2406:
771:
modifications. In addition, some of the proposals are arguably incomplete, because they solve the "new" cosmological constant problem by proposing that the actual cosmological constant is exactly zero rather than a tiny number, but fail to solve the "old" cosmological constant problem of why quantum fluctuations seem to fail to produce substantial vacuum energy in the first place. Nevertheless, many physicists argue that, due in part to a lack of better alternatives, proposals to modify gravity should be considered "one of the most promising routes to tackling" the cosmological constant problem.
2613:
2868:
2442:
38:
2466:
2880:
2418:
2454:
2430:
702:. This view treats the cosmological constant as simply another fundamental physical constant not predicted or explained by theory. Such a renormalization constant must be chosen very accurately because of the many-orders-of-magnitude discrepancy between theory and observation, and many theorists consider this ad-hoc constant as equivalent to ignoring the problem.
897:, but are still derided by a substantial skeptical portion of the scientific community as being problematic to verify. Proponents of anthropic solutions are themselves divided on multiple technical questions surrounding how to calculate the proportion of regions of the universe with various dark energy constants.
682:
break down and may fail to be applicable around the cutoff scale. Because the energy is dependent on how fields interact within the current vacuum state, the vacuum energy contribution would have been different in the early universe; for example, the vacuum energy would have been significantly different prior to
892:
estimated that the maximum allowable vacuum energy for gravitationally-bound structures to form is problematically large, even given the observational data available in 1987, and concluded the anthropic explanation appears to fail; however, more recent estimates by
Weinberg and others, based on other
594:
cutoff and other factors, the quantum vacuum energy contribution to the effective cosmological constant is calculated to be between 50 and as much as 120 orders of magnitude greater than observed, a state of affairs described by physicists as "the largest discrepancy between theory and experiment in
681:
across a surface.) Roughly, the vacuum energy is calculated by summing over all known quantum-mechanical fields, taking into account interactions and self-interactions between the ground states, and then removing all interactions below a minimum "cutoff" wavelength to reflect that existing theories
636:
in the 1960s. In quantum mechanics, the vacuum itself should experience quantum fluctuations. In general relativity, those quantum fluctuations constitute energy that would add to the cosmological constant. However, this calculated vacuum energy density is many orders of magnitude bigger than the
832:
potential in a
Lagrangian formalism in which matter shows a non-vanishing pressure. The model assumes that standard matter provides a pressure which counterbalances the action due to the cosmological constant. Luongo and Muccino have shown that this mechanism permits to take vacuum energy as
770:
Some proposals involve modifying gravity to diverge from general relativity. These proposals face the hurdle that the results of observations and experiments so far have tended to be extremely consistent with general relativity and the ÎCDM model, and inconsistent with thus-far proposed
786:, the troublesome contributions simply do not gravitate. Recently, a fully diffeomorphism-invariant action principle that gives the equations of motion for trace-free Einstein gravity has been proposed, where the cosmological constant emerges as an integration constant.
648:
in the 1980s, the problem became much more important: as cosmic inflation is driven by vacuum energy, differences in modeling vacuum energy lead to huge differences in the resulting cosmologies. Were the vacuum energy precisely zero, as was once believed, then the
893:
considerations, find the bound to be closer to the actual observed level of dark energy. Anthropic arguments gradually gained credibility among many physicists after the discovery of dark energy and the development of the theoretical
1558:
Planck
Collaboration; Ade, P. A. R.; Aghanim, N.; Arnaud, M.; Ashdown, M.; Aumont, J.; Baccigalupi, C.; Banday, A. J.; Barreiro, R. B.; Bartlett, J. G.; Bartolo, N.; Battaner, E.; Battye, R.; Benabed, K.; BenoĂźt, A. (2016).
