513:
describes the decrease in the noise, relative to
Poisson statistics, due to the uniformity of conversion process and the absence of, or weak coupling to, bath states in the conversion process. In other words, an "ideal" semiconductor would convert the energy of the charged particle into an exact and reproducible number of electron hole pairs to conserve energy; in reality, however, the energy deposited by the charged particle is divided into the generation of electron hole pairs, the generation of sound, the generation of heat, and the generation of damage or displacement. The existence of these other channels introduces a stochastic process, where the amount of energy deposited into any single process varies from event to event, even if the amount of energy deposited is the same.
522:
device performance associated with the capacitance, transit times and avalanche multiplication time. The capacitance increases with increasing device area and decreasing thickness. The transit times (both electrons and holes) increase with increasing thickness, implying a tradeoff between capacitance and transit time for performance. The avalanche multiplication time times the gain is given to first order by the gain-bandwidth product, which is a function of the device structure and most especially
276:. In this case, the photodetector needs to have its signal current limited and quickly diminished. Active and passive current-quenching techniques have been used for this purpose. SPADs that operate in this high-gain regime are sometimes referred to being in Geiger mode. This mode is particularly useful for single-photon detection, provided that the dark count event rate and afterpulsing probability are sufficiently low.
370:, which indicates how well incident optical photons are absorbed and then used to generate primary charge carriers; and total leakage current, which is the sum of the dark current, photocurrent and noise. Electronic dark-noise components are series and parallel noise. Series noise, which is the effect of
328:
are required for nearly 100% light absorption. The excess noise factor is low enough to permit a gain-bandwidth product in excess of 100 GHz for a simple InP/InGaAs system, and up to 400 GHz for InGaAs on silicon. Therefore, high-speed operation is possible: commercial devices are available
382:
Another noise source is the excess noise factor, ENF. It is a multiplicative correction applied to the noise that describes the increase in the statistical noise, specifically
Poisson noise, due to the multiplication process. The ENF is defined for any device, such as photomultiplier tubes, silicon
255:
is the multiplication coefficient for electrons (and holes). This coefficient has a strong dependence on the applied electric field strength, temperature, and doping profile. Since APD gain varies strongly with the applied reverse bias and temperature, it is necessary to closely monitor the reverse
521:
The underlying physics associated with the excess noise factor (gain noise) and the Fano factor (conversion noise) is very different. However, the application of these factors as multiplicative corrections to the expected
Poisson noise is similar. In addition to excess noise, there are limits to
512:
The noise term for an APD may also contain a Fano factor, which is a multiplicative correction applied to the
Poisson noise associated with the conversion of the energy deposited by a charged particle to the electron-hole pairs, which is the signal before multiplication. The correction factor
495:
is the ratio of the hole impact ionization rate to that of electrons. For an electron multiplication device it is given by the hole impact ionization rate divided by the electron impact ionization rate. It is desirable to have a large asymmetry between these rates to minimize
470:
116:, whereby a photon provides the energy to separate charge carriers in the semiconductor material into a positive and negative pair, which can thus cause a charge flow through the diode. By applying a high
226:
857:
852:
345:-based diodes operate in the infrared, typically at wavelengths up to about 14 μm, but require cooling to reduce dark currents. Very low excess noise can be achieved in this material system.
581:
104:
in 1952. However, study of avalanche breakdown, micro-plasma defects in silicon and germanium and the investigation of optical detection using p-n junctions predate this patent.
661:
Wu, W.; Hawkins, A. R.; Bowers, J. E. (1997). "Design of InGaAs/Si avalanche photodetectors for 400-GHZ gain-bandwidth product". In Park, Yoon-Soo; Ramaswamy, Ramu V (eds.).
139:
and bevelling (structural) techniques compared to traditional APDs, a it is possible to create designs where greater voltage can be applied (> 1500 V) before
541:
493:
253:
39:
374:, is basically proportional to the APD capacitance, while the parallel noise is associated with the fluctuations of the APD bulk and surface dark currents.
