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Despite the low speed of travel (≈10–40 km/h), wet snow avalanches are capable of generating powerful destructive forces, due to the large mass and density. The body of the flow of a wet snow avalanche can plough through soft snow, and can scour boulders, earth, trees, and other vegetation; leaving exposed and often scored ground in the avalanche track. Wet snow avalanches can be initiated from either loose snow releases, or slab releases, and only occur in snowpacks that are water saturated and isothermally equilibrated to the melting point of water. The isothermal characteristic of wet snow avalanches has led to the secondary term of isothermal slides found in the literature (for example in
Daffern, 1999, p. 93). At temperate latitudes wet snow avalanches are frequently associated with climatic avalanche cycles at the end of the winter season, when there is significant daytime warming.
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experience has shown that newly fallen snow requires time to bond with the snow layers beneath it, especially if the new snow falls during very cold and dry conditions. If ambient air temperatures are cold enough, shallow snow above or around boulders, plants, and other discontinuities in the slope, weakens from rapid crystal growth that occurs in the presence of a critical temperature gradient. Large, angular snow crystals are indicators of weak snow, because such crystals have fewer bonds per unit volume than small, rounded crystals that pack tightly together. Consolidated snow is less likely to slough than loose powdery layers or wet isothermal snow; however, consolidated snow is a necessary condition for the occurrence of
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morphology, temperature, water content; and the properties of the bonds between the grains. These properties may all metamorphose in time according to the local humidity, water vapour flux, temperature and heat flux. The top of the snowpack is also extensively influenced by incoming radiation and the local air flow. One of the aims of avalanche research is to develop and validate computer models that can describe the evolution of the seasonal snowpack over time. A complicating factor is the complex interaction of terrain and weather, which causes significant spatial and temporal variability of the depths, crystal forms, and layering of the seasonal snowpack.
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602:). This results in two principal sources of uncertainty in determining snowpack stability based on snow structure: First, both the factors influencing snow stability and the specific characteristics of the snowpack vary widely within small areas and time scales, resulting in significant difficulty extrapolating point observations of snow layers across different scales of space and time. Second, the relationship between readily observable snowpack characteristics and the snowpack's critical mechanical properties has not been completely developed.
507:. Avalanche paths in alpine terrain may be poorly defined because of limited vegetation. Below tree line, avalanche paths are often delineated by vegetative trim lines created by past avalanches. The start zone is visible near the top of the image, the track is in the middle of the image and clearly denoted by vegetative trimlines, and the runout zone is shown at the bottom of the image. One possible timeline is as follows: an avalanche forms in the start zone near the ridge, and then descends the track, until coming to rest in the runout zone.
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535:. The composition and structure of the ground surface beneath the snowpack influences the stability of the snowpack, either being a source of strength or weakness. Avalanches are unlikely to form in very thick forests, but boulders and sparsely distributed vegetation can create weak areas deep within the snowpack through the formation of strong temperature gradients. Full-depth avalanches (avalanches that sweep a slope virtually clean of snow cover) are more common on slopes with smooth ground, such as grass or rock slabs.
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snow from one place to another. Top-loading occurs when wind deposits snow from the top of a slope; cross-loading occurs when wind deposits snow parallel to the slope. When a wind blows over the top of a mountain, the leeward, or downwind, side of the mountain experiences top-loading, from the top to the bottom of that lee slope. When the wind blows across a ridge that leads up the mountain, the leeward side of the ridge is subject to cross-loading. Cross-loaded wind-slabs are usually difficult to identify visually.
690:, through its potentiating influence on the meteorological extremes experienced by snowpacks, is an important factor in the evolution of instabilities, and consequential occurrence of avalanches faster stabilization of the snowpack after storm cycles. The evolution of the snowpack is critically sensitive to small variations within the narrow range of meteorological conditions that allow for the accumulation of snow into a snowpack. Among the critical factors controlling snowpack evolution are: heating by the sun,
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slope flattens. Resisting this are a number of components that are thought to interact with each other: the friction between the avalanche and the surface beneath; friction between the air and snow within the fluid; fluid-dynamic drag at the leading edge of the avalanche; shear resistance between the avalanche and the air through which it is passing, and shear resistance between the fragments within the avalanche itself. An avalanche will continue to accelerate until the resistance exceeds the forward force.
392:. The origin of an avalanche is called the Starting Point and typically occurs on a 30–45 degree slope. The body of the pathway is called the Track of the avalanche and usually occurs on a 20–30 degree slope. When the avalanche loses its momentum and eventually stops it reaches the Runout Zone. This usually occurs when the slope has reached a steepness that is less than 20 degrees. These degrees are not consistently true due to the fact that each avalanche is unique depending on the stability of the
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311:. Metamorphic changes in the snowpack, such as melting due to solar radiation, is the second-largest cause of natural avalanches. Other natural causes include rain, earthquakes, rockfall, and icefall. Artificial triggers of avalanches include skiers, snowmobiles, and controlled explosive work. Contrary to popular belief, avalanches are not triggered by loud sound; the pressure from sound is orders of magnitude too small to trigger an avalanche.
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intensity is also expected to increase, which is likely to lead to more days with enough snowfall to cause the snowpack to become unstable. Moderate and high elevations may see an increase in volatile swings from one weather extreme to the other. Predictions also show an increase in the number of rain on snow events, and wet avalanche cycles occurring earlier in the spring during the remainder of this century.
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1064:. In contrast, all the accidents in the residential, industrial, and transportation settings were due to spontaneous natural avalanches. Because of the difference in the causes of avalanche accidents, and the activities pursued in the two settings, avalanche and disaster management professionals have developed two related preparedness, rescue, and recovery strategies for each of the settings.
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fractures on the sides of the start zones, and a fracture at the bottom called the stauchwall. The crown and flank fractures are vertical walls in the snow delineating the snow that was entrained in the avalanche from the snow that remained on the slope. Slabs can vary in thickness from a few centimetres to three metres. Slab avalanches account for around 90% of avalanche-related fatalities.
1002:. They usually have gaps between the beams and are built perpendicular to the slope, with reinforcing beams on the downhill side. Rigid barriers are often considered unsightly, especially when many rows must be built. They are also expensive and vulnerable to damage from falling rocks in the warmer months. In addition to industrially manufactured barriers, landscaped barriers, called
350:. These consist of a powder cloud, which overlies a dense avalanche. They can form from any type of snow or initiation mechanism, but usually occur with fresh dry powder. They can exceed speeds of 300 km/h (190 mph), and masses of 1,000,000 tons; their flows can travel long distances along flat valley bottoms and even uphill for short distances.
484:. Diurnal cycles of thawing and refreezing can stabilize the snowpack by promoting settlement. Strong freeze-thaw cycles result in the formation of surface crusts during the night and of unstable surface snow during the day. Slopes in the lee of a ridge or of another wind obstacle accumulate more snow and are more likely to include pockets of deep snow,
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610:, and persistent instabilities within the snowpack can hide below well-consolidated surface layers. Uncertainty associated with the empirical understanding of the factors influencing snow stability leads most professional avalanche workers to recommend conservative use of avalanche terrain relative to current snowpack instability.
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term, rain causes instability because, like a heavy snowfall, it imposes an additional load on the snowpack and once rainwater seeps down through the snow, acts as a lubricant, reducing the natural friction between snow layers that holds the snowpack together. Most avalanches happen during or soon after a storm.
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endangered areas. An example of such a system is installed on the only access road of
Zermatt in Switzerland. Two radars monitor the slope of a mountain above the road. The system automatically closes the road by activating several barriers and traffic lights within seconds such that no people are harmed.
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Persistent cold temperatures can either prevent new snow from stabilizing or destabilize the existing snowpack. Cold air temperatures on the snow surface produce a temperature gradient in the snow, because the ground temperature at the base of the snowpack is usually around 0 °C, and the ambient
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Avalanche formation and frequency is highly affected by weather patterns and the local climate. Snowpack layers will form differently depending on whether snow is falling in very cold or very warm conditions, and very dry or very humid conditions. Thus, climate change may affect when, where, and how
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Warning systems can detect avalanches which develop slowly, such as ice avalanches caused by icefalls from glaciers. Interferometric radars, high-resolution cameras, or motion sensors can monitor instable areas over a long term, lasting from days to years. Experts interpret the recorded data and are
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Daytime exposure to sunlight will rapidly destabilize the upper layers of the snowpack if the sunlight is strong enough to melt the snow, thereby reducing its hardness. During clear nights, the snowpack can re-freeze when ambient air temperatures fall below freezing, through the process of long-wave
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While the deterministic relationship between snowpack characteristics and snowpack stability is still a matter of ongoing scientific study, there is a growing empirical understanding of the snow composition and deposition characteristics that influence the likelihood of an avalanche. Observation and
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The snowpack is composed of ground-parallel layers that accumulate over the winter. Each layer contains ice grains that are representative of the distinct meteorological conditions during which the snow formed and was deposited. Once deposited, a snow layer continues to evolve under the influence of
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Doug Fesler and Jill
Fredston developed a conceptual model of the three primary elements of avalanches: terrain, weather, and snowpack. Terrain describes the places where avalanches occur, weather describes the meteorological conditions that create the snowpack, and snowpack describes the structural
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Avalanche initiation can start at a point with only a small amount of snow moving initially; this is typical of wet snow avalanches or avalanches in dry unconsolidated snow. However, if the snow has sintered into a stiff slab overlying a weak layer, then fractures can propagate very rapidly, so that
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In many areas, regular avalanche tracks can be identified and precautions can be taken to minimize damage, such as the prevention of development in these areas. To mitigate the effect of avalanches the construction of artificial barriers can be very effective in reducing avalanche damage. There are
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In turn, socio-environmental changes can influence the occurrence of damaging avalanches: some studies linking changes in land-use/land-cover patterns and the evolution of snow avalanche damage in mid latitude mountains show the importance of the role played by vegetation cover, that is at the root
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Any wind stronger than a light breeze can contribute to a rapid accumulation of snow on sheltered slopes downwind. Wind slabs form quickly and, if present, weaker snow below the slab may not have time to adjust to the new load. Even on a clear day, wind can quickly load a slope with snow by blowing
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In contrast to powder snow avalanches, wet snow avalanches are a low velocity suspension of snow and water, with the flow confined to the track surface (McClung, 1999, p. 108). The low speed of travel is due to the friction between the sliding surface of the track and the water saturated flow.