777:
and collaborators have argued that when the energy density of the quantum vacuum is modeled more accurately as a fluctuating quantum field, the cosmological constant problem does not arise. Going in a different direction,
887:
posit that only regions of small vacuum energy such as the one in which we live are reasonably capable of supporting intelligent life. Such arguments have existed in some form since at least 1981. Around 1987,
871:
are enough to reduce the theoretical cosmological constant down to the measured cosmological constant due to the CohenâKaplanâNelson (CKN) bound. In 2021, Nikita Blinov and
Patrick Draper confirmed through the
629:), contributed to the curvature of the observable universe â one would obtain a vacuum energy density of such a value that the radius of the observable universe would not reach even to the Moon."
637:
observed cosmological constant. Original estimates of the degree of mismatch were as high as 120 to 122 orders of magnitude; however, modern research suggests that, when
669:
The calculated vacuum energy is a positive, rather than negative, contribution to the cosmological constant because the existing vacuum has negative quantum-mechanical
849:
876:
that the CKN bound predicts the measured cosmological constant, all while maintaining the predictions of effective field theory in less extreme conditions.
783:
2498:
527:
464:
632:
After the development of quantum field theory in the 1940s, the first to address contributions of quantum fluctuations to the cosmological constant was
2642:
2750:
331:
231:
2911:
2884:
1366:
Martin, JĂ©rĂŽme (July 2012). "Everything you always wanted to know about the cosmological constant problem (but were afraid to ask)".
687:
2627:
2077:
Cohen, Andrew; Kaplan, David B.; Nelson, Ann (21 June 1999). "Effective Field Theory, Black Holes, and the
Cosmological Constant".
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520:
654:
251:
762:
in 2012, placed the expected theoretical vacuum energy scale around 10 GeV, for a difference of about 55 orders of magnitude.
2745:
1094:
683:
326:
1881:
Brodsky, Stanley J.; Roberts, Craig D.; Shrock, Robert; Tandy, Peter C. (2010). "New perspectives on the quark condensate".
906:
759:
550:
181:
1844:
Montesinos, Merced; Gonzalez, Diego (2023). "Diffeomorphism-invariant action principles for trace-free
Einstein gravity".
2828:
469:
186:
20:
1979:
Brodsky, Stanley J.; Deur, Alexandre; Roberts, Craig D. (2022). "Artificial dynamical effects in quantum field theory".
2484:
1736:
513:
2151:
Totani, Tomonori; Omiya, Hidetoshi; Sudoh, Takahiro; Kobayashi, Masakazu A. R.; Nagashima, Masahiro (2 January 2019).
2652:
1676:(2017). "How the huge energy of quantum vacuum gravitates to drive the slow accelerating expansion of the Universe".
29:
1926:
Brodsky, Stanley J.; Roberts, Craig D.; Shrock, Robert; Tandy, Peter C. (2012). "Confinement contains condensates".
2833:
474:
216:
2405:
2348:
1112:"Ăber einen Versuch von quantentheoretischen Betrachtungen zur Annahme stetiger EnergieĂ€nderungen zurĂŒckzukehren"
677:, the gravitational effect of negative pressure is a kind of repulsion. (Pressure here is defined as the flux of
2793:
801:
vacuum becomes essentially trivial. In the absence of vacuum expectation values, there is no contribution from
421:
2632:
1111:
2843:
825:
terms in the standard calculation, which lead to an erroneously large value of the cosmological constant.
484:
141:
2906:
603:
The basic problem of a vacuum energy producing a gravitational effect was identified as early as 1916 by
547:
Why is the vacuum energy density much smaller than a zero-point energy suggested by quantum field theory?
1507:
Studies in
History and Philosophy of Science Part B: Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics
2396:
1244:
Zel'dovich, Ya. B (31 March 1968). "The
Cosmological Constant and the Theory of Elementary Particles".
1086:
2798:
1271:
Cho, Adrian (10 January 2017). "A simple explanation of mysterious space-stretching 'dark energy?'".
650:
436:
261:
246:
226:
2803:
2016:
Luongo, Orlando; Muccino, Marco (2018-11-21). "Speeding up the
Universe using dust with pressure".
