096:
2057:
2030:
2001:
1888:
1763:
1714:
1644:
1615:
1586:
1557:
1528:
1499:
1470:
1439:
1334:
1298:
1266:
1237:
1179:the mining industry.
1099:(other names include
996:Front-end electronics
726:A model of KamiokaNDE
725:
674:photomultiplier tubes
648:, and keep watch for
646:atmospheric neutrinos
576:36.425722; 137.310306
455:Semiclassical gravity
250:Twistor string theory
240:RandallâSundrum model
57:Large Hadron Collider
6764:Particle experiments
6636:Loop quantum gravity
6575:Theory of everything
6570:Grand Unified Theory
6544:Neutrino oscillation
6391:Quantum field theory
6313:GeorgiâGlashow model
6308:Grand Unified Theory
5457:Neutrino oscillation
5233:Alumni & Faculty
4863:Virginia Man-Yee Lee
4727:Alexander Varshavsky
4546:Jocelyn Bell Burnell
4444:and contributors to
4097:whitehotmagazine.com
3916:"The T2K Experiment"
3153:symmetrymagazine.org
2881:'s 2007 photograph,
2826:
2779:
2736:
2693:
2677:neutrino oscillation
2504:neutrino oscillation
2445:neutrino oscillation
2427:Atmospheric neutrino
2296:
2168:
2138:
2105:
2066:
2039:
2012:
1944:
1817:
1799:Neutrino oscillation
1725:
1657:
1624:
1595:
1566:
1562:⩟900 cm for 25⩜
1537:
1508:
1479:
1450:
1277:
1246:
1217:
799:neutrino oscillation
610:neutrino observatory
420:Loop quantum gravity
315:Gauge theory gravity
180:Grand Unified Theory
175:Unified field theory
170:Theory of everything
132:Neutrino oscillation
6603:Split supersymmetry
6565:KaluzaâKlein theory
6438:Fermi's interaction
6127:Kamioka Observatory
5305:Atacama Observatory
5280:Kamioka Observatory
5273:Research facilities
5212:First Higher School
5207:University of Tokyo
5181:Hongo (Main Campus)
5122:Research Institutes
5018:University of Tokyo
4847:Jeffrey M. Friedman
4737:Charles David Allis
4422:and members of the
4410:and members of the
4146:, 25 September 2018
4063:2014arXiv1408.1195T
4018:1999SciAm.281b..64K
4006:Scientific American
3984:2003NIMPA.501..418F
3868:1998PhLB..433....1B
3816:2013PrPNP..71..150B
3744:1987PhRvL..58.1490H
3699:2019Natur.566..438C
3655:2016JPhCS.718f2070X
3555:2009NIMPA.610..710N
3502:2010ITNS...57..428Y
3459:2014NIMPA.737..253A
3389:2022NIMPA102766248A
3329:2019Natur.566...12.
3301:. 15 November 2001.
3265:1998PhRvL..81.1562F
3221:2003NIMPA.501..418F
3030:Scientific American
3000:ăčăŒăăŒă«ăăȘă«ăłă ć
ŹćŒăăŒă ăăŒăž
2949:2003NIMPA.501..418F
2508:Cherenkov radiation
2393:
2220:
1908:of heavier masses.
1034:
872:
740:University of Tokyo
732:Kamioka Observatory
705:multiple scattering
697:Cherenkov radiation
630:University of Tokyo
567: /
190:KaluzaâKlein theory
6631:Superstring theory
6401:Strong interaction
4940:Masashi Yanagisawa
4851:Franz-Ulrich Hartl
4781:Stephen J. Elledge
4733:Alim Louis Benabid
4620:Charles H. Bennett
4570:Daniel Z. Freedman
4520:Charles L. Bennett
4484:Arthur B. McDonald
4472:KĆichirĆ Nishikawa
4402:John Henry Schwarz
4392:Alexander Polyakov
4370:Michel Della Negra
4289:Daniel A. Spielman
4204:Breakthrough Prize
3920:t2k-experiment.org
3619:has generic name (
3090:on 30 January 2004
2873:In popular culture
2859:
2812:
2765:
2722:
2593:activated charcoal
2589:
2550:
2413:
2374:
2282:
2201:
2154:
2124:
2101:is provided where
2091:
2052:
2025:
1996:
1883:
1758:
1709:
1639:
1610:
1581:
1552:
1523:
1494:
1465:
1434:
1261:
1232:
1032:
870:
824:, apparently in a
775:neutrino astronomy
728:
350:Superstring theory
280:Unparticle physics
220:Superstring theory
150:BransâDicke theory
6741:
6740:
6664:
6663:
6539:Strong CP problem
6517:Hierarchy problem
6321:
6320:
6150:
6149:
5884:Heidelberg-Moscow
5751:
5750:
5608:ICARUS (Fermilab)
5328:
5327:
5310:Akeno Observatory
5165:Akamon (Red Gate)
5160:Yasuda Auditorium
5108:Arts and Sciences
5058:Arts and Sciences
4983:
4982:
4962:Fredrick Van Goor
4855:Arthur L. Horwich
4829:Adrian R. Krainer
4723:Richard P. Lifton
4681:Napoleone Ferrara
4661:Cornelia Bargmann
4510:Andrew Strominger
4506:Joseph Polchinski
4316:Nima Arkani-Hamed
4265:Vincent Lafforgue
4255:Christopher Hacon
4041:Physical Review D
3846:Physics Letters B
3738:(14): 1490â1493,
3693:(7745): 438â439.