397:
135:
APD typically can sustain 100–200 V of reverse bias before breakdown, leading to a gain factor of around 100. However, by employing alternative
824:
Hyun, Kyung-Sook; Park, Chan-Yong (1997). "Breakdown characteristics in InP/InGaAs avalanche photodiode with p-i-n multiplication layer structure".
585:
784:
304:
will detect out to longer than 1.6 μm and has less multiplication noise than Ge. It is normally used as the absorption region of a
312:
as a substrate and as a multiplication layer. This material system is compatible with an absorption window of roughly 0.9–1.7 μm.
156:
383:
solid-state photomultipliers, and APDs, that multiplies a signal, and is sometimes referred to as "gain noise". At a gain
626:
Tarof, L. E. (1991). "Planar InP/GaAs
Avalanche Photodetector with Gain-Bandwidth Product in Excess of 100 GHz".
789:
562:
504:) is one of the main factors that limit, among other things, the best possible energy resolution obtainable.
265:
897:
85:
887:
706:
877:
288:
Silicon will detect in the visible and near infrared, with low multiplication noise (excess noise).
892:
882:
863:
313:
525:
317:
136:
478:
238:
366:
APD applicability and usefulness depends on many parameters. Two of the larger factors are:
833:
803:
733:
666:
635:
582:"Jun-ichi Nishizawa – Engineer, Sophia University Special Professor – JAPAN QUALITY REVIEW"
140:
62:
8:
557:
121:
55:
837:
807:
737:
670:
639:
749:
694:
682:
367:
125:
101:
54:, such that charge carriers generated by the photoelectric effect are multiplied by an
686:
273:
113:
81:
74:
51:
43:
841:
811:
753:
741:
674:
643:
309:
89:
61:
From a functional standpoint, they can be regarded as the semiconductor analog of
767:
552:
332:
305:
284:
In principle, any semiconductor material can be used as a multiplication region:
264:
If very high gain is needed (10 to 10), detectors related to APDs called SPADs (
794:
Kagawa, S. (1981). "Fully ion-implanted p+-n germanium avalanche photodiodes".
465:{\displaystyle {\text{ENF}}=\kappa M+\left(2-{\frac {1}{M}}\right)(1-\kappa ),}
871:
321:
143:
is reached, and hence a greater operating gain (> 1000) is achieved.
78:
32:
745:
131:
In general, the higher the reverse voltage, the higher the gain. A standard
355:
117:
47:
768:"Avalanche Photodiode : Construction, Working & Its Applications"
647:
336:
858:
Pulsed
Laserdiodes and Avalanche Photodiodes for Industrial Applications
120:
voltage, any photoelectric effect in the diode can be multiplied by the
371:
46:. APDs use materials and a structure optimised for operating with high
28:
678:
320:
at the wavelengths appropriate to high-speed telecommunications using
298:
out to a wavelength of 1.7 μm, but has high multiplication noise.
845:
291:
58:; thus they can be used to detect relatively small amounts of light.
815:
721:
295:
660:
146:
Among the various expressions for the APD multiplication factor (
132:
342:
325:
301:
722:"Recent advances in Telecommunications Avalanche Photodiodes"
221:{\displaystyle M={\frac {1}{1-\int _{0}^{L}\alpha (x)\,dx}},}
35:
100:
The avalanche photodiode was invented by
Japanese engineer
615:. Vol. 22, Part D "Photodetectors". Academic Press.
73:
of incoming photons. Typical applications for APDs are
528:
481:
400:
241:
159:
150:), an instructive expression is given by the formula
124:. Thus, the APD can be thought of as applying a high
535:
487:
464:
377:
268:) can be used and operated with a reverse voltage
247:
220:
358:but have more complex designs such as p+-i-p-n+.