1016:
818:
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446:
296:
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2362:
911:
894:
802:
752:
711:
176:
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1791:
1619:
Bull, Philip; et al. (June 2016). "Beyond ÎCDM: Problems, solutions, and the road ahead".
865:
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638:
426:
416:
361:
351:
136:
88:
1080:
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2712:
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1199:
914: â Classical physics prediction that black body radiation grows unbounded with frequency
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43:
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8:
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2300:
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2235:
2198:
2164:
2153:"Lethal Radiation from Nearby Supernovae Helps Explain the Small Cosmological Constant"
2131:
2112:
2086:
2059:
2025:
1988:
1961:
1935:
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1134:
1054:
1028:
1015:
Bengochea, Gabriel R.; LeĂłn, Gabriel; Okon, Elias; Sudarsky, Daniel (11 January 2020).
884:
779:
674:
336:
266:
206:
2130:
Nikita Blinov; Patrick Draper (7 July 2021). "Densities of States and the CKN Bound".
1536:
1133:
H Kragh (2011). "Preludes to dark energy: Zero-point energy and vacuum speculations".
821:
insight, the origin of the cosmological constant problem is traced back to unphysical
678:
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1965:
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1183:
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1050:
1017:"Can the quantum vacuum fluctuations really solve the cosmological constant problem?"
997:
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73:
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1315:
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1178:
1046:
987:
968:"Vacuum catastrophe: An elementary exposition of the cosmological constant problem"
879:
Some propose an anthropic solution, and argue that we live in one region of a vast
861:
842:
658:
641:
is taken into account, the degree of mismatch is closer to 60 orders of magnitude.
489:
401:
356:
1594:
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all of science" and "the worst theoretical prediction in the history of physics".
2770:
2637:
2291:; Weinberg, Steven (January 1998). "Likely Values of the Cosmological Constant".
2288:
1789:
Percacci, R. (2018). "Unimodular quantum gravity and the cosmological constant".
889:
853:
828:
In 2018, a mechanism for cancelling Î out has been proposed through the use of a
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2002:
1957:
1912:
1709:
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1419:
Straumann, Norbert (2002). "The history of the cosmological constant problem".
1397:
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predicts, but removing the huge magnitude through a counterbalance term due to
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93:
59:
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1001:
591:
569:
386:
319:
221:
201:
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1319:
1280:
710:
The vacuum energy density of the
Universe based on 2015 measurements by the
607:. He predicted that the value had to be either zero or very small. In 1926,
2760:
2691:
2600:
2558:
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2434:
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608:
396:
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113:
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concluded that "If one allows waves of the shortest observed wavelengths
431:
276:
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146:
103:
83:
78:
50:
813:
to the cosmological constant. It is thus predicted to be zero in a flat
2091:
1519:
1502:
880:
857:
241:
2226:
Linde, Andrei (1 February 2017). "A brief history of the multiverse".
1470:
1425:
1328:
814:
698:
The vacuum energy in quantum field theory can be set to any value by
557:
391:
286:
53:
produced by colliding protons decaying into hadron jets and electrons
1557:
1440:
Weinberg, Steven (1989-01-01). "The cosmological constant problem".
992:
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1993:
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211:
151:
1940:
1895:
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1380:
1139:
37:
2526:
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883:
that has different regions with different vacuum energies. These
838:
568:
is the substantial disagreement between the observed values of
618:
cm, ... and if this radiation, converted to material density (
1008:
2129:
1734:(2014). "The trace-free Einstein equations and inflation".
499:
2429:
1503:"The quantum vacuum and the cosmological constant problem"
2150:
1925:
1880:
1014:
966:
Adler, Ronald J.; Casey, Brendan; Jacob, Ovid C. (1995).
19:"Vacuum catastrophe" redirects here. For other uses, see
1116:
Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft
2009:
2394:
2286:
1561:"Planck 2015 results: XIII. Cosmological parameters"
1978:
1843:
1082:General Relativity: An introduction for physicists
1079:MP Hobson, GP Efstathiou & AN Lasenby (2006).