2912:Masatoshi Koshiba
2834:
2787:
2775:with masses from
2339:
1756:
1754:
1693:
1667:
1635:
1620:â©Ÿ750 cm for
1606:
1577:
1548:
1519:
1490:
1461:
1432:
1427:
1415:
1396:
1381:
1363:
1322:
1288:
1257:
1228:
1191:Monitoring system
1081:
1080:
1017:
1016:
830:cascading failure
616:near the city of
614:under Mount Ikeno
588:(abbreviation of
551:
550:
425:Quantum cosmology
205:Quantum cosmology
127:Strong CP problem
87:Hierarchy problem
16:(Redirected from
6791:
6729:
6728:
6717:
6716:
6507:
6506:
6462:
6461:
6443:Weak hypercharge
6428:Weak interaction
6369:Particle physics
6348:
6341:
6334:
6325:
6324:
6276:Hyper-Kamiokande
6199:Super-Kamiokande
6177:
6170:
6163:
6154:
6153:
6035:Neutrino Factory
5788:Hyper-Kamiokande
5551:Super-Kamiokande
5484:
5483:
5451:
5450:
5449:
5441:
5440:
5424:
5423:
5422:
5414:
5413:
5397:
5396:
5395:
5387:
5386:
5355:
5348:
5341:
5332:
5331:
5290:Hyper-Kamiokande
5285:Super-Kamiokande
5083:Law and Politics
5076:Graduate Studies
5070:
5019:
5010:
5003:
4996:
4987:
4986:
4974:Andrew Singleton
4924:Anthony A. Hyman
4894:Jeffery W. Kelly
4889:
4881:Richard J. Youle
4825:C. Frank Bennett
4819:Don W. Cleveland
4793:Yoshinori Ohsumi
4719:Robert S. Langer
4707:James P. Allison
4669:Lewis C. Cantley
4610:Hidetoshi Katori
4590:Jens H. Gundlach
4500:Super-Kamiokande
4382:Joseph Incandela
4366:Fabiola Gianotti
4328:Maxim Kontsevich
4283:Takuro Mochizuki
4225:Maxim Kontsevich
4197:
4190:
4183:
4174:
4173:
4147:
4133:
4127:
4126:
4124:
4122:
4107:
4101:
4100:
4089:
4083:
4082:
4056:
4035:
4029:
4028:
4001:
3995:
3994:
3978:(2â3): 418â462,
3967:
3961:
3960:
3944:
3938:
3937:
3931:
3923:
3911:
3905:
3904:
3893:
3887:
3886:
3861:
3859:astro-ph/9805135
3841:
3835:
3834:
3809:
3789:
3783:
3782:
3771:
3765:
3764:
3755:
3727:
3721:
3720:
3710:
3678:
3669:
3668:
3666:
3634:
3625:
3624:
3618:
3614:
3612:
3604:
3602:
3600:
3585:
3574:
3573:
3548:
3528:
3522:
3521:
3484:
3478:
3477:
3452:
3432:
3417:
3416:
3382:
3362:
3351:
3350:
3340:
3309:
3303:
3302:
3299:physicsworld.com
3291:
3285:
3284:
3258:
3249:(8): 1562â1567.