957:, they can greatly reduce the strength of avalanches. They hold snow in place and when there is an avalanche, the impact of the snow against the trees slows it down. Trees can either be planted or they can be conserved, such as in the building of a ski resort, to reduce the strength of avalanches.
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Driving an avalanche is the component of the avalanche's weight parallel to the slope; as the avalanche progresses any unstable snow in its path will tend to become incorporated, so increasing the overall weight. This force will increase as the steepness of the slope increases, and diminish as the
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At temperatures close to the freezing point of water, or during times of moderate solar radiation, a gentle freeze-thaw cycle will take place. The melting and refreezing of water in the snow strengthens the snowpack during the freezing phase and weakens it during the thawing phase. A rapid rise in
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Avalanches and avalanche paths share common elements: a start zone where the avalanche originates, a track along which the avalanche flows, and a runout zone where the avalanche comes to rest. The debris deposit is the accumulated mass of the avalanched snow once it has come to rest in the run-out
477:, deep snowpacks collect on vertical and even overhanging rock faces. The slope angle that can allow moving snow to accelerate depends on a variety of factors such as the snow's shear strength (which is itself dependent upon crystal form) and the configuration of layers and inter-layer interfaces.
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The warm, wet snowpacks that are likely to increase in frequency due to climate change may also make avalanche burials more deadly. Warm snow has a higher moisture content and is therefore denser than colder snow. Denser avalanche debris decreases the ability for a buried person to breath and the
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Overall, a rising seasonal snow line and a decrease in the number of days with snow cover are predicted. Climate change-caused temperature increases and changes in precipitation patterns will likely differ between the different mountain regions, and the impacts of these changes on avalanches will
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are used extensively to prevent avalanches, by triggering smaller avalanches that break down instabilities in the snowpack, and removing overburden that can result in larger avalanches. Explosive charges are delivered by a number of methods including hand-tossed charges, helicopter-dropped bombs,
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Snowstorms and rainstorms are important contributors to avalanche danger. Heavy snowfall will cause instability in the existing snowpack, both because of the additional weight and because the new snow has insufficient time to bond to underlying snow layers. Rain has a similar effect. In the short
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is between 35 and 45 degrees; the critical angle, the angle at which human-triggered avalanches are most frequent, is 38 degrees. When the incidence of human triggered avalanches is normalized by the rates of recreational use, however, hazard increases uniformly with slope angle, and no
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An ice avalanche occurs when a large piece of ice, such as from a serac or calving glacier, falls onto ice (such as the Khumbu
Icefall), triggering a movement of broken ice chunks. The resulting movement is more analogous to a rockfall or a landslide than a snow avalanche. They are typically very
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For an avalanche to occur, it is necessary that a snowpack have a weak layer (or instability) below a slab of cohesive snow. In practice the formal mechanical and structural factors related to snowpack instability are not directly observable outside of laboratories, thus the more easily observed
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or facets begin forming in the snowpack because of rapid moisture transport along the temperature gradient. These angular crystals, which bond poorly to one another and the surrounding snow, often become a persistent weakness in the snowpack. When a slab lying on top of a persistent weakness is
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Avalanche accidents are broadly differentiated into 2 categories: accidents in recreational settings, and accidents in residential, industrial, and transportation settings. This distinction is motivated by the observed difference in the causes of avalanche accidents in the two settings. In the
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Modern radar technology enables the monitoring of large areas and the localization of avalanches at any weather condition, by day and by night. Complex alarm systems are able to detect avalanches within a short time in order to close (e.g. roads and rails) or evacuate (e.g. construction sites)
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Precipitation is expected to increase, meaning more snow or rain depending on the elevation. Higher elevations predicted to remain above the seasonal snow line will likely see an increase in avalanche activity due to the increases in precipitation during the winter season. Storm precipitation
932:, mountain towns, roads, and railways. There are several ways to prevent avalanches and lessen their power and develop preventative measures to reduce the likelihood and size of avalanches by disrupting the structure of the snowpack, while passive measures reinforce and stabilize the snowpack
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Slab avalanches are formed frequently in snow that has been deposited, or redeposited by wind. They have the characteristic appearance of a block (slab) of snow cut out from its surroundings by fractures. Elements of slab avalanches include a crown fracture at the top of the start zone, flank
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Based on order of magnitude estimates of the pressure amplitude of various sources that cause elastic or pressure (sound) waves it can be ruled out that shouting or loud noise can trigger snow slab avalanches. The amplitudes are at least about two orders of magnitude smaller than known
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A snowpack will fail when the load exceeds the strength. The load is straightforward; it is the weight of the snow. However, the strength of the snowpack is much more difficult to determine and is extremely heterogeneous. It varies in detail with properties of the snow grains, size, density,
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stop or deflect avalanches with their weight and strength. These barriers are made out of concrete, rocks, or earth. They are usually placed right above the structure, road, or railway that they are trying to protect, although they can also be used to channel avalanches into other barriers.
737:. When sufficiently fine particles are present they can become airborne and, given a sufficient quantity of airborne snow, this portion of the avalanche can become separated from the bulk of the avalanche and travel a greater distance as a powder snow avalanche. Scientific studies using
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amount of time they have before they run out of oxygen. This increases the likelihood of death by asphyxia in the event of a burial. Additionally, the predicted thinner snowpacks may increase the frequency of injuries due to trauma, such as a buried skier striking a rock or tree.
953:. Downwind of the fence, snow build-up is lessened. This is caused by the loss of snow at the fence that would have been deposited and the pickup of the snow that is already there by the wind, which was depleted of snow at the fence. When there is a sufficient density of
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From "1950–1951 to 2020–2021" there were 1,169 people who died in avalanches in the United States. For the 11-year period ending April 2006, 445 people died in avalanches throughout North
America. On average, 28 people die in avalanches every winter in the United States.
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of the increase of damage when the protective forest is deforested (because of demographic growth, intensive grazing and industrial or legal causes), and at the root of the decrease of damage because of the transformation of a traditional land-management system based on
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Avalanche formation requires a slope shallow enough for snow to accumulate but steep enough for the snow to accelerate once set in motion by the combination of mechanical failure (of the snowpack) and gravity. The angle of the slope that can hold snow, called the
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zone. For the image at left, many small avalanches form in this avalanche path every year, but most of these avalanches do not run the full vertical or horizontal length of the path. The frequency with which avalanches form in a given area is known as the
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He and others subsequently derived other formulae that take other factors into account, with the
Voellmy-Salm-Gubler and the Perla-Cheng-McClung models becoming most widely used as simple tools to model flowing (as opposed to powder snow) avalanches.
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When a slab avalanche forms, the slab disintegrates into increasingly smaller fragments as the snow travels downhill. If the fragments become small enough the outer layer of the avalanche, called a saltation layer, takes on the characteristics of a
469:, depends on a variety of factors, such as crystal form and moisture content. Some forms of drier and colder snow will only stick to shallower slopes, while wet and warm snow can bond to very steep surfaces. In coastal mountains, such as the
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recreational setting most accidents are caused by the people involved in the avalanche. In a 1996 study, Jamieson et al. (pages 7–20) found that 83% of all avalanches in the recreational setting were caused by those who were involved in the
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change at different elevations. In the long term, avalanche frequency at lower elevations is expected to decline corresponding to a decrease in snow cover and depth, and a short-term increase in the number of wet avalanches are predicted.
1157:, in 1999, 300,000 cubic metres of snow slid on a 30° slope, achieving a speed in the region of 100 km/h (62 mph). It killed 12 people in their chalets under 100,000 tons of snow, 5 meters (16 feet) deep. The mayor of
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Avalanches only occur in a standing snowpack. Typically winter seasons at high latitudes, high altitudes, or both have weather that is sufficiently unsettled and cold enough for precipitated snow to accumulate into a seasonal snowpack.
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The size of avalanches are classified using two scales; size relative to destructive force or D-scale and size relative to the avalanche path or R-scale. Both size scales range from 1 to 5 with the D size scale half sizes can be used.
857:(Mountain Rescue Service) in France, and D2FRAM (Dynamical Two-Flow-Regime Avalanche Model), which was still undergoing validation as of 2007. Other known models are the SAMOS-AT avalanche simulation software and the RAMMS software.
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Slab avalanche hazard analysis can be done using the
Rutschblock Test. A 2 m wide block of snow is isolated from the rest of the slope and progressively loaded. The result is a rating of slope stability on a seven step scale.
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in
Wyoming, United States. Joel Roof was snowboarding recreationally in this backcountry, bowl-shaped run and triggered the avalanche. He was carried nearly 2,000 feet to the base of the mountain and was not successfully rescued.
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Since the 1990s many more sophisticated models have been developed. In Europe much of the recent work was carried out as part of the SATSIE (Avalanche
Studies and Model Validation in Europe) research project supported by the
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550:, have been constructed to protect people and property by redirecting the flow of avalanches. Deep debris deposits from avalanches will collect in catchments at the terminus of a run out, such as gullies and river beds.