2076:
2898:
1614:
1612:
1361:
1359:
1357:
1355:
1223:"Cosmological Constant and Elementary Particles"
961:
959:
957:
930:Calculated based on the Hubble constant and the
1500:
965:
2643:Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model
1243:
1220:
2492:
2015:
1609:
1352:
1159:"Walther Nernst: grandfather of dark energy?"
954:
758:One assessment, made by JĂ©rĂŽme Martin of the
521:
2365:from the original on 2021-12-20 – via
1671:
1152:
1150:
579:) and the much larger theoretical value of
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36:
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1439:
1293:
1147:
1126:
1109:
1191:
1156:
1132:
860:proposed that correlations between the
657:as observed, according to the standard
2899:
1365:
1197:
252:de Sitter invariant special relativity
232:N = 4 supersymmetric YangâMills theory
2480:
2225:
2216:
1730:
1103:
1072:
765:
2879:
1618:
1501:Rugh, S.E.; Zinkernagel, H. (2002).
907:List of unsolved problems in physics
664:
182:6D (2,0) superconformal field theory
1296:"The cosmological constant problem"
1270:
705:
551:(more unsolved problems in physics)
187:Noncommutative quantum field theory
49:particle detector data depicting a
21:Vacuum catastrophe (disambiguation)
13:
2506:
1737:General Relativity and Gravitation
782:and others have suggested that in
693:
14:
2923:
2912:Physics beyond the Standard Model
2375:"The worst prediction in physics"
2341:
760:Institut d'Astrophysique de Paris
2878:
2867:
2866:
2611:
2464:
2452:
2440:
2428:
2416:
2404:
1184:10.1111/j.1468-4004.2012.53124.x
217:Mathematical universe hypothesis
2280:
2123:
2070:
1972:
1919:
1874:
1837:
1782:
1724:
1665:
1551:
1494:
1433:
1412:
1294:Weinberg, Steven (1989-01-01).
1287:
1264:
1258:10.1070/PU1968v011n03ABEH003927
1021:The European Physical Journal C
924:
2794:Causal dynamical triangulation
2228:Reports on Progress in Physics
1237:
1214:
1051:10.1140/epjc/s10052-019-7554-1
793:and Robert Shrock, is that in
422:Causal dynamical triangulation
1:
2633:Spontaneous symmetry breaking
1537:10.1016/S1355-2198(02)00033-3
947:
684:electroweak symmetry breaking
562:cosmological constant problem
109:Cosmological constant problem
1621:Physics of the Dark Universe
1565:Astronomy & Astrophysics
142:Cosmic censorship hypothesis
7:
2109:10.1103/PhysRevLett.82.4971
1868:10.1103/PhysRevD.108.124013
1595:10.1051/0004-6361/201525830
1221:Zel'Dovich, Ya. B. (1967).
972:American Journal of Physics
900:
679:quantum-mechanical momentum
542:Unsolved problem in physics
10:
2928:
2048:10.1103/physrevd.98.103520
2003:10.1038/s42254-022-00453-3
1958:10.1103/PhysRevC.85.065202
1913:10.1103/PhysRevC.82.022201
1710:10.1103/PhysRevD.95.103504
1651:10.1016/j.dark.2016.02.001
1398:10.1016/j.crhy.2012.04.008
1163:Astronomy & Geophysics
1087:Cambridge University Press
598:
18:
2862:
2821:
2799:Canonical quantum gravity
2769:
2736:
2705:
2662:
2651:
2620:
2609:
2514:
2353:"The Crisis in Cosmology"
2293:The Astrophysical Journal
1823:10.1007/s10701-018-0189-5
1768:10.1007/s10714-013-1619-5
1672:Wang, Qingdi; Zhu, Zhen;
1442:Reviews of Modern Physics
1300:Reviews of Modern Physics
1204:Physikalische Zeitschrift
789:Another argument, due to
651:expansion of the universe
437:Canonical quantum gravity
262:Black hole thermodynamics
247:Doubly special relativity
30:Beyond the Standard Model
2804:Superfluid vacuum theory
2258:10.1088/1361-6633/aa50e4
918:
819:light front quantization
795:light front quantization
644:With the development of
575:(the small value of the
447:Superfluid vacuum theory
297:Gauge gravitation theory
2586:Quantum electrodynamics
2576:Electroweak interaction
2079:Physical Review Letters
1587:2016A&A...594A..13P
1462:10.1103/revmodphys.61.1
1368:Comptes Rendus Physique
1320:10.1103/RevModPhys.61.1
1281:10.1126/science.aal0603
1175:2012A&G....53a..24K
912:Ultraviolet catastrophe
895:string theory landscape
803:quantum electrodynamics
2564:Quantum chromodynamics
1792:Foundations of Physics
1246:Soviet Physics Uspekhi
811:quantum chromodynamics
646:inflationary cosmology
427:Causal fermion systems
417:Loop quantum cosmology
362:Large extra dimensions
352:Supersymmetry breaking
257:Causal fermion systems
2680:Cosmological constant
2389:Don "Dr. Don" Lincoln
2387:(video by Fermilab's
2187:10.1089/ast.2018.1895
874:holographic principle
577:cosmological constant
442:Semiclassical gravity
237:Twistor string theory
227:RandallâSundrum model
44:Large Hadron Collider
2789:Loop quantum gravity
2728:Theory of everything
2723:Grand Unified Theory
2697:Neutrino oscillation
2544:Quantum field theory
2351:(January 24, 2019).
1085:(Reprint ed.).
869:quantum field theory
835:quantum field theory
799:quantum field theory
712:Planck collaboration
585:quantum field theory
407:Loop quantum gravity
302:Gauge theory gravity
167:Grand Unified Theory
162:Unified field theory
157:Theory of everything
119:Neutrino oscillation
16:Concept in cosmology
2756:Split supersymmetry
2718:KaluzaâKlein theory
2591:Fermi's interaction
2315:1998ApJ...492...29M
2250:2017RPPh...80b2001L
2179:2019AsBio..19..126T
2101:1999PhRvL..82.4971C
2040:2018PhRvD..98j3520L
1950:2012PhRvC..85f5202B
1905:2010PhRvC..82b2201B
1815:2018FoPh...48.1364P
1760:2014GReGr..46.1619E
1732:Ellis, George F. R.
1702:2017PhRvD..95j3504W
1643:2016PDU....12...56B
1529:2002SHPMP..33..663R
1454:1989RvMP...61....1W
1390:2012CRPhy..13..566M
1312:1989RvMP...61....1W
1043:2020EPJC...80...18B
984:1995AmJPh..63..620A
885:anthropic arguments
177:KaluzaâKlein theory
2907:Physical cosmology
2784:Superstring theory
2554:Strong interaction
934:density parameter
784:unimodular gravity
780:George F. R. Ellis
766:Proposed solutions
675:general relativity
639:Lorentz invariance
566:vacuum catastrophe
337:Superstring theory
267:Unparticle physics
207:Superstring theory
137:BransâDicke theory
2894:
2893:
2817:
2816:
2692:Strong CP problem
2670:Hierarchy problem
2385:. March 14, 2024.
2085:(25): 4971â4974.
2018:Physical Review D
1928:Physical Review C
1883:Physical Review C
1799:(10): 1364â1379.
1679:Physical Review D
1674:Unruh, William G.
1110:W Nernst (1916).
1096:978-0-521-82951-9
862:UV and IR cutoffs
830:symmetry breaking
807:weak interactions
753:geometrized units
665:Cutoff dependence
590:Depending on the
581:zero-point energy
538:
537:
412:Quantum cosmology
192:Quantum cosmology
114:Strong CP problem
74:Hierarchy problem
2919:
2882:
2881:
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2596:Weak hypercharge
2581:Weak interaction
2522:Particle physics
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2306:astro-ph/9701099
2289:Shapiro, Paul R.
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2013:
2007:
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1996:
1981:Nature Rev. Phys
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1383:
1374:(6â7): 566â665.