65:; unlike solar cells, they are not optimised for
869:
507:
335:–based diodes have been used for operation with
235:is the space-charge boundary for electrons, and
16:Highly sensitive semiconductor electronic device
788:Avalanche Photodiode – Low noise APD receivers
719:
625:
610:
862:Excelitas Technologies Photonic Detectors
532:
354:APDs are often not constructed as simple
205:
107:
823:
38:that convert light into electricity via
606:
604:
602:
259:
870:
793:
69:electricity from light but rather for
516:
361:
329:to speeds of at least 10 Gbit/s.
783:Avalanche photodiode – A User Guide
599:
128:effect to the induced photocurrent.
13:
777:
665:. Vol. 3006. pp. 36–47.
663:Optoelectronic Integrated Circuits
14:
909:
112:Photodiodes generally operate by
391:) and can often be expressed as
308:diode, most typically involving
27:) is a highly sensitive type of
726:Journal of Lightwave Technology
378:Gain noise, excess noise factor
324:, so only a few micrometres of
256:voltage to keep a stable gain.
760:
713:
654:
619:
574:
456:
444:
266:single-photon avalanche diodes
202:
196:
1:
613:Semiconductors and Semimetals
568:
563:Single-photon avalanche diode
508:Conversion noise, Fano factor
349:
279:
86:positron emission tomography
7:
546:
10:
914:
826:Journal of Applied Physics
611:Tsang, W. T., ed. (1985).
95:
50:, approaching the reverse
536:{\displaystyle \kappa \,}
720:Campbell, J. C. (2007).
853:Selecting the right APD
796:Applied Physics Letters
746:10.1109/JLT.2006.888481
488:{\displaystyle \kappa }
387:, it is denoted by ENF(
248:{\displaystyle \alpha }
31:, which in general are
537:
489:
466:
318:absorption coefficient
249:
222:
108:Principle of operation
538:
490:
467:
250:
223:
63:photomultiplier tubes
526:
479:
398:
260:Geiger mode counting
239:
157:
40:interband excitation
21:avalanche photodiode
898:Japanese inventions
838:1997JAP....81..974H
808:1981ApPhL..38..429K
770:. 25 November 2021.
738:2007JLwT...25..109C
671:1997SPIE.3006...38W
648:10.1049/el:19910023
640:1991ElL....27...34T
628:Electronics Letters
558:Avalanche breakdown
192:
56:avalanche breakdown
888:Particle detectors
533:
517:Further influences
485:
462:
368:quantum efficiency
362:Performance limits
245:
218:
178:
102:Jun-ichi Nishizawa
75:laser rangefinders
679:10.1117/12.264251
437:
404:
294:(Ge) will detect
274:breakdown voltage
213:
114:impact ionization
82:telecommunication
52:breakdown voltage
44:impact ionization
905:
849:
846:10.1063/1.364225
819:
772:
771:
764:
758:
757:
717:
711:
710:
704:
700:
698:
690:
658:
652:
651:
623:
617:
616:
608:
597:
596:
594:
593:
584:. Archived from
578:
542:
540:
539:
534:
494:
492:
491:
486:
471:
469:
468:
463:
443:
439:
438:
430:
405:
402:
316:exhibits a high
272:a typical APD's
254:
252:
251:
246:
227:
225:
224:
219:
214:
212:
191:
186:
167:
122:avalanche effect
90:particle physics
913:
912:
908:
907:
906:
904:
903:
902:
878:Optical devices
868:
867:
816:10.1063/1.92385
780:
778:Further reading
775:
766:
765:
761:
718:
714:
702:
701:
692:
691:
659:
655:
624:
620:
609:
600:
591:
589:
580:
579:
575:
571:
553:Avalanche diode
549:
527:
524:
523:
519:
510:
480:
477:
476:
429:
422:
418:
401:
399:
396:
395:
380:
364:
352:
333:Gallium-nitride
306:heterostructure
282:
262:
240:
237:
236:
187:
182:
171:
166:
158:
155:
154:
110:
98:
17:
12:
11:
5:
911:
901:
900:
895:
893:Photodetectors
890:
885:
883:Optical diodes
880:
866:
865:
860:
855:
850:
821:
802:(6): 429–431.