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made of looser snow. After being set off, avalanches usually accelerate rapidly and grow in mass and volume as they capture more snow. If an avalanche moves fast enough, some of the snow may mix with the air, forming a
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Avalanches can happen in any mountain range that has an enduring snowpack. They are most frequent in winter or spring, but may occur at any time of the year. In mountainous areas, avalanches are among the most serious
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in standing snow, snowfall amounts, and snow types. Generally, mild winter weather will promote the settlement and stabilization of the snowpack; conversely, very cold, windy, or hot weather will weaken the snowpack.
1239:, the avalanche risk is widely rated on the following scale, which was adopted in April 1993 to replace the earlier non-standard national schemes. Descriptions were last updated in May 2003 to enhance uniformity.
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In France, most avalanche deaths occur at risk levels 3 and 4. In
Switzerland most occur at levels 2 and 3. It is thought that this may be due to national differences of interpretation when assessing the risks.
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After digging a snow pit, it is possible to evaluate the snowpack for unstable layers. In this picture, snow from a weak layer has been easily scraped away by hand, leaving a horizontal line in the wall of the
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Strapazzon, Giacomo; Paal, Peter; Schweizer, Jürg; Falk, Markus; Reuter, Benjamin; Schenk, Kai; Gatterer, Hannes; Grasegger, Katharina; Dal Cappello, Tomas; Malacrida, Sandro; Riess, Lukas (15 December 2017).
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in March 2010. Multiple crown fracture lines are visible in the top-middle of the image. Note the granular characteristic of the debris in the foreground that results from the slab breaking up during descent.
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able to recognize upcoming ruptures in order to initiate appropriate measures. Such systems (e.g. the monitoring of the Weissmies glacier in Switzerland) can recognize events several days in advance.
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A mountain climbing camp on Lenin Peak, in what is now Kyrgyzstan, was wiped out in 1990 when an earthquake triggered a large avalanche that overran the camp. Forty-three climbers were killed.
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Slopes flatter than 25 degrees or steeper than 60 degrees typically have a lower incidence of avalanches. Human-triggered avalanches have the greatest incidence when the snow's
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radiative cooling, or both. Radiative heat loss occurs when the night air is significantly cooler than the snowpack, and the heat stored in the snow is re-radiated into the atmosphere.
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light: a single skier or snowboarder smoothly linking turns and without falling, a group of skiers or snowboarders with a minimum 10 m gap between each person, a single person on
3667:"Climate Change in Lower Austria – A Snow Cover Analysis of the Last 100 Years With a Special Emphasis on the Last Century and the Impact of the Avalanche Situation in Lower Austria"
267:
There are many classification systems for the different forms of avalanches. Avalanches can be described by their size, destructive potential, initiation mechanism, composition, and
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air temperature can be much colder. When a temperature gradient greater than 10 °C change per vertical meter of snow is sustained for more than a day, angular crystals called
1200:
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Voellmy used a simple empirical formula, treating an avalanche as a sliding block of snow moving with a drag force that was proportional to the square of the speed of its flow:
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properties of the snow layers (e.g. penetration resistance, grain size, grain type, temperature) are used as index measurements of the mechanical properties of the snow (e.g.
3604:"Potential Changes in the Frequency of Rain-On-Snow Events for U.S. Cascades Ski Areas As A Result of Climate Change: Projections for Mt Bachelor, Oregon in the 21st Century"
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into a system based on land marginalization and reforestation, something that has happened mainly since the mid-20th century in mountain environments of developed countries.
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Avalanches are likely to be triggered on many slopes even if only light loads are applied. In some places, many medium or sometimes large spontaneous avalanches are likely.
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Avalanches are unlikely except when heavy loads are applied on a few extreme steep slopes. Any spontaneous avalanches will be minor sloughs. In general, safe conditions.
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Avalanches may be triggered when heavy loads are applied, especially on a few generally identified steep slopes. Large spontaneous avalanches are not expected.
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As an avalanche moves down a slope it follows a certain pathway that is dependent on the slope's degree of steepness and the volume of snow/ice involved in the
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Avalanches may be triggered on many slopes even if only light loads are applied. On some slopes, medium or even fairly large spontaneous avalanches may occur.
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2949:"Reforestation and land use change as drivers for a decrease of avalanche damage in mid-latitude mountains (NW Spain). Global and Planetary Change, 153:35–50"
492:, all of which, when disturbed, may result in avalanche formation. Conversely, the snowpack on a windward slope is often much shallower than on a lee slope.
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in 1999. The village was thought to be in a safe zone but the avalanche was exceptionally large and flowed into the village. Thirty-one people died.
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of snow about to fall. Cracks in the snow are visible in area (1). Area (3) fell soon after this picture was taken, leaving area (2) as the new edge.
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loaded by a force greater than the strength of the slab and persistent weak layer, the persistent weak layer can fail and generate an avalanche.
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extremely steep slopes: extreme in terms of the incline (over 40°), the terrain profile, proximity of the ridge, smoothness of underlying ground
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3305:
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936:. The simplest active measure is repeatedly traveling on a snowpack as snow accumulates; this can be by means of boot-packing, ski-cutting, or
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and light walls can be used to direct the placement of snow. Snow builds up around the fence, especially the side that faces the prevailing
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Generally speaking, avalanches follow drainages down-slope, frequently sharing drainage features with summertime watersheds. At and below
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Attempts to model avalanche behaviour date from the early 20th century, notably the work of Professor Lagotala in preparation for the
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A slope that is flat enough to hold snow but steep enough to ski has the potential to generate an avalanche, regardless of the angle.
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3512:
Strapazzon, Giacomo; Schweizer, Jürg; Chiambretti, Igor; Brodmann Maeder, Monika; Brugger, Hermann; Zafren, Ken (12 April 2021).
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546:, which occur where avalanches have removed trees and prevented regrowth of large vegetation. Engineered drainages, such as the
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forms between the surface and the airborne components of an avalanche, which can also separate from the bulk of the avalanche.
1557:
The Canadian classification for avalanche size is based upon the consequences of the avalanche. Half sizes are commonly used.
213:. Primarily composed of flowing snow and air, large avalanches have the capability to capture and move ice, rocks, and trees.
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Gazex concussion lines, and ballistic projectiles launched by air cannons and artillery. Passive preventive systems such as
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temperature, to a point significantly above the freezing point of water, may cause avalanche formation at any time of year.
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in Austria, France, Switzerland, Italy and Germany. This series of avalanches killed around 265 people and was termed the
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205:, such as a hill or mountain. Avalanches can be triggered spontaneously, by factors such as increased precipitation or
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In the United States and Canada, the following avalanche danger scale is used. Descriptors vary depending on country.
663:
105:
3626:"Decrease of Snow Avalanches Activity and Proliferation of Wet Snow Avalanches in French Alps Under Climate Warming"
3148:
1011:
are placed in the avalanche's path to slow it down. Finally, along transportation corridors, large shelters, called
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1951:
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Generally described in more detail in the avalanche bulletin (regarding the altitude, aspect, type of terrain etc.)
420:
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Runs over flat areas (significantly less than 30°) of at least 50 m in length, may reach the valley bottom.
519:
The start zone of an avalanche must be steep enough to allow snow to accelerate once set in motion, additionally
65:
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3826:
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2791:
Quantification de la sollicitation avalancheuse par analyse en retour du comportement de structures métalliques
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645:
43:
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becomes buried by later snowfall, the buried hoar layer can be a weak layer upon which upper layers can slide.
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2084:
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3706:"Effects of snow properties on humans breathing into an artificial air pocket – an experimental field study"
3686:"Climate Change in Western Ski Areas: Timing of Wet Avalanches in Aspen Ski Area in the Years 2030 and 2100"
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1101:, an estimated 40,000 to 80,000 soldiers died as a result of avalanches during the mountain campaign in the
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that it was derived from as well as the environmental or human influences that triggered the mass movement.
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1967:
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Preventative measures are employed in areas where avalanches pose a significant threat to people, such as
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Snow, weather, and avalanches : observation guidelines for avalanche programs in the United States
1988:: Chapter 24 in Nonlinear Dynamics in Geosciences, A.A. Tsonsis and J.B. Elsner (Eds.), Springer, 2007
641:
419:
In 2001 it was reported that globally an average of 150 people die each year from avalanches. Three of
182:
175:
126:
39:
3016:
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was convicted of second-degree murder for not evacuating the area, but received a suspended sentence.
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winter of 1950–1951 approximately 649 avalanches were recorded in a three-month period throughout the
54:
3302:
2722:
2287:
Simpson JE. 1997. Gravity currents in the environment and the laboratory. Cambridge University Press
1598:
Could destroy a railway car, large truck, several buildings or a forest area up to 4 hectares.
558:
significant difference in hazard for a given exposure direction can be found. The rule of thumb is:
315:
a large volume of snow, possibly thousands of cubic metres, can start moving almost simultaneously.
4363:
3579:"Chapter 2: High Mountain Areas – Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate"
2370:
2321:
Daffern, Tony: Avalanche Safety for Skiers, Climbers and Snowboarders, Rocky Mountain Books: 1999.
295:
3603:
3193:
1957:
1169:
769:. His method was developed by A. Voellmy and popularised following the publication in 1955 of his
2134:
1125:
1078:
Two avalanches occurred in March 1910 in the Cascade and Selkirk Mountain ranges; on 1 March the
634:
500:
279:
32:
2085:
Historische Lawinenschutzlandschaften: eine Aufgabe für die Kulturlandschafts- und Denkmalpflege
2081:
Historische Lawinenschutzlandschaften: eine Aufgabe für die Kulturlandschafts- und Denkmalpflege
1815:
4343:
1707:
Could bury and destroy a car, damage a truck, destroy a wood-frame house, or break a few trees
121:
This article is about the sliding of large masses of snow. For rock and debris avalanches, see
3215:
2297:
1015:, can be built directly in the slide path of an avalanche to protect traffic from avalanches.