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1234:
1218:
1212:
1211:
1195:
1189:
1188:
1186:
1169:(1): 1.24â1.26.
1157:H Kragh (2012).
1154:
1145:
1144:
1142:
1130:
1124:
1123:
1107:
1101:
1100:
1076:
1070:
1069:
1067:
1065:
1036:
1012:
1006:
1005:
995:
963:
942:
940:
928:
843:cold dark matter
750:
748:
742:
738:
736:
730:
728:
722:
706:Estimated values
628:
617:
543:
530:
523:
516:
402:Quantum geometry
357:Extra dimensions
40:
26:
25:
2927:
2926:
2922:
2921:
2920:
2918:
2917:
2916:
2897:
2896:
2895:
2890:
2858:
2813:
2771:Quantum gravity
2765:
2732:
2701:
2654:
2647:
2638:Higgs mechanism
2616:
2612:
2607:
2510:
2505:
2475:
2465:
2463:
2453:
2451:
2441:
2439:
2427:
2417:
2415:
2403:
2395:
2373:
2344:
2339:
2338:
2285:
2281:
2224:
2217:
2207:
2205:
2149:
2145:
2128:
2124:
2075:
2071:
2014:
2010:
1977:
1973:
1924:
1920:
1879:
1875:
1842:
1838:
1787:
1783:
1729:
1725:
1670:
1666:
1617:
1610:
1556:
1552:
1499:
1495:
1438:
1434:
1417:
1413:
1364:
1353:
1292:
1288:
1269:
1265:
1242:
1238:
1219:
1215:
1198:W Lenz (1926).
1196:
1192:
1155:
1148:
1131:
1127:
1108:
1104:
1097:
1089:. p. 187.
1077:
1073:
1063:
1061:
1013:
1009:
993:10.1119/1.17850
964:
955:
950:
945:
939:
935:
929:
925:
921:
903:
890:Steven Weinberg
854:David B. Kaplan
791:Stanley Brodsky
768:
746:
744:
741:3.35 GeV/m
740:
734:
732:
726:
724:
721:
715:
708:
700:renormalization
696:
694:Renormalization
667:
634:Yakov Zeldovich
619:
612:
601:
554:
553:
548:
545:
534:
505:
504:
460:
452:
451:
377:
375:Quantum gravity
367:
366:
322:
312:
311:
292:Massive gravity
197:Brane cosmology
132:
124:
123:
69:
54:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2925:
2915:
2914:
2909:
2892:
2891:
2889:
2888:
2876:
2863:
2860:
2859:
2857:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2825:
2823:
2819:
2818:
2815:
2814:
2812:
2811:
2809:Twistor theory
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2775:
2773:
2767:
2766:
2764:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2742:
2740:
2734:
2733:
2731:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2709:
2707:
2703:
2702:
2700:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2688:
2687:
2677:
2672:
2666:
2664:
2657:
2655:Standard Model
2649:
2648:
2646:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2624:
2622:
2618:
2617:
2610:
2608:
2606:
2605:
2604:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2573:
2572:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2540:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2518:
2516:
2512:
2511:
2508:Standard Model
2504:
2503:
2496:
2489:
2481:
2474:
2473:
2461:
2449:
2437:
2425:
2413:
2393:
2392:
2371:
2343:
2342:External links
2340:
2337:
2336:
2323:10.1086/305016
2287:Martel, Hugo;
2279:
2215:
2163:(1): 126â131.
2143:
2122:
2092:hep-th/9803132
2069:
2008:
1971:
1918:
1873:
1852:(12): 124013.
1836:
1781:
1723:
1686:(10): 103504.
1664:
1608:
1550:
1520:hep-th/0012253
1513:(4): 663â705.
1493:
1432:
1411:
1351:
1286:
1263:
1252:(3): 381â393.
1236:
1213:
1190:
1146:
1125:
1102:
1095:
1071:
1007:
978:(7): 620â626.