791:
786:
779:
776:
774:
773:
759:
732:(1): 109–121.
712:
703:|journal=
653:
618:
598:
572:
570:
567:
566:
565:
560:
555:
548:
545:
531:
518:
515:
509:
506:
484:
473:
472:
461:
458:
455:
452:
449:
446:
442:
436:
433:
428:
425:
421:
417:
414:
411:
408:
379:
376:
363:
360:
351:
348:
347:
346:
340:
330:
322:optical fibers
299:
289:
281:
278:
261:
258:
244:
229:
228:
217:
211:
208:
204:
201:
198:
195:
190:
185:
181:
177:
174:
170:
165:
162:
109:
106:
97:
94:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
910:
899:
896:
894:
891:
889:
886:
884:
881:
879:
876:
875:
873:
864:
861:
859:
856:
854:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
822:
817:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
792:
790:
787:
785:
782:
781:
769:
763:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
716:
708:
696:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
657:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
622:
614:
607:
605:
603:
588:on 2018-07-21
587:
583:
577:
573:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
551:
550:
544:
529:
514:
505:
503:
500:), since ENF(
499:
482:
459:
453:
450:
447:
440:
434:
431:
426:
423:
419:
415:
412:
409:
406:
394:
393:
392:
390:
386:
375:
373:
369:
359:
357:
356:p-n junctions
344:
341:
338:
334:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
300:
297:
293:
290:
287:
286:
285:
277:
275:
271:
267:
257:
242:
234:
215:
209:
206:
199:
193:
188:
183:
179:
175:
172:
168:
163:
160:
153:
152:
151:
149:
144:
142:
138:
134:
129:
127:
123:
119:
115:
105:
103:
93:
91:
87:
83:
80:
77:, long-range
76:
72:
68:
64:
59:
57:
53:
49:
45:
42:coupled with
41:
37:
34:
33:semiconductor
30:
26:
22:
829:
825:
799:
795:
762:
729:
725:
715:
662:
656:
634:(1): 34–36.
631:
627:
621:
612:
590:. Retrieved
586:the original
576:
520:
511:
501:
497:
474:
388:
384:
381:
365:
353:
283:
269:
263:
232:
230:
147:
145:
130:
118:reverse bias
111:
99:
70:
66:
60:
48:reverse bias
24:
20:
18:
337:ultraviolet
79:fiber-optic
872:Categories
832:(2): 974.
592:2017-05-15
569:References
372:shot noise
67:generating
29:photodiode
705:ignored (
695:cite book
687:109777495
530:κ
483:κ
454:κ
451:−
427:−
410:κ
350:Structure
292:Germanium
280:Materials
243:α
194:α
180:∫
176:−
141:breakdown
71:detection
547:See also
296:infrared
834:Bibcode
804:Bibcode
754:1398387
734:Bibcode
667:Bibcode
636:Bibcode
133:silicon
96:History
752:
685:
475:where
343:HgCdTe
339:light.
326:InGaAs
314:InGaAs
302:InGaAs
231:where
137:doping
88:, and
36:diodes
750:S2CID
683:S2CID
270:above
707:help
496:ENF(
126:gain
842:doi
812:doi
742:doi
675:doi
644:doi
403:ENF
310:InP
25:APD
19:An
874::
840:.
830:81
828:.
820:gh
810:.
800:38
798:.
748:.
740:.
730:25
728:.
724:.
699::
697:}}
693:{{
681:.
673:.
642:.
632:27
630:.
601:^
543:.
92:.
84:,
848:.
844::
836::
818:.
814::
806::
756:.
744::
736::
709:)
689:.
677::
669::
650:.
646::
638::
595:.
502:M
498:M
460:,
457:)
448:1
445:(
441:)
435:M
432:1
424:2
420:(
416:+
413:M
407:=
389:M
385:M
233:L
216:,
210:x
207:d
203:)
200:x
197:(
189:L
184:0
173:1
169:1
164:=
161:M
148:M
23:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.