307:
Most avalanches occur spontaneously during storms under increased load due to snowfall and/or
3648:"What Do We Know About the Impact on the Snowpack in a Changing Climate – a Work in Progress"
1721:
Could destroy a railway car, large truck, several buildings, or substantial amount of forest
1590:
Could bury and destroy a car, damage a truck, destroy a small building or break a few trees.
1087:
343:
337:
226:
2104:
3988:
3717:
2901:
2866:
2230:
1342:
1324:
1079:
762:
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268:
220:
made of tightly packed snow, triggered by a collapse of an underlying weak snow layer, and
1139:
358:
8:
4333:
3898:
3858:
2142:
1117:
850:
746:
691:
3721:
3407:. American Avalanche Association,, National Avalanche Center. Pagosa Springs, CO. 2010.
3253:"NEWS: Marmolada Serac Collapse - 'A tragedy for the whole valley and alpine community'"
2905:
2234:
1850:
1837:
742:
4338:
3836:
3746:
3705:
3548:
3513:
3430:
3234:
1766:
often avalanches occur, and may also change the type of avalanches that are occurring.
1606:
Largest snow avalanche known. Could destroy a village or a forest of 40 hectares.
1083:
1073:
504:
489:
448:
249:
79:
3117:
Eduard Rabofsky et al., Lawinenhandbuch, Innsbruck, Verlaganstalt Tyrolia, 1986, p. 11
2889:
2697:
2242:
1472:
Could bury and destroy a car, damage a truck, destroy small buildings or break trees.
1306:
1284:
On some steep slopes the snow is only moderately stable. Elsewhere it is very stable.
241:
4297:
4007:
3941:
3751:
3733:
3685:
3647:
3625:
3553:
3535:
3418:
3408:
3381:
3194:"Lenin Peak. Historical background of Lenin Peak. The first expedition to Lenin Peak"
3102:
2948:
2929:
2591:
2474:
2343:
2322:
2201:
2146:
2069:
2055:
2051:
2037:
2023:
2011:
1996:
1215:
923:
542:, avalanche paths through drainages are well defined by vegetation boundaries called
261:
3789:
3666:
3457:
2448:
1488:
Could bury and destroy large trucks and trains, large buildings and forested areas.
4229:
4223:
4025:
3929:
3741:
3725:
3543:
3525:
2919:
2909:
2519:"Return period calculated for study snow avalanche paths using the existing method"
2238:
2219:"A physical SNOWPACK model for the Swiss avalanche warning Part I: Numerical model"
2138:
1928:
1889:
1862:
1143:
1091:
1054:
962:
587:
528:
524:
3072:"Canada's worst avalanche is the 1910 Rogers Pass disaster, a preventable tragedy"
1288:
299:
15 cm deep, soft slab avalanche triggered by a snowboarder near Heliotrope Ridge,
4128:
3806:
3784:
3309:
3097:
2746:
1908:
1437:
Small snow slide that cannot bury a person, though there is a danger of falling.
1196:
1154:
865:
554:
520:
466:
347:
186:
3690:
Proceedings of the 2006 International Snow Science Workshop, Telluride, Colorado
3347:
2795:
Pôle Grenoblois d'études et de recherche pour la Prévention des risques naturels
2175:. ISSW 09 – International Snow Science Workshop, Proceedings. pp. 330–333.
4081:
3997:
3729:
3578:
3285:
2924:
2914:
2569:
982:
in addition to their foundations. These barriers are similar to those used for
911:
687:
607:
595:
288:
257:
3530:
1348:
Even on gentle slopes, many large spontaneous avalanches are likely to occur.
4327:
4292:
4090:
3853:
3737:
3539:
3511:
3422:
2933:
1370:
heavy: two or more skiers or boarders without spacing between them, a single
1270:
1113:
fire. Some 10,000 men, from both sides, died in avalanches in December 1916.
1003:
937:
676:
513:
284:
202:
143:
3777:
3279:"Qu'est-ce qui est NOUVEAU dans la description du danger d'avalanche ?"
2761:
431:
154:
Heavy equipment in action after an avalanche has interrupted service on the
4287:
4209:
4204:
4037:
4002:
3950:
3755:
3652:
International Snow Science Workshop 2016 Proceedings, Breckenridge, CO, USA
3630:
International Snow Science Workshop 2016 Proceedings, Breckenridge, CO, USA
3557:
389:
363:
159:
2167:
906:
4302:
4188:
4121:
4100:
4095:
3973:
1903:
1180:
1098:
1086:, United States. Three days later 62 railroad workers were killed in the
1008:
884:
443:
409:
405:
300:
3893:
2396:
2361:
2359:
1803:
1191:
swept away nine out of a thirteen-member group heading to the summit of
876:
283:
Loose snow avalanches (far left) and slab avalanches (near center) near
3983:
1938:
987:
946:
929:
896:
880:
708:
648: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
233:
232:
Though they appear to share similarities, avalanches are distinct from
210:
134:
3799:
495:
480:
The snowpack on slopes with sunny exposures is strongly influenced by
4312:
4307:
4255:
4170:
4165:
4160:
3958:
2890:"Detrainment and braking of snow avalanches interacting with forests"
2356:
1933:
1918:
1110:
1012:
983:
941:
891:
832:{\displaystyle {\textrm {Pref}}={\frac {1}{2}}\,{\rho }\,{v^{2}}\,\!}
599:
574:
543:
539:
474:
139:
122:
3322:
1165:
623:
499:
Avalanche path with 800 metres (2,600 ft) vertical fall in the
21:
4262:
4250:
4155:
4055:
2842:
Archives and Special Collections – Montana State University Library
1382:
1375:
1302:
On many steep slopes the snow is only moderately or weakly stable.
1222:, causing an avalanche that killed 11 alpinists and injured eight.
1158:
1061:
999:
979:
975:
766:
591:
481:
393:
342:
The largest avalanches form turbulent suspension currents known as
209:
weakening, or by external means such as humans, other animals, and
206:
3873:
1612:
4245:
4219:
4180:
4116:
4047:
3968:
2811:
2418:
1962:
1923:
1037:
308:
237:
3857:
3811:
2543:
1986:
Snow Avalanches as a Non-critical, Punctuated Equilibrium System
853:
which produced the leading-edge MN2L model, now in use with the
569:
456:
characteristics of snow that make avalanche formation possible.
216:
Avalanches occur in two general forms, or combinations thereof:
3878:
3514:"Effects of Climate Change on Avalanche Accidents and Survival"
1371:
1236:
1147:
1032:
899:
171:
166:
3816:
4076:
4030:
3365:
2940:
1913:
1552:
1219:
1204:
991:
738:
734:
582:
the meteorological conditions that prevail after deposition.
436:
245:
3888:
2178:
efficient triggers. Triggering by sound really is a myth.
2048:
Drei mal drei (3x3) Lawinen. Risikomanagement im Wintersport
4213:
3794:
3702:
2888:
Védrine, Louis; Li, Xingyue; Gaume, Johan (29 March 2022).
2808:"SATSIE – Avalanche Studies and Model Validation in Europe"
1841:
1192:
1121:
1102:
995:
986:. Another type of barrier is a rigid fence-like structure (
954:
950:
198:
3928:
3847:
1769:
1440:
Unlikely, but possible risk of injury or death to people.
1207:
and individuals associated with the school's sports club.
2726:
564:
2264:"Avalanches: Their Dangers and How to Reduce Your Risks"
1735:
Could gouge the landscape. Largest snow avalanche known
1499:
380:
difficult to predict and almost impossible to mitigate.
3843:
Swiss Federal Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research
3778:
Surviving an Avalanche – A guide for children and youth
3303:
An Analysis of French Avalanche Accidents for 2005–2006
2369:. Colorado Avalanche Information Center. Archived from
978:) uses a net strung between poles that are anchored by
1993:
Avalanche Safety for Skiers, Climbers and Snowboarders
1520:
There are nine different types of avalanche problems:
1199:. The participants of the trip were students from the
291:
mountains. Fracture propagation is relatively limited.
2105:"Snow Avalanches | National Snow and Ice Data Center"
787:
3481:
3176:"Avalanche Kills 40 Climbers in Soviet Central Asia"
1879:
548:
avalanche dam on Mount Stephen in Kicking Horse Pass
3128:"Soldiers perish in avalanche as World War I rages"
3039:"Avalanche Accidents in Canada Volume 4: 1984–1996"
2588:
Mountain Meteorology: Fundamentals and Applications
2561:
260:to life and property, so great efforts are made in
46:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3624:Naaim, Mohamed; Eckert, Nicolas (2 October 2016).
3507:
3505:
3482:Abromelt, Doug; Johnson, Greg (Winter 2011–2012).
3241:. University Corporation for Atmospheric Research.
2445:"Avalanche Fatalities in IKAR Countries 1976–2001"
1782:
1320:On most steep slopes the snow is not very stable.
831:
3664:
3646:Zeidler, Antonia; Stoll, Elena (2 October 2016).
2635:"How Climate Change Impacts Avalanche Conditions"
1048:
828:
4325:
3486:. USFS National Avalanche Center. Archived from
3044:. Canadian Avalanche Association. Archived from
2691:"SATSIE Final Report (large PDF file – 33.1 Mb)"
2249:on 28 January 2013 – via www.mendeley.com.