952:
951:
949:
946:
944:
943:
937:
922:
920:
917:
916:
915:
909:
902:
899:
767:
764:
719:
707:
704:
695:
692:
666:
663:
605:Walther Nernst
600:
597:
549:
546:
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536:
535:
533:
532:
525:
518:
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101:
99:Dark radiation
96:
94:Phantom energy
91:
86:
81:
76:
70:
67:
66:
63:
62:
60:Standard Model
56:
55:
41:
33:
32:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2924:
2913:
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2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2779:String theory
2777:
2776:
2774:
2772:
2768:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2743:
2741:
2739:
2738:Supersymmetry
2735:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2710:
2708:
2704:
2698:
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2641:
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2602:
2599:
2597:
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2579:
2578:
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2574:
2570:
2567:
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2562:
2560:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2524:
2523:
2520:
2519:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2502:
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2407:
2402:
2401:
2398:
2390:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2359:
2358:PBS Spacetime
2354:
2350:
2346:
2345:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2283:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2234:(2): 022001.
2233:
2229:
2222:
2220:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2147:
2138:
2133:
2126:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2073:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2012:
2004:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1975:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1934:(6): 065202.
1933:
1929:
1922:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1889:(2): 022201.
1888:
1884:
1877:
1869:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1840:
1832:
1828:
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1534:
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1526:
1521:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
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1489:
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1481:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1436:
1427:
1426:gr-qc/0208027
1422:
1415:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1382:
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1369:
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1360:
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1321:
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1313:
1309:
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1267:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1240:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1217:
1209:
1206:(in German).
1205:
1201:
1194:
1185:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1153:
1151:
1141:
1136:
1129:
1121:
1118:(in German).
1117:
1113:
1106:
1098:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1083:
1075:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
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1035:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1011:
1003:
999:
994:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
962:
960:
958:
953:
933:
927:
923:
913:
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905:
904:
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891:
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882:
877:
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867:
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846:
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831:
826:
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820:
816:
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808:
804:
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792:
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781:
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763:
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656:
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622:
615:
610:
606:
596:
593:
592:Planck energy
588:
586:
583:suggested by
582:
578:
574:
571:
570:vacuum energy
567:
563:
559:
552:
531:
526:
524:
519:
517:
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423:
420:
418:
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413:
410:
408:
405:
403:
400:
398:
395:
393:
390:
388:
387:String theory
385:
383:
380:
379:
376:
371:
370:
363:
360:
358:
355:
353:
350:
348:
345:
343:
340:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
324:
321:
320:Supersymmetry
316:
315:
308:
305:
303:
300:
298:
295:
293:
290:
288:
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233:
230:
228:
225:
223:
222:Mirror matter
220:
218:
215:
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210:
208:
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203:
202:String theory
200:
198:
195:
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190:
188:
185:
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170:
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165:
163:
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128:
127:
120:
117:
115:
112:
110:
107:
105:
102:
100:
97:
95:
92:
90:
87:
85:
82:
80:
77:
75:
72:
71:
65:
64:
61:
58:
57:
52:
48:
45:
39:
35:
34:
31:
28:
27:
22:
2883:
2871:
2761:Supergravity
2684:
2621:Constituents
2601:Weak isospin
2559:Color charge
2549:Gauge theory
2471:Solar System
2378:
2356:
2349:O'Dowd, Matt
2299:(1): 29â40.