3238:
3232:
3231:
3215:(2â3): 418â462,
3204:
3157:
3156:
3145:
3139:
3138:
3132:
3124:
3118:
3117:
3106:
3100:
3099:
3097:
3095:
3086:. Archived from
3076:
3070:
3069:
3058:
3052:
3051:
3044:
3035:
3034:
3021:
3012:
3011:
3009:
3007:
2992:
2986:
2985:
2983:
2981:
2966:
2960:
2959:
2943:(2â3): 418â462,
2932:
2868:
2866:
2865:
2860:
2858:
2857:
2848:
2832:
2821:
2819:
2818:
2813:
2811:
2810:
2801:
2785:
2774:
2772:
2771:
2766:
2764:
2763:
2751:
2750:
2731:
2729:
2728:
2723:
2721:
2720:
2708:
2707:
2437:Earth atmosphere
2422:
2420:
2419:
2414:
2392:
2384:
2376:
2340:
2338:
2337:
2336:
2314:
2300:
2291:
2289:
2288:
2283:
2281:
2280:
2268:
2267:
2252:
2251:
2219:
2211:
2203:
2163:
2161:
2160:
2155:
2149:
2148:
2143:
2133:
2131:
2130:
2125:
2123:
2122:
2100:
2098:
2097:
2092:
2090:
2089:
2061:
2059:
2058:
2053:
2051:
2050:
2034:
2032:
2031:
2026:
2024:
2023:
2005:
2003:
2002:
1997:
1995:
1994:
1982:
1981:
1969:
1968:
1956:
1955:
1917:
1892:
1890:
1889:
1884:
1876:
1875:
1860:
1859:
1837:
1836:
1831:
1767:
1765:
1764:
1759:
1757:
1755:
1750:
1748:
1747:
1738:
1718:
1716:
1715:
1710:
1708:
1707:
1695:
1694:
1691:
1682:
1681:
1669:
1668:
1665:
1648:
1646:
1645:
1640:
1638:
1637:
1636:
1633:
1619:
1617:
1616:
1611:
1609:
1608:
1607:
1604:
1590:
1588:
1587:
1582:
1580:
1579:
1578:
1575:
1561:
1559:
1558:
1553:
1551:
1550:
1549:
1546:
1532:
1530:
1529:
1524:
1522:
1521:
1520:
1517:
1503:
1501:
1500:
1495:
1493:
1492:
1491:
1488:
1474:
1472:
1471:
1466:
1464:
1463:
1462:
1459:
1443:
1441:
1440:
1435:
1433:
1431:
1430:
1429:
1428:
1425:
1418:
1417:
1416:
1413:
1405:
1404:
1399:
1398:
1397:
1394:
1384:
1383:
1382:
1379:
1372:
1366:
1365:
1364:
1361:
1354:
1332:
1325:
1324:
1323:
1320:
1312:
1296:
1291:
1290:
1289:
1286:
1270:
1268:
1267:
1262:
1260:
1259:
1258:
1255:
1241:
1239:
1238:
1233:
1231:
1230:
1229:
1226:
1143:Hyper-Kamiokande
1125:
1041:Measuring region
1035:
1031:
873:
869:
654:Milky Way Galaxy
607:
586:Super-Kamiokande
582:
581:
579:
578:
577:
572:
568:
565:
564:
563:
560:
543:
536:
529:
415:Quantum geometry
370:Extra dimensions
53:
39:
38:
21:
18:Super Kamiokande
6799:
6798:
6794:
6793:
6792:
6790:
6789:
6788:
6744:
6743:
6742:
6737:
6705:
6660:
6618:Quantum gravity
6612:
6579:
6548:
6501:
6494:
6485:Higgs mechanism
6463:
6459:
6454:
6357:
6352:
6322:
6317:
6285:
6259:
6203:
6187:
6181:
6151:
6146:
6110:
6064:
5988:
5807:
5747:
5726:
5668:
5647:
5591:
5560:
5479:
5477:
5475:
5473:
5467:
5448:
5445:
5444:
5443:
5439:
5437:
5436:
5435:
5434:
5421:
5418:
5417:
5416:
5412:
5410:
5409:
5408:
5407:
5394:
5391:
5390:
5389:
5385:
5383:
5382:
5381:
5380:
5364:
5359:
5329:
5324:
5268:
5237:
5221:
5195:
5169:
5148:
5117:
5071:
5062:
5021:
5017:
5014:
4984:
4979:
4970:Ellen Sidransky
4950:Michel Sadelain
4936:Emmanuel Mignot
4910:David Klenerman
4883:
4873:Catherine Dulac
4785:Harry F. Noller
4763:Karl Deisseroth
4749:Jennifer Doudna
4715:Michael N. Hall
4701:Bert Vogelstein
4697:Shinya Yamanaka
4693:Robert Weinberg
4689:Charles Sawyers
4647:
4624:Gilles Brassard
4604:Steven Weinberg
4586:Eric Adelberger
4496:YĆichirĆ Suzuki
4408:Saul Perlmutter
4374:Tejinder Virdee
4358:Stephen Hawking
4307:
4300:
4221:Simon Donaldson
4207:
4201:
4155:
4150:
4144:ABC News Online
4134:
4130:
4120:
4118:
4117:. 13 April 2014
4109:
4108:
4104:
4091:
4090:
4086:
4036:
4032:
4002:
3998:
3968:
3964:
3945:
3941:
3925:
3924:
3912:
3908:
3895:
3894:
3890:
3842:
3838:
3790:
3786:
3773:
3772:
3768:
3728:
3724:
3679:
3672:
3635:
3628:
3616:
3615:
3606:
3605:
3598:
3596:
3586:
3577:
3529:
3525:
3485:
3481:
3433:
3420:
3363:
3354:
3311:
3310:
3306:
3293:
3292:
3288:
3239:
3235:
3205:
3160:
3147:
3146:
3142:
3130:
3126:
3125:
3121:
3108:
3107:
3103:
3093:
3091:
3078:
3077:
3073:
3060:
3059:
3055:
3046:
3045:
3038:
3023:
3022:
3015:
3005:
3003:
2994:
2993:
2989:
2979:
2977:
2968:
2967:
2963:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2908:
2875:
2853:
2849:
2844:
2827:
2824:
2823:
2806:
2802:
2797:
2780:
2777:
2776:
2759:
2755:
2743:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2733:
2716:
2712:
2700:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2690:
2673:
2648:
2623:
2615:
2613:Data processing
2581:
2565:reverse osmosis
2542:
2537:
2522:. However, the
2516:
2492:
2486:
2459:
2453:
2429:
2385:
2377:
2375:
2326:
2322:
2315:
2301:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2293:
2273:
2269:
2260:
2256:
2247:
2243:
2212:
2204:
2202:
2169:
2166:
2165:
2144:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2135:
2112:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2102:
2079:
2075:
2067:
2064:
2063:
2046:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2036:
2019:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2009:
1990:
1986:
1977:
1973:
1964:
1960:
1951:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1941:
1927:
1926:
1925:
1923:
1918:
1871:
1867:
1855:
1851:
1832:
1830:
1829:
1818:
1815:
1814:
1801:
1795:
1790:
1777:
1749:
1743:
1739:
1737:
1726:
1723:
1722:
1703:
1699:
1690:
1686:
1677:
1673:
1664:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1654:
1632:
1628:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1621:
1603:
1599:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1592:
1574:
1570:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1563:
1545:
1541:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1534:
1516:
1512:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1505:
1487:
1483:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1476:
1458:
1454:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1447:
1424:
1420:
1419:
1412:
1408:
1407:
1406:
1400:
1393:
1389:
1388:
1378:
1374:
1373:
1368:
1360:
1356:
1355:
1338:
1319:
1315:
1314:
1313:
1302:
1297:
1295:
1285:
1281:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1274:
1254:
1250:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1243:
1225:
1221:
1220:
1218:
1215:
1214:
1207:
1198:
1193:
1160:
1151:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1090:
1022:
979:OD segmentation
860:
815:Arthur McDonald
720:
670:ultrapure water
662:
622:Gifu Prefecture
575:
573:
569:
566:
561:
558:
556:
554:
553:
547:
518:
517:
473:
465:
464:
390:
388:Quantum gravity
380:
379:
335:
325:
324:
305:Massive gravity
210:Brane cosmology
145:
137:
136:
82:
67:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6797:
6787:
6786:
6781:
6776:
6771:
6766:
6761:
6756:
6739:
6738:
6736:
6735:
6723:
6710:
6707:
6706:
6704:
6703:
6698:
6693:
6688:
6683:
6678:
6672:
6670:
6666:
6665:
6662:
6661:
6659:
6658:
6656:Twistor theory
6653:
6648:
6643:
6638:
6633:
6628:
6622:
6620:
6614:
6613:
6611:
6610:
6605:
6600:
6595:
6589:
6587:
6581:
6580:
6578:
6577:
6572:
6567:
6562:
6556:
6554:
6550:
6549:
6547:
6546:
6541:
6536:
6535:
6534:
6524:
6519:
6513:
6511:
6504:
6502:Standard Model
6496:
6495:
6493:
6492:
6487:
6482:
6477:
6471:
6469:
6465:
6464:
6457:
6455:
6453:
6452:
6451:
6450:
6445:
6440:
6435:
6430:
6420:
6419:
6418:
6413:
6408:
6398:
6393:
6388:
6387:
6386:
6381:
6376:
6365:
6363:
6359:
6358:
6355:Standard Model
6351:
6350:
6343:
6336:
6328:
6319:
6318:
6316:
6315:
6310:
6305:
6293:
6291:
6287:
6286:
6284:
6283:
6278:
6273:
6267:
6265:
6261:
6260:
6258:
6257:
6252:
6247:
6242:
6237:
6232:
6227:
6222:
6217:
6211:
6209:
6205:
6204:
6202:
6201:
6195:
6193:
6189:
6188:
6180:
6179:
6172:
6165:
6157:
6148:
6147:
6145:
6144:
6139:
6134:
6129:
6124:
6118:
6116:
6112:
6111:
6109:
6108:
6103:
6098:
6096:NESTOR Project
6093:
6088:
6083:
6078:
6076:DUMAND Project
6072:
6070:
6066:
6065:
6063:
6062:
6057:
6052:
6047:
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6037:
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5866:
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5605:
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5548:
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5538:
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5528:
5523:
5518:
5513:
5508:
5503:
5498:
5492:
5490:
5481:
5469:
5468:
5466:
5465:
5464:neutrino burst
5459:
5454:
5446:
5438:
5427:
5419:
5411:
5400:
5392:
5384:
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5229:
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5222:
5220:
5219:
5214:
5209:
5203:
5201:
5197:
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5188:
5183:
5177:
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5027:
5023:
5022:
5013:
5012:
5005:
4998:
4990:
4981:
4980:
4978:
4977:
4958:Paul Negulescu
4943:
4928:Demis Hassabis
4917:
4898:Katalin KarikĂł
4891:
4866:
4844:
4837:Xiaowei Zhuang
4822:
4811:Kazutoshi Mori
4800:
4778:
4756:
4730:
4704:
4677:Titia de Lange
4665:David Botstein
4657:
4655:
4649:
4648:
4646:
4645:
4635:
4617:
4607:
4597:
4583:
4577:
4566:Sergio Ferrara
4559:
4549:
4539:
4532:Lyman Page Jr.