2217:Bartelt, Perry; Lehning, Michael (24 May 2002).
1760:
1407:
1179:formed on Mt. Glory which is located within the
3894:Sierra Avalanche Center (Tahoe National Forest)
3665:Salzer, Friedrich; Studeregger, Arnold (2010).
3641:
3639:
3502:
2685:
2683:
2165:
1613:United States classification for avalanche size
1225:
435:In steep avalanche-prone terrain, traveling on
3452:
3450:
2887:
2216:
2192:
2190:
2188:
2186:
1394:gentle slopes: with an incline below about 30°
439:is generally safer than traversing the slopes.
3914:
3683:
3601:
3597:
3595:
3232:
3036:
3030:
2781:. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service).
2169:Avalanche triggering by sound: Myth and truth
1794:
855:Service Restauration des Terrains en Montagne
426:
3868:(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
3645:
3636:
3399:
3397:
2946:
2680:
2473:, Alaska Mountain Safety Center, Inc. 2011.
2395:. Westwide Avalanche Network. Archived from
1506:
917:
527:slopes because of the disparity between the
3623:
3447:
2632:
2315:
2183:
1400:very steep slopes: with an incline over 35°
3921:
3907:
3822:EAWS – European Avalanche Warning Services
3592:
3484:"Learn how to: Perform A Rutschblock Test"
3435:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3011:
3009:
2971:"Snow Sheds and Avalanche Safety | TranBC"
1649:R5~Major or maximum, relative to the path
1553:Canadian classification for avalanche size
1230:
1036:Radar station for avalanche monitoring in
773:(On the Destructive Force of Avalanches).
3745:
3547:
3529:
3394:
2923:
2913:
2894:Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences
2696:. 31 May 2006. p. 94. Archived from
2411:
2065:(partial English translation included in
827:
814:
808:
664:Learn how and when to remove this message
423:have killed over a thousand people each.
404:People caught in avalanches can die from
331:
118:Rapid flow of a mass of snow down a slope
106:Learn how and when to remove this message
3852:
3827:Directory of European avalanche services
3671:2010 International Snow Science Workshop
3611:2010 International Snow Science Workshop
3602:Lazar, Brian; Williams, Mark W. (2010).
3475:
3371:
2757:
2755:
2198:The Avalanche Handbook, The Mountaineers
1378:, a grooming machine, avalanche blasting
1031:
1018:
905:
890:
875:
864:
675:
568:
494:
442:
430:
357:
294:
278:
248:collapses. They are also different from
181:
165:
149:
133:
3573:
3571:
3569:
3567:
3239:meted.ucar.edu/afwa/avalanche/index.htm
3006:
2832:
2447:. Utah Avalanche Center. Archived from
2128:
1770:Impacts on avalanche type and frequency
771:Ueber die Zerstoerungskraft von Lawinen
4326:
3848:Scottish Avalanche Information Service
3173:
2779:On the Destructive Force of Avalanches
2606:
2570:"AVISUALANCHE – SELECTED PUBLICATIONS"
2337:
2007:Mike Elggren on Surviving an Avalanche
1945:
1397:steep slopes: with an incline over 30°
565:Snowpack structure and characteristics
399:
353:
3902:
3817:Center for Snow and Avalanche Studies
3812:Colorado Avalanche Information Center
3684:Lazar, Brian; Williams, Mark (2006).
3143:
3141:
3037:Jamieson, Bruce; Geldstzer, Torsten.
2777:. Schweizerische Bauzetung (English:
2752:
2609:"Climate Change Indicators: Snowpack"
2393:"Previous Season Avalanche Accidents"
1693:Could bury, injure, or kill a person
1629:R1~Very small, relative to the path.
1582:Could bury, injure or kill a person.
1515:
1500:North American Avalanche Danger Scale
1456:Could bury, injure or kill a person.
1067:
3564:
3069:
2851:from the original on 24 August 2022.
2835:"Avalanche Simulation with SAMOS-AT"
2775:Ober die Zerstorunskraft von Lawinen
2258:
2256:
2067:PowderGuide: Managing Avalanche Risk
1798:
1109:front, many of which were caused by
974:several types: One kind of barrier (
860:
646:adding citations to reliable sources
617:
383:
44:adding citations to reliable sources
15:
3174:Clines, Francis X. (18 July 1990).
2863:"Rapid Mass Movements System RAMMS"
2342:. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
2223:Cold Regions Science and Technology
2196:McClung, David and Shaerer, Peter:
2018:McClung, David and Shaerer, Peter:
1747:
13:
3138:
2723:"Horizon: Anatomy of an Avalanche"
2567:
2166:Reuter, B.; Schweizer, J. (2009).
2143:10.1093/oso/9780198866930.001.0001
2034:Staying Alive in Avalanche Terrain
745:, confirmed the hypothesis that a
322:
14:
4375:
3834:collected news and commentary at
3766:
3149:"Deadliest Avalanches In History"
2590:, Oxford University Press: 2001.
2469:Fesler, Doug and Fredston, Jill:
2425:. Department of Homeland Security
2253:
1469:Runs to the bottom of the slope.
421:the deadliest recorded avalanches
2833:Sampl, Peter; Granig, Matthias.
2633:O'Neill, Donny (12 April 2021).
2302:education.nationalgeographic.org
1952:List of avalanches by death toll
1896:
1882:
1861:
1849:
1802:
1639:R3~Medium, relative to the path
1341:
1338:The snow is generally unstable.
1323:
1305:
1287:
1269:
1027:
622:
374:
170:The terminus of an avalanche in
156:Saint-Gervais–Vallorcine railway
20:
3773:The Avalanche Education Project
3696:
3677:
3658:
3617:
3374:Backcountry Avalanche Awareness
3340:
3315:
3295:
3271:
3245:
3235:"Avalanche Weather Forecasting"
3226:
3208:
3186:
3167:
3120:
3111:
3089:
3070:Corp, Pelmorex (4 March 2021).
3063:
2985:
2963:
2881:
2855:
2826:
2800:
2784:
2767:
2733:
2715:
2652:
2626:
2600:
2580:
2536:
2511:
2483:
2463:
2437:
2385:
2331:
1978:
1783:Impacts on burial survival rate
1644:R4~Large, relative to the path
1634:R2~Small, relative to the path
1574:Relatively harmless to people.
1266:Snow is generally very stable.
633:needs additional citations for
346:or mixed avalanches, a kind of
138:A powder snow avalanche in the
31:needs additional citations for
3879:New Zealand Avalanche Advisory
3870:But note the myths cited above
3800:Canadian Avalanche Association
3462:American Avalanche Association
3378:Canadian Avalanche Association
3101:". Infobase Publishing. p. 7.
2993:"Glacier monitoring Weissmies"
2290:
2281:
2210:
2159:
2122:
2097:
2083:In: kunsttexte 3/2010, unter:
1995:, Rocky Mountain Books, 1999,
1679:Relatively harmless to people
1201:I Leon Kruczkowski High School
1164:The small Austrian village of
1049:Survival, rescue, and recovery
1:
4349:Hazards of outdoor recreation
3790:Avalanche Defense Photographs
2660:"Physical Properties of Snow"
2491:"Avalanche Safety Guidelines"
2243:10.1016/S0165-232X(02)00074-5
1973:
1761:Avalanches and climate change
1408:European avalanche size table
968:
895:Avalanche blasting in French
189:track blocked by a snow slide
4283:Potentially hazardous object
2568:Hageli, Pascal; et al.
1968:2012 Gayari Sector avalanche
1226:Classification of avalanches
990:) and may be constructed of
910:Avalanche warning sign near
872:avalanche danger advisories.
870:United States Forest Service
523:slopes are less stable than
274:
250:large scale movements of ice
7:
2607:US EPA, OAR (1 July 2016).
2015:magazine February 2007: 26.
1875:
756:
727:
10:
4380:
3730:10.1038/s41598-017-17960-4
2915:10.5194/nhess-22-1015-2022
2749:, Art Mears, 11 July 2002.
2367:"Statistics and Reporting"
2129:Louchet, Francois (2021).
2036:, The Mountaineers: 2001.
2022:, The Mountaineers: 2006.
1949:
1795:Avalanches of dust on Mars
1136:Bayburt Üzengili avalanche
1071:
1052:
921:
613:
459:
427:Terrain, snowpack, weather
335:
127:Avalanche (disambiguation)
120:
4275:
4238:
4197:
4179:
4148:
4141:
4109:
4075:
4068:
4046:
4016:
3982:
3949:
3940:
3531:10.3389/fphys.2021.639433
3017:"Avalanche Radar Zermatt"
2797:, October 2003, in French
2586:Whiteman, Charles David:
1658:Size – Destructive Force
1657:
1493:volume >10,000 m
1477:volume <10,000 m
1189:Tatra Mountains avalanche
1138:killed 60 individuals in
918:How to prevent avalanches
743:Galtür avalanche disaster
531:of snow layers and their
4354:Mountaineering disasters
3884:Gulmarg Avalanche Center
3372:Jamieson, Bruce (2000).
3348:"Avalanche Encyclopedia"
3308:8 September 2008 at the
3196:. Centralasia-travel.com
2745:24 February 2009 at the
2338:Abbott, Patrick (2016).
2090:
1757:means slide in German.)
1491:length >1,000 m
1475:length <1,000 m
1461:volume <1,000 m
1453:Stops within the slope.
1187:On 28 January 2003, the
1175:On 1 December 2000, the
3865:Encyclopædia Britannica
3805:21 October 2020 at the
3518:Frontiers in Physiology
2135:Oxford University Press
1231:European avalanche risk
501:Glacier Peak Wilderness
3233:COMET Program (2010).