2296:
2292:
2282:
2231:
2227:
2206:. Retrieved
2160:
2157:Astrobiology
2156:
2146:
2125:
2082:
2078:
2072:
2021:
2017:
2011:
1984:
1980:
1974:
1931:
1927:
1921:
1886:
1882:
1876:
1849:
1846:Phys. Rev. D
1845:
1839:
1796:
1790:
1784:
1741:
1735:
1726:
1683:
1677:
1667:
1624:
1620:
1568:
1564:
1553:
1510:
1506:
1496:
1445:
1441:
1435:
1414:
1371:
1367:
1303:
1299:
1289:
1272:
1266:
1249:
1245:
1239:
1230:
1227:JETP Letters
1226:
1216:
1207:
1203:
1193:
1166:
1162:
1128:
1119:
1115:
1105:
1081:
1074:
1062:. Retrieved
1024:
1020:
1010:
975:
971:
926:
878:
850:Andrew Cohen
847:
827:
788:
773:
769:
757:
729:10 kg/m
716:
709:
697:
670:
668:
643:
631:
624:
620:
613:
609:Wilhelm Lenz
602:
589:
565:
561:
555:
397:Quantum foam
382:False vacuum
347:Supergravity
307:CPT symmetry
108:
89:Quintessence
2822:Experiments
2713:Technicolor
2675:Dark matter
2569:Quark model
2537:Higgs boson
2532:Gauge boson
2459:Outer space
2447:Spaceflight
2024:(10): 2â3.
1448:(1): 1â23.
1306:(1): 1â23.
932:dark energy
749:10 GeV
737:10 J/m
688:quark epoch
686:during the
673:, while in
659:Î-CDM model
459:Experiments
432:Causal sets
277:Graviscalar
272:Graviphoton
172:Technicolor
147:Fifth force
104:Dark photon
84:Dark energy
79:Dark matter
51:Higgs boson
2901:Categories
2829:Gran Sasso
2653:Beyond the
2628:CKM matrix
2515:Background
2241:1512.01203
2208:21 October
2170:1804.10395
2137:2107.03530
2031:1807.00180
1994:2202.06051
1987:(7): 489.
1859:2312.03062
1806:1712.09903
1693:1703.00543
1634:1512.05356
1578:1502.01589
1471:2152/61094
1329:2152/61094
1233:: 316â317.
1210:: 642â645.
1064:21 October
1034:1906.05406
1027:(18): 18.
948:References
881:multiverse
858:Ann Nelson
823:non-causal
775:Bill Unruh
655:accelerate
653:would not
470:Gran Sasso
242:Dark fluid
42:Simulated
2423:Astronomy
2331:119064782
2203:133086904
2064:119346601
2056:2470-0010
1966:118373670
1941:1202.2376
1896:1005.4610
1831:118934871
1776:119000135
1751:1306.3021
1718:119076077
1659:118450389
1627:: 56â99.
1603:0004-6361
1488:122259372
1480:0034-6861
1406:119272967
1381:1205.3365
1346:122259372
1338:0034-6861
1140:1111.4623
1122:: 83â116.
1059:189762342
1002:0002-9505
866:effective
848:In 1999,
815:spacetime
743:or about
558:cosmology
392:Spin foam
287:Gravitino
2873:Category
2854:Tevatron
2706:Theories
2663:Evidence
2527:Fermions
2383:Fermilab
2363:Archived
2266:28071600
2195:30129784
2117:17203575
1744:: 1619.
901:See also
671:pressure
616:â 2 Ă 10
495:Tevatron
342:M-theory
282:Graviton
212:M-theory
152:F-theory
131:Theories
68:Evidence
2885:Commons
2849:Super-K
2685:problem
2411:Physics
2397:Portals
2379:YouTube
2367:YouTube
2311:Bibcode
2274:5221573
2246:Bibcode
2175:Bibcode
2097:Bibcode
2036:Bibcode
1946:Bibcode
1901:Bibcode
1811:Bibcode
1756:Bibcode
1698:Bibcode
1639:Bibcode
1583:Bibcode
1571:: A13.
1545:9007190
1525:Bibcode
1450:Bibcode
1386:Bibcode
1308:Bibcode
1273:Science
1171:Bibcode
1039:Bibcode
980:Bibcode
839:baryons
817:. From
599:History
573:density
490:Super-K
2329:
2272:
2264:
2201:
2193:
2115:
2062:
2054:
1964:
1829:
1774:
1716:
1657:
1601:
1543:
1486:
1478:
1404:
1344:
1336:
1093:
1057:
1000:
845:only.
809:, and
797:, the
733:5.3566
560:, the
2751:NMSSM
2435:Stars
2327:S2CID
2301:arXiv
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