4528:Norman Jarosik
4517:
4503:
4492:Takaaki Kajita
4449:
4448:project (2016)
4427:
4405:
4395:
4389:
4351:
4340:Nathan Seiberg
4336:Juan Maldacena
4312:
4310:
4302:
4301:
4299:
4298:
4292:
4286:
4280:
4274:
4268:
4262:
4259:James McKernan
4252:
4246:
4240:
4237:Richard Taylor
4217:
4215:
4209:
4208:
4200:
4199:
4192:
4185:
4177:
4171:
4170:
4161:
4154:
4153:External links
4151:
4149:
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4128:
4102:
4084:
4030:
3996:
3962:
3939:
3906:
3888:
3836:
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3722:
3670:
3626:
3575:
3539:(3): 710â717,
3523:
3496:(2): 428â432.
3479:
3418:
3352:
3304:
3286:
3256:hep-ex/9807003
3233:
3158:
3140:
3119:
3101:
3080:"Physics Home"
3071:
3053:
3036:
3013:
2996:"ăčăŒăăŒă«ăăȘă«ăłăæŠèŠ"
2987:
2961:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2920:
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2914:
2907:
2904:
2879:Andreas Gursky
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2611:
2602:chimney effect
2580:
2577:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2520:Standard Model
2515:
2512:
2490:T2K experiment
2488:Main article:
2485:
2484:T2K Experiment
2482:
2478:K2K experiment
2474:T2K experiment
2457:K2K experiment
2455:Main article:
2452:
2451:K2K Experiment
2449:
2428:
2425:
2412:
2409:
2406:
2403:
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2018:
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1794:
1793:Solar neutrino
1791:
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1294:
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1253:
1224:
1206:
1203:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1159:
1156:
1150:
1147:
1130:Nuclear fusion
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1089:
1086:
1079:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1068:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1057:
1056:
1053:
1050:
1046:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1021:
1018:
1015:
1014:
1012:
1009:
1007:
1004:
1003:
1000:
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993:
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989:
986:
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966:
963:
959:
958:
955:
952:
949:
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945:
942:
939:
936:
933:
932:Number of PMTs
929:
928:
925:
922:
919:
916:
913:
910:
909:
906:
903:
900:
897:
894:
890:
889:
886:
883:
880:
877:
859:
856:
826:chain reaction
811:Takaaki Kajita
792:IMB experiment
719:
716:
661:
658:
549:
548:
546:
545:
538:
531:
523:
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515:
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397:
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378:
377:
372:
367:
362:
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352:
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342:
336:
331:
330:
327:
326:
323:
322:
317:
312:
307:
302:
297:
292:
287:
282:
277:
272:
267:
262:
257:
252:
247:
242:
237:
232:
227:
222:
217:
212:
207:
202:
197:
192:
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
162:
157:
152:
146:
143:
142:
139:
138:
135:
134:
129:
124:
119:
114:
112:Dark radiation
109:
107:Phantom energy
104:
99:
94:
89:
83:
80:
79:
76:
75:
73:Standard Model
69:
68:
54:
46:
45:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6796:
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6626:String theory
6624:
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6609:
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6585:Supersymmetry
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6409:
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6399:
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6389:
6385:
6382:
6380:
6377:
6375:
6372:
6371:
6370:
6367:
6366:
6364:
6360:
6356:
6349:
6344:
6342:
6337:
6335:
6330:
6329:
6326:
6314:
6311:
6309:
6306:
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6299:
6295:
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6292:
6288:
6282:
6279:
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5779:
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5708:
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5703:
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5698:
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5609:
5606:
5604:
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5598:
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5509:
5507:
5504:
5502:
5499:
5497:
5494:
5493:
5491:
5489:
5485:
5482:
5470:
5463:
5460:
5458:
5455:
5452:
5431:
5428:
5425:
5404:
5401:
5398:
5377:
5374:
5373:
5371:
5367:
5363:
5356:
5351:
5349:
5344:
5342:
5337:
5336:
5333:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5293:
5291:
5288:
5286:
5283:
5281:
5278:
5277:
5275:
5271:
5265:
5262:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
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5240:
5234:
5231:
5230:
5228:
5224:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
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5198:
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5142:
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5137:
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5127:
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5124:
5120:
5114:
5113:Public Policy
5111:
5109:
5106:
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5101:
5099:
5096:
5094:
5091:
5089:
5086:
5084:
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5074:
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5059:
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5054:
5051:
5049:
5046:
5044:
5041:
5039:
5036:
5034:
5031:
5030:
5028:
5024:
5020:
5011:
5006:
5004:
4999:
4997:
4992:
4991:
4988:
4975:
4971:
4967:
4966:Thomas Gasser
4963:
4959:
4955:
4954:Sabine Hadida
4951:
4947:
4944:
4941:
4937:
4933:
4929:
4925:
4921:
4918:
4915:
4911:
4907:
4903:
4902:Drew Weissman
4899:
4895:
4892:
4887:
4882:
4878:
4874:
4870:
4867:
4864:
4860:
4856:
4852:
4848:
4845:
4842:
4838:
4834:
4833:Angelika Amon
4830:
4826:
4823:
4820:
4816:
4812:
4808:
4804:
4801:
4798:
4794:
4790:
4789:Roeland Nusse
4786:
4782:
4779:
4776:
4772:
4768:
4764:
4760:
4759:Edward Boyden
4757:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4741:Victor Ambros
4738:
4734:
4731:
4728:
4724:
4720:
4716:
4712:
4711:Mahlon DeLong
4708:
4705:
4702:
4698:
4694:
4690:
4686:
4682:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4659:
4658:
4656:
4654:
4653:Life sciences
4650:
4643:
4639:
4636:
4633:
4632:Peter W. Shor
4629:
4628:David Deutsch
4625:
4621:
4618:
4615:
4611:
4608:
4605:
4601:
4598:
4595:
4594:Blayne Heckel
4591:
4587:
4584:
4581:
4578:
4575:
4571:
4567:
4563:
4560:
4557:
4553:
4550:
4547:
4543:
4540:
4537:
4536:David Spergel
4533:
4529:
4525:
4521:
4518:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4504:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4485:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4469:
4465:
4464:Atsuto Suzuki
4461:
4460:Daya Bay team
4457:
4453:
4450:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4434:Ronald Drever
4431:
4428:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4416:Brian Schmidt
4413:
4409:
4406:
4403:
4399:
4398:Michael Green
4396:
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4390:
4387:
4383:
4379:
4378:Guido Tonelli
4375:
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4367:
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4348:Edward Witten
4345:
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4329:
4325:
4324:Alexei Kitaev
4321:
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4314:
4313:
4311:
4309:
4303:
4296:
4295:Simon Brendle
4293:
4290:
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4284:
4281:
4278:
4277:Martin Hairer
4275:
4272:
4269:
4266:
4263:
4260:
4256:
4253:
4250:
4249:Jean Bourgain
4247:
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4230:
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4080:
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4068:
4064:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4047:(7): 072005.
4046:
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3649:(6): 062070.
3648:
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3617:|first1=
3610:
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3136:
3135:u-tokyo.ac.jp
3129:
3123:
3115:
3111:
3105:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3075:
3067:
3063:
3057:
3049:
3043:
3041:
3032:
3031:
3026:
3020:
3018:
3002:(in Japanese)
3001:
2997:
2991:
2976:(in Japanese)
2975:
2971:
2965:
2958:
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2942:
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2900:4K resolution
2897:
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2500:United States
2497:
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2020:
2016:
2006:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1978:
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1965:
1961:
1957:
1952:
1948:
1939:
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1933:
1922:
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1168:
1164:
1155:
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1138:
1134:
1131:
1127:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1097:SK-Gd project
1094:
1085:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1069:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1058:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1047:
1043:
1040:
1037:
1036:
1030:
1026:
1020:SK-IV upgrade
1013:
1008:
1006:
1005:
1001:
994:
990:
987:
984:
981:
977:
973:
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827:
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635:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