2020:The Avalanche Handbook
1624:Size Relative to Path
1566:Destructive Potential
1512:
1511:Danger Scale – English
1459:length <100 m
1445:volume <100 m
1041:
914:
903:
888:
873:
833:
682:
578:
508:
452:
440:
367:
344:powder snow avalanches
332:Powder snow avalanches
304:
292:
190:
179:
163:
147:
125:. For other uses, see
3874:Utah Avalanche Center
3783:26 April 2021 at the
3439:) CS1 maint: others (
2947:García-Hernández, C.
1958:1999 Galtür avalanche
1510:
1443:length <50 m
1153:A large avalanche in
1088:Rogers Pass avalanche
1035:
1019:Early warning systems
909:
894:
879:
868:
834:
741:, following the 1999
696:temperature gradients
679:
572:
498:
446:
434:
361:
338:Powder snow avalanche
298:
282:
227:powder snow avalanche
222:loose snow avalanches
185:
169:
153:
137:
2523:www.researchgate.net
2399:on 28 September 2006
2268:www.wunderground.com
1542:Loose wet avalanches
1539:Loose dry avalanches
1536:Deep persistent slab
1181:Teton Mountain Range
1177:Glory Bowl Avalanche
1080:Wellington avalanche
785:
763:1924 Winter Olympics
642:improve this article
533:compressive strength
471:Cordillera del Paine
40:improve this article
3722:2017NatSR...717675S
3490:on 1 September 2013
3216:"Montroc Avalanche"
3095:Lee Davis (2008). "
3076:The Weather Network
2925:20.500.11850/621336
2906:2022NHESS..22.1015V
2773:Voellmy, A., 1955.
2729:. 25 November 1999.
2639:Protect Our Winters
2574:www.avisualanche.ca
2235:2002CRST...35..123B
1946:Avalanche disasters
1530:Wet slab avalanches
1142:in the province of
1118:northern hemisphere
851:European Commission
692:radiational cooling
400:Injuries and deaths
354:Wet snow avalanches
197:is a rapid flow of
3934:list by death toll
3837:The New York Times
3710:Scientific Reports
3323:"Avalanche Canada"
3257:www.ukclimbing.com
3180:The New York Times
3155:. 18 February 2023
3051:on 25 January 2011
2764:, Christophe Ancey
2740:Avalanche Dynamics
2667:University of Utah
2451:on 4 November 2006
1814:. You can help by
1516:Avalanche problems
1513:
1074:List of avalanches
1068:Notable avalanches
1042:
915:
904:
889:
874:
829:
683:
579:
509:
453:
441:
368:
305:
293:
191:
180:
164:
148:
4359:Natural disasters
4321:
4320:
4298:Geomagnetic storm
4271:
4270:
4137:
4136:
4064:
4063:
4008:Soil liquefaction
3930:Natural disasters
3859:"Avalanche"
3414:978-0-9760118-1-1
3291:on 17 April 2005.
3098:Natural Disasters
2479:978-0-615-49935-2
2349:978-0-07-802298-2
2340:Natural Disasters
2206:978-0-89886-809-8
2152:978-0-19-886693-0
2052:Bergverlag Rother
2028:978-0-89886-809-8
1832:
1831:
1745:
1744:
1653:
1652:
1610:
1609:
1497:
1496:
1426:Potential Damage
1352:
1351:
1299:3 – Considerable
1216:Marmolada Glacier
1210:On 3 July 2022 a
924:Avalanche control
861:Human involvement
806:
792:
674:
673:
666:
384:Avalanche pathway
262:avalanche control
116:
115:
108:
90:
4371:
4230:Tropical cyclone
4224:Tornado outbreak
4146:
4145:
4073:
4072:
4026:Pyroclastic flow
4018:Volcano eruption
3947:
3946:
3923:
3916:
3909:
3900:
3899:
3889:US Avalanche.org
3869:
3861:
3795:Avalanche Canada
3760:
3759:
3749:
3700:
3694:
3693:
3681:
3675:
3674:
3662:
3656:
3655:
3643:
3634:
3633:
3621:
3615:
3614:
3608:
3599:
3590:
3589:
3587:
3585:
3575:
3562:
3561:
3551:
3533:
3509:
3500:
3499:
3497:
3495:
3479:
3473:
3472:
3470:
3468:
3454:
3445:
3444:
3434:
3426:
3401:
3392:
3391:
3369:
3363:
3362:
3360:
3358:
3344:
3338:
3337:
3335:
3333:
3319:
3313:
3299:
3293:
3292:
3290:
3284:. Archived from
3283:
3275:
3269:
3268:
3266:
3264:
3249:
3243:
3242:
3230:
3224:
3223:
3212:
3206:
3205:
3203:
3201:
3190:
3184:
3183:
3171:
3165:
3164:
3162:
3160:
3145:
3136:
3135:
3124:
3118:
3115:
3109:
3093:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3082:
3067:
3061:
3060:
3058:
3056:
3050:
3043:
3034:
3028:
3027:
3025:
3023:
3013:
3004:
3003:
3001:
2999:
2989:
2983:
2982:
2980:
2978:
2973:. 12 August 2023
2967:
2961:
2960:
2958:
2956:
2944:
2938:
2937:
2927:
2917:
2900:(3): 1015–1028.
2885:
2879:
2878:
2876:
2874:
2865:. Archived from
2859:
2853:
2852:
2850:
2839:
2830:
2824:
2823:
2821:
2819:
2810:. Archived from
2804:
2798:
2788:
2782:
2771:
2765:
2759:
2750:
2737:
2731:
2730:
2719:
2713:
2712:
2710:
2708:
2702:
2695:
2687:
2678:
2677:
2675:
2673:
2664:
2656:
2650:
2649:
2647:
2645:
2630:
2624:
2623:
2621:
2619:
2604:
2598:
2584:
2578:
2577:
2565:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2540:
2534:
2533:
2531:
2529:
2515:
2509:
2508:
2506:
2504:
2495:
2487:
2481:
2467:
2461:
2460:
2458:
2456:
2441:
2435:
2434:
2432:
2430:
2415:
2409:
2408:
2406:
2404:
2389:
2383:
2382:
2380:
2378:
2363:
2354:
2353:
2335:
2329:
2319:
2313:
2312:
2310:
2308:
2294:
2288:
2285:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2274:
2260:
2251:
2250:
2245:. Archived from
2214:
2208:
2194:
2181:
2180:
2174:
2163:
2157:
2156:
2137:. pp. 1–2.
2126:
2120:
2119:
2117:
2115:
2101:
2079:Michael Falser:
2064:
2046:Munter, Werner:
2032:Tremper, Bruce:
1984:McClung, David.
1929:Pyroclastic flow
1892:
1890:mountains portal
1887:
1886:
1885:
1865:
1856:27 November 2011
1853:
1827:
1824:
1806:
1799:
1748:Rutschblock Test
1655:
1654:
1621:
1620:
1560:
1559:
1545:Glide avalanches
1417:
1416:
1365:additional load:
1345:
1327:
1309:
1291:
1273:
1246:
1245:
1170:Galtür avalanche
1126:Winter of Terror
1107:Austrian-Italian
1092:British Columbia
1084:Washington state
1055:Avalanche rescue
998:or pre-stressed
963:overexploitation
938:machine grooming
838:
836:
835:
830:
826:
825:
824:
813:
807:
799:
794:
793:
790:
669:
662:
658:
655:
649:
626:
618:
600:ductile strength
588:tensile strength
529:tensile strength
505:Washington state
162:, France (2006).
111:
104:
100:
97:
91:
89:
48:
24:
16:
4379:
4378:
4374:
4373:
4372:
4370:
4369:
4368:
4364:Weather hazards
4324:
4323:
4322:
4317:
4267:
4234:
4198:Cyclonic storms
4193:
4175:
4133:
4129:Limnic eruption
4105:
4079:
4060:
4048:Natural erosion
4042:
4012:
3986:
3978:
3936:
3927:
3807:Wayback Machine
3785:Wayback Machine
3769:
3764:
3763:
3701:
3697:
3682:
3678:
3663:
3659:
3644:
3637:
3622:
3618:
3606:
3600:
3593:
3583:
3581:
3577:
3576:
3565:
3510:
3503:
3493:
3491:
3480:
3476:
3466:
3464:
3458:"SWAGuidelines"
3456:
3455:
3448:
3428:
3427:
3415:
3403:
3402:
3395:
3388:
3370:
3366:
3356:
3354:
3346:
3345:
3341:
3331:
3329:
3321:
3320:
3316:
3310:Wayback Machine
3300:
3296:
3288:
3281:
3277:
3276:
3272:
3262:
3260:
3251:
3250:
3246:
3231:
3227:
3214:
3213:
3209:
3199:
3197:
3192:
3191:
3187:
3172:
3168:
3158:
3156:
3147:
3146:
3139:
3126:
3125:
3121:
3116:
3112:
3094:
3090:
3080:
3078:
3068:
3064:
3054:
3052:
3048:
3041:
3035:
3031:
3021:
3019:
3015:
3014:
3007:
2997:
2995:
2991:
2990:
2986:
2976:
2974:
2969:
2968:
2964:
2954:
2952:
2945:
2941:
2886:
2882:
2872:
2870:
2869:on 4 March 2016
2861:
2860:
2856:
2848:
2837:
2831:
2827:
2817:
2815:
2814:on 12 June 2020
2806:
2805:
2801:
2789:
2785:
2772:
2768:
2762:Snow Avalanches
2760:
2753:
2747:Wayback Machine
2738:
2734:
2721:
2720:
2716:
2706:
2704:
2703:on 12 June 2020
2700:
2693:
2689:
2688:
2681:
2671:
2669:
2662:
2658:
2657:
2653:
2643:
2641:
2631:
2627:
2617:
2615:
2605:
2601:
2585:
2581:
2566:
2562:
2552:
2550:
2542:
2541:
2537:
2527:
2525:
2517:
2516:
2512:
2502:
2500:
2498:www.ehss.vt.edu
2493:
2489:
2488:
2484:
2468:
2464:
2454:
2452:
2443:
2442:
2438:
2428:
2426:
2417:
2416:
2412:
2402:
2400:
2391:
2390:
2386:
2376:
2374:
2365:
2364:
2357:
2350:
2336:
2332:
2320:
2316:
2306:
2304:
2296:
2295:
2291:
2286:
2282:
2272:
2270:
2262:
2261:
2254:
2215:
2211:
2195:
2184:
2172:
2164:
2160:
2153:
2131:Snow Avalanches
2127:
2123:
2113:
2111:
2103:
2102:
2098:
2093:
2062:
2005:Billman, John:
1991:Daffern, Tony:
1981:
1976:
1954:
1948:
1943:
1909:Gravity current
1899:
1888:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1873:
1872:
1871:
1870:
1869:
1866:
1858:
1857:
1854:
1845:
1844:
1828:
1822:
1819:
1812:needs expansion
1797:
1791:
1785:
1772:
1763:
1750:
1615:
1555:
1533:Persistent slab
1518:
1502:
1492:
1476:
1460:
1444:
1413:Avalanche size:
1410:
1258:Avalanche Risk
1252:Snow Stability
1233:
1228:
1212:serac collapsed
1197:Tatra Mountains
1168:was hit by the
1155:Montroc, France
1076:
1070:
1057:
1051:
1030:
1021:
971:
926:
920:
863:
820:
816:
815:
809:
798:
789:
788:
786:
783:
782:
759:
747:saltation layer
730:
670:
659:
653:
650:
639:
627:
616:
608:slab avalanches
567:
555:angle of repose
467:angle of repose
462:
429:
402:
386:
377:
356:
348:gravity current
340:
334:
325:
323:Slab avalanches
277:
258:natural hazards
218:slab avalanches
187:Alaska Railroad
130:
119:
112:
101:
95:
92:
49:
47:
37:
25:
12:
11:
5:
4377:
4367:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4319:
4318:
4316:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4279:
4277:
4273:
4272:
4269:
4268:
4266:
4265:
4260:
4259:
4258:
4248:
4242:
4240:
4236:
4235:
4233:
4232:
4227:
4217:
4207:
4201:
4199:
4195:
4194:
4192:
4191:
4185:
4183:
4177:
4176:
4174:
4173:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4152:
4150:
4143:
4142:Meteorological
4139:
4138:
4135:
4134:
4132:
4131:
4126:
4125:
4124:
4113:
4111:
4107:
4106:
4104:
4103:
4098:
4093:
4087:
4085:
4070:
4066:
4065:
4062:
4061:
4059:
4058:
4052:
4050:
4044:
4043:
4041:
4040:
4035:
4034:
4033:
4022:
4020:
4014:
4013:
4011:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3998:Seismic hazard
3994:
3992:
3980:
3979:
3977:
3976:
3971:
3966:
3961:
3955:
3953:
3944:
3938:
3937:
3926:
3925:
3918:
3911:
3903:
3897:
3896:
3891:
3886:
3881:
3876:
3871:
3856:, ed. (1911).
3854:Chisholm, Hugh
3850:
3845:
3840:
3829:
3824:
3819:
3814:
3809:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3775:
3768:
3767:External links
3765:
3762:
3761:
3695:
3676:
3657:
3635:
3616:
3591:
3563:
3501:
3474:
3446:
3413:
3393:
3386:
3364:
3339:
3314:
3294:
3270:
3244:
3225:
3207:
3185:
3166:
3137:
3119:
3110:
3088:
3062:
3029:
3005:
2984:
2962:
2939:
2880:
2854:
2825:
2799:
2783:
2766:
2751:
2732:
2714:
2679:
2651:
2625:
2599:
2579:
2560:
2535:
2510:
2482:
2462:
2436:
2410:
2384:
2373:on 5 July 2022
2355:
2348:
2330:
2314:
2289:
2280:
2252:
2229:(3): 123–145.
2209:
2182:
2158:
2151:
2121:
2095:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2088:
2087:
2077:
2044:
2030:
2016:
2003:
1989:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1971:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1950:Main article:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1894:
1893:
1877:
1874:
1867:
1860:
1859:
1855:
1848:
1847:
1846:
1836:
1835:
1834:
1833:
1830:
1829:
1809:
1807:
1796:
1793:
1784:
1781:
1771:
1768:
1762:
1759:
1749:
1746:
1743:
1742:
1739:
1736:
1733:
1729:
1728:
1725:
1722:
1719:
1715:
1714:
1711:
1708:
1705:
1701:
1700:
1697:
1694:
1691:
1687:
1686:
1683:
1680:
1677:
1673:
1672:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1660:
1659:
1651:
1650:
1646:
1645:
1641:
1640:
1636:
1635:
1631:
1630:
1626:
1625:
1614:
1611:
1608:
1607:
1604:
1600:
1599:
1596:
1592:
1591:
1588:
1584:
1583:
1580:
1576:
1575:
1572:
1568:
1567:
1564:
1554:
1551:
1550:
1549:
1546:
1543:
1540:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1528:
1525:
1517:
1514:
1501:
1498:
1495:
1494:
1489:
1486:
1483:
1479:
1478:
1473:
1470:
1467:
1463:
1462:
1457:
1454:
1451:
1447:
1446:
1441:
1438:
1435:
1431:
1430:
1429:Physical Size
1427:
1424:
1421:
1409:
1406:
1405:
1404:
1401:
1398:
1395:
1386:
1385:
1379:
1362:
1361:
1350:
1349:
1346:
1339:
1336:
1335:5 – Very High
1332:
1331:
1328:
1321:
1318:
1314:
1313:
1310:
1303:
1300:
1296:
1295:
1292:
1285:
1282:
1278:
1277:
1274:
1267:
1264:
1260:
1259:
1256:
1253:
1250:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1069:
1066:
1053:Main article:
1050:
1047:
1029:
1026:
1020:
1017:
1007:Occasionally,
1004:avalanche dams
970:
967:
922:Main article:
919:
916:
912:Banff, Alberta
902:(3,600 m)
887:during summer.
862:
859:
842:
841:
840:
839:
823:
819:
812:
805:
802:
797:
758:
755:
729:
726:
688:Continentality
672:
671:
630:
628:
621:
615:
612:
596:shear strength
594:coefficients,
573:After surface
566:
563:
461:
458:
428:
425:
401:
398:
385:
382:
376:
373:
355:
352:
336:Main article:
333:
330:
324:
321:
289:North Cascades
276:
273:
117:
114:
113:
28:
26:
19:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4376:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4344:Hazard scales
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4331:
4329:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4293:Meteor shower
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4280:
4278:
4274:
4264:
4261:
4257:
4254:
4253:
4252:
4249:
4247:
4244:
4243:
4241:
4237:
4231:
4228:
4225:
4221:
4218:
4215:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4202:
4200:
4196:
4190:
4187:
4186:
4184:
4182:
4178:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4153:
4151:
4147:
4144:
4140:
4130:
4127:
4123:
4120:
4119:
4118:
4115:
4114:
4112:
4108:
4102:
4099:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4091:Coastal flood
4089:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4078:
4074:
4071:
4067:
4057:
4054:
4053:
4051:
4049:
4045:
4039:
4036:
4032:
4029:
4028:
4027:
4024:
4023:
4021:
4019:
4015:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3985:
3981:
3975:
3972:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3957:
3956:
3954:
3952:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3924:
3919:
3917:
3912:
3910:
3905:
3904:
3901:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3867:
3866:
3860:
3855:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3838:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3804:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3782:
3779:
3776:
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3387:0-9685856-1-2
3383:
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3352:Avalanche.org
3349:
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3259:. 9 July 2022
3258:
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3220:pistehors.com
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2327:0-921102-72-0
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2100:
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2074:0-9724827-3-3
2071:
2068:
2061:
2060:3-7633-2060-1
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2043:
2042:0-89886-834-3
2039:
2035:
2031:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2014:
2013:
2008:
2004:
2002:
2001:0-921102-72-0
1998:
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1982:
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1927:
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1902:
1901:
1897:Related flows
1891:
1880:
1864:
1852:
1843:
1839:
1826:
1823:November 2023
1817:
1813:
1810:This section
1808:
1805:
1801:
1800:
1792:
1789:
1780:
1776:
1767:
1758:
1756:
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1298:
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1293:
1290:
1286:
1283:
1281:2 – Moderate
1280:
1279:
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1134:In 1993, the
1132:
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1123:
1119:
1114:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1095:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1082:killed 96 in
1081:
1075:
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1039:
1034:
1028:Alarm systems
1025:
1016:
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631:This section
629:
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571:
562:
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526:
522:
517:
515:
514:return period
506:
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457:
450:
445:
438:
433:
424:
422:
417:
413:
411:
408:, trauma, or
407:
397:
395:
391:
390:mass movement
381:
375:Ice avalanche
372:
365:
362:Avalanche on
360:
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349:
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339:
329:
320:
316:
312:
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302:
297:
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285:Mount Shuksan
281:
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144:Mount Everest
141:
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110:
107:
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78:
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67:
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60:
57: –
56:
52:
51:Find sources:
45:
41:
35:
34:
29:This article
27:
23:
18:
17:
4288:Impact event
4276:Astronomical
4210:Thunderstorm
4205:Bomb cyclone
4069:Hydrological
4038:Volcanic ash
4003:Seismic risk
3963:
3951:Mass wasting
3863:
3835:
3716:(1): 17675.