580:
562:137°18âČ37.1âłE
544:
539:
537:
532:
530:
525:
524:
522:
521:
514:
511:
509:
506:
504:
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436:
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431:
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423:
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418:
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413:
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408:
406:
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401:
400:String theory
398:
396:
393:
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389:
384:
383:
376:
373:
371:
368:
366:
363:
361:
358:
356:
353:
351:
348:
346:
343:
341:
338:
337:
334:
333:Supersymmetry
329:
328:
321:
318:
316:
313:
311:
308:
306:
303:
301:
298:
296:
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291:
288:
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268:
266:
263:
261:
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256:
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248:
246:
243:
241:
238:
236:
235:Mirror matter
233:
231:
228:
226:
223:
221:
218:
216:
215:String theory
213:
211:
208:
206:
203:
201:
198:
196:
193:
191:
188:
186:
183:
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178:
176:
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171:
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161:
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153:
151:
148:
147:
141:
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133:
130:
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118:
115:
113:
110:
108:
105:
103:
100:
98:
95:
93:
90:
88:
85:
84:
78:
77:
74:
71:
70:
65:
61:
58:
52:
48:
47:
44:
41:
40:
37:
33:
19:
6730:
6718:
6695:
6608:Supergravity
6468:Constituents
6448:Weak isospin
6406:Color charge
6396:Gauge theory
6301:
6297:
6198:
6184:Proton decay
6091:NEMO Project
5849:Double Chooz
5756:Construction
5550:
5488:Astronomical
5376:CowanâReines
5284:
4914:Pascal Mayer
4859:David Julius
4841:Zhijian Chen
4807:Peter Walter
4803:Joanne Chory
4775:Svante PÀÀbo
4673:Hans Clevers
4599:
4561:
4552:Charles Kane
4541:
4524:Gary Hinshaw
4499:
4442:Rainer Weiss
4429:
4388:(LHC) (2013)
4353:
4332:Andrei Linde
4140:Jake Sturmer
4131:
4119:. Retrieved
4114:
4105:
4096:
4087:
4044:
4040:
4033:
4009:
4005:
3999:
3975:
3971:
3965:
3948:
3942:
3919:
3909:
3900:
3891:
3852:(1â2): 1â8,
3849:
3845:
3839:
3797:
3793:
3787:
3778:
3769:
3735:
3731:
3725:
3690:
3686:
3646:
3642:
3597:. Retrieved
3593:
3536:
3532:
3526:
3493:
3489:
3482:
3440:
3436:
3370:
3366:
3320:
3316:
3307:
3298:
3289:
3246:
3242:
3236:
3212:
3208:
3152:
3143:
3134:
3122:
3113:
3104:
3092:. Retrieved
3088:the original
3083:
3074:
3065:
3056:
3028:
3004:. Retrieved
2999:
2990:
2978:. Retrieved
2973:
2964:
2940:
2936:
2930:
2917:Yoji Totsuka
2893:
2886:
2882:
2876:
2684:
2681:
2674:
2665:
2657:
2649:
2640:
2632:
2624:
2616:
2607:
2598:
2590:
2569:
2562:
2555:
2551:
2535:Purification
2517:
2514:Proton decay
2493:
2460:
2441:
2430:
2007:
1940:
1928:
1895:
1813:
1806:
1802:
1782:
1778:
1769:
1721:
1651:
1445:
1273:
1212:
1208:
1199:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1152:
1139:
1135:
1128:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1091:
1082:
1027:
1023:
947:11129 (40%)
865:
861:
849:
846:
842:
819:
796:
788:
784:
772:
768:interactions
748:
744:proton decay
729:
709:relativistic
682:
663:
638:proton decay
597:
593:
589:
585:
584:
559:36°25âČ32.6âłN
552:
502:
410:Quantum foam
395:False vacuum
360:Supergravity
320:CPT symmetry
102:Quintessence
36:
6669:Experiments
6560:Technicolor
6522:Dark matter
6416:Quark model
6384:Higgs boson
6379:Gauge boson
6186:experiments
5697:KamLAND-Zen
5596:Accelerator
5474:(divided by
5369:Discoveries
5098:Engineering
5048:Engineering
4932:John Jumper
4884: [
4869:David Baker
4815:Kim Nasmyth
4797:Huda Zoghbi
4771:Helen Hobbs
4745:Gary Ruvkun
4685:Eric Lander
4556:Eugene Mele
4514:Cumrun Vafa
4502:team (2016)
4456:Kam-Biu Luk
4452:Yifang Wang
4362:Peter Jenni
4306:Fundamental
4233:Terence Tao
4229:Jacob Lurie
4213:Mathematics
4168:INSPIRE-HEP
4115:ibtimes.com
3800:: 150â161,
3443:: 253â272,
3094:20 November
3006:28 February
2980:28 February
2687:dark matter
2636:Monte Carlo
1934:(SNO), and
1044:Resolution
1011:OD QTC (OD)
944:11129 (40%)
938:11146 (40%)
660:Description
574: /
472:Experiments
445:Causal sets
290:Graviscalar
285:Graviphoton
185:Technicolor
160:Fifth force
117:Dark photon
97:Dark energy
92:Dark matter
64:Higgs boson
6784:Hida, Gifu
6748:Categories
6676:Gran Sasso
6500:Beyond the
6475:CKM matrix
6362:Background
6235:Kamiokande
5914:Kamiokande
5869:Gargamelle
5773:Baikal-GVD
5628:NA61/SHINE
5613:MicroBooNE
5217:Tenmongata
4767:John Hardy
4638:John Cardy
4438:Kip Thorne
4420:Adam Riess
4384:(CMS) and
4344:Ashoke Sen
4271:Alex Eskin
4166:record on
3380:2109.00360
3373:: 166248.
2923:References
2883:Kamiokande
2621:In Kamioka
1797:See also:
1149:Water tank
1093:Gadolinium
941:5182 (19%)
927:2018 Jun.
908:2008 Sep.
834:shock wave
813:alongside
701:sonic boom
650:supernovae
606:ăčăŒăăŒă«ăăȘă«ăłă
483:Gran Sasso
255:Dark fluid
55:Simulated
6220:Homestake
6192:Operating
6069:Cancelled
5889:Homestake
5839:Cuoricino
5803:SuperNEMO
5623:MiniBooNE
5472:Operating
5153:Buildings
5103:Economics
5053:Economics
5026:Faculties
4946:Carl June
4877:Dennis Lo
4386:Lyn Evans
4368:(ATLAS),
4320:Alan Guth
4206:laureates
4054:1408.1195
4012:(2): 64,
3884:119078800
3832:119185073
3807:1303.2272
3571:110431759
3546:0911.0986
3450:1307.0162
3413:237372721
3405:0168-9002
2745:−
2702:−
2466:neutrinos
2379:−
2348:±
2275:−
2262:−
2241:×
2206:−
2175:±
2110:θ
2077:θ
2073:
2044:ν
2017:ν
1992:−
1975:ν
1971:→
1966:−
1949:ν
1906:CNO cycle
1902:p-p chain
1869:ν
1827:→
1745:∘
1735:∼
1732:θ
1729:δ
1705:−
1688:ν
1684:→
1679:−
1662:ν
1386:−
1336:∑
1327:−
1300:∑
1105:SUPERK-GD
1074:0â2500 pC
924:2008 Sep.
921:2005 Oct.
918:2001 Jul.
905:2006 Jul.
902:2002 Oct.
899:1996 Apr.
832:, as the
760:supernova
752:neutrinos
685:electrons
405:Spin foam
300:Gravitino
6720:Category
6701:Tevatron
6553:Theories
6510:Evidence
6374:Fermions
6290:See also
6264:Proposed
6255:Soudan 2
6250:Soudan 1
6115:See also
6060:WATCHMAN
6010:JEM-EUSO
5993:Proposed
5979:Soudan 2
5969:SciBooNE
5702:MAJORANA
5652:Collider
5572:Daya Bay
5516:Borexino
5478:neutrino
5249:Hospital
5174:Campuses
5088:Medicine
5038:Medicine
4498:and the
4486:and the
4474:and the
4466:and the
4458:and the
4243:Ian Agol
4079:18477457
3928:cite web
3762:10034450
3717:30814722
3609:cite web
3594:ABC News
3475:18008496
3347:30728526
2906:See also
2558:bacteria
1936:Borexino
1788:Research
1101:SuperKGd
1088:SuperKGd
1063:0â357 pC
999:ATM (ID)
871:Table 1
858:Detector
852:SuperKGd
822:imploded
756:SN 1987A
640:, study
612:located
602:Japanese
508:Tevatron
355:M-theory
295:Graviton
225:M-theory
165:F-theory
144:Theories
81:Evidence
6732:Commons
6696:Super-K
6532:problem
6208:Retired
6040:Nucifer
5859:EXO-200
5812:Retired
5768:ARIANNA
5664:SND@LHC
5618:MINERÎœA
5577:KamLAND
5565:Reactor
5531:IceCube
5501:ANTARES
5480:source)
5476:primary
5462:SN 1987
5259:Library
5200:History
5191:Kashiwa
5093:Science
5043:Science
4600:Special
4562:Special
4542:Special
4468:KamLAND
4430:Special
4354:Special
4308:physics
4059:Bibcode
4014:Bibcode
3980:Bibcode
3864:Bibcode
3812:Bibcode
3740:Bibcode
3695:Bibcode
3651:Bibcode
3599:25 June
3551:Bibcode
3518:5714133
3498:Bibcode
3455:Bibcode
3385:Bibcode
3325:Bibcode
3281:7102535
3261:Bibcode
3217:Bibcode
2945:Bibcode
2671:Results
2435:) with
2433:protons
1591:⩜40 or
1154:water.
1052:0â51 pC
838:acrylic
718:History
652:in the
608:) is a
594:Super-K
503:Super-K
32:Super K
6281:LAGUNA
6215:Frejus
6137:SNOLAB
6081:LAGUNA
6025:LEGEND
5944:MINOS+
5919:KARMEN
5894:ICARUS
5864:GALLEX
5819:AMANDA
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