3713:
3709:
3698:
3689:
3679:
3670:
3660:
3651:
3632:: 1319–1322.
3629:
3619:
3610:
3582:. Retrieved
3521:
3517:
3492:. Retrieved
3488:the original
3477:
3465:. Retrieved
3461:
3404:
3373:
3367:
3355:. Retrieved
3351:
3342:
3330:. Retrieved
3327:avalanche.ca
3326:
3317:
3301:
3297:
3286:the original
3273:
3261:. Retrieved
3256:
3247:
3238:
3228:
3219:
3210:
3198:. Retrieved
3188:
3179:
3169:
3157:. Retrieved
3152:
3131:
3122:
3113:
3096:
3091:
3079:. Retrieved
3075:
3065:
3053:. Retrieved
3046:the original
3032:
3020:. Retrieved
2996:. Retrieved
2987:
2975:. Retrieved
2965:
2953:. Retrieved
2942:
2897:
2893:
2883:
2871:. Retrieved
2867:the original
2857:
2841:
2828:
2816:. Retrieved
2812:the original
2802:
2794:
2786:
2778:
2774:
2769:
2735:
2717:
2705:. Retrieved
2698:the original
2670:. Retrieved
2666:
2654:
2642:. Retrieved
2638:
2628:
2616:. Retrieved
2612:
2602:
2587:
2582:
2573:
2563:
2551:. Retrieved
2548:avalanche.ca
2547:
2538:
2526:. Retrieved
2522:
2513:
2501:. Retrieved
2497:
2485:
2470:
2465:
2453:. Retrieved
2449:the original
2439:
2427:. Retrieved
2422:
2413:
2401:. Retrieved
2397:the original
2387:
2375:. Retrieved
2371:the original
2339:
2333:
2317:
2305:. Retrieved
2301:
2292:
2283:
2271:. Retrieved
2267:
2247:the original
2226:
2222:
2212:
2197:
2176:
2168:
2161:
2130:
2124:
2112:. Retrieved
2108:
2099:
2080:
2066:
2047:
2033:
2019:
2010:
2006:
1992:
1985:
1979:Bibliography
1820:
1816:adding to it
1811:
1790:
1786:
1777:
1773:
1764:
1754:
1751:
1616:
1556:
1548:Cornice fall
1519:
1503:
1412:
1411:
1388:
1387:
1364:
1363:
1354:
1353:
1241:
1234:
1209:
1186:
1174:
1163:
1152:
1133:
1130:
1115:
1096:
1077:
1058:
1043:
1022:
1009:earth mounds
972:
959:
933:
927:
854:
847:
843:
775:
770:
760:
751:
731:
722:
718:
714:
705:
701:
684:
660:
651:
640:Please help
635:verification
632:
604:
584:
580:
559:
552:
537:
518:
510:
479:
463:
454:
418:
414:
403:
387:
378:
369:
364:Simplon Pass
341:
326:
317:
313:
306:
266:
254:
231:
221:
217:
215:
194:
192:
176:Kenai Fjords
160:Haute-Savoie
131:
102:
96:January 2024
93:
83:
76:
69:
62:
50:
38:Please help
33:verification
30:
4303:Solar flare
4189:Megadrought
4149:Temperature
4122:Megatsunami
4101:Storm surge
4096:Flash flood
3974:Debris flow
3494:28 November
3132:History.com
2793:, page 14,
2613:www.epa.gov
2455:16 December
2419:"Avalanche"
2403:16 December
2377:3 September
2298:"Avalanche"
2063:(in German)
1904:Debris flow
1868:29 May 2019
1466:3 – Medium
1249:Risk Level
1099:World War I
947:snow fences
930:ski resorts
885:Switzerland
881:Snow fences
694:, vertical
410:hypothermia
406:suffocation
301:Mount Baker
242:rock slides
234:slush flows
211:earthquakes
55:"Avalanche"
4334:Avalanches
4328:Categories
3984:Earthquake
3942:Geological
3832:Avalanches
3692:: 899–906.
3673:: 362–366.
3654:: 970–971.
3613:: 444–449.
3524:: 639433.
3153:WorldAtlas
3022:23 October
2998:23 October
2951:. Elsevier
2544:"Glossary"
2471:Snow Sense
2429:25 January
1974:References
1939:Slush flow
1838:Avalanches
1524:Storm slab
1482:4 – Large
1450:2 – Small
1434:1 – Sluff
1355:Stability:
1094:, Canada.
1072:See also:
1013:snow sheds
988:snow fence
984:rockslides
969:Mitigation
942:Explosives
897:ski resort
709:depth hoar
544:trim lines
486:wind slabs
473:region of
66:newspapers
4339:Accidents
4313:Hypernova
4308:Supernova
4256:Firestorm
4171:Heat wave
4166:Ice storm
4161:Cold wave
3964:Avalanche
3959:Landslide
3738:2045-2322
3540:1664-042X
3431:cite book
3423:798732486
2955:28 August
2934:1561-8633
2423:ready.gov
2109:nsidc.org
1934:Rockslide
1919:Landslide
1682:<10 t
1527:Wind slab
1389:Gradient:
1383:snowshoes
1317:4 – High
1111:artillery
980:guy wires
811:ρ
654:June 2021
575:hoarfrost
540:tree line
475:Patagonia
275:Formation
238:mudslides
195:avalanche
140:Himalayas
123:Landslide
4263:ARkStorm
4251:Wildfire
4156:Blizzard
4056:Sinkhole
3803:Archived
3781:Archived
3756:29247235
3558:33912070
3467:26 March
3357:25 March
3332:25 March
3306:Archived
3263:10 April
3159:10 April
3081:10 April
2977:10 April
2846:Archived
2743:Archived
2644:10 April
2618:15 April
2553:10 April
2528:10 April
2503:10 April
2307:10 April
2273:15 April
2200:: 2006.
2114:23 March
2054:, 2002.
1876:See also
1263:1 – Low
1159:Chamonix
1140:Üzengili
1062:accident
1000:concrete
976:snow net
767:Chamonix
757:Modeling
728:Dynamics
592:friction
490:cornices
482:sunshine
394:snowpack
269:dynamics
207:snowpack
4246:Derecho
4220:Tornado
4181:Drought
4117:Tsunami
3969:Mudflow
3747:5732296
3718:Bibcode
3584:4 April
3549:8072472
3200:21 June
3055:7 March
2902:Bibcode
2818:5 April
2707:5 April
2672:9 April
2231:Bibcode
1963:Montroc
1924:Mudflow
1741:3000 m
1727:2000 m
1713:1000 m
1671:length
1423:Runout
1376:climber
1214:on the
1195:in the
1144:Bayburt
1116:In the
1105:at the
1097:During
1038:Zermatt
934:in situ
614:Weather
525:concave
460:Terrain
449:cornice
309:erosion
287:in the
201:down a
80:scholar
3754:
3744:
3736:
3556:
3546:
3538:
3421:
3411:
3384:
3105:
2932:
2873:19 May
2594:
2477:
2346:
2325:
2204:
2149:
2072:
2058:
2040:
2026:
2012:Skiing
1999:
1755:Rutsch
1699:100 m
1237:Europe
1166:Galtür
1148:Turkey
900:Tignes
598:, and
521:convex
488:, and
437:ridges
366:(2019)
244:, and
172:Alaska
82:
75:
68:
61:
53:
4239:Other
4110:Other
4077:Flood
4031:Lahar
3607:(PDF)
3289:(PDF)
3282:(PDF)
3049:(PDF)
3042:(PDF)
2849:(PDF)
2838:(PDF)
2701:(PDF)
2694:(PDF)
2663:(PDF)
2494:(PDF)
2173:(PDF)
2091:Notes
1914:Lahar
1738:10 t
1724:10 t
1710:10 t
1696:10 t
1685:10 m
1668:mass
1663:code
1563:Size
1420:Size
1372:hiker
1255:Icon
1220:Italy
1205:Tychy
992:steel
955:trees
951:winds
739:radar
735:fluid
246:serac
203:slope
142:near
87:JSTOR
73:books
4214:Hail
4082:List
3989:List
3752:PMID
3734:ISSN
3586:2022
3554:PMID
3536:ISSN
3496:2012
3469:2020
3441:link
3437:link
3419:OCLC
3409:ISBN
3382:ISBN
3359:2020
3334:2020
3265:2024
3202:2013
3161:2024
3103:ISBN
3083:2024
3057:2013
3024:2017
3000:2017
2979:2024
2957:2017
2930:ISSN
2875:2015
2820:2008
2709:2008
2674:2024
2646:2024
2620:2024
2592:ISBN
2555:2024
2530:2024
2505:2024
2475:ISBN
2457:2006
2431:2019
2405:2006
2379:2016
2344:ISBN
2323:ISBN
2309:2024
2275:2024
2202:ISBN
2147:ISBN
2116:2021
2070:ISBN
2056:ISBN
2038:ISBN
2024:ISBN
1997:ISBN
1842:Mars
1193:Rysy
1122:Alps
1103:Alps
996:wood
791:Pref
681:pit.
199:snow
59:news
3742:PMC
3726:doi
3544:PMC
3526:doi
2920:hdl
2910:doi
2727:BBC
2239:doi
2139:doi
1840:on
1818:.
1732:D5
1718:D4
1704:D3
1690:D2
1676:D1
1374:or
1235:In
1203:in
1090:in
883:in
765:in
644:by
193:An
174:'s
158:in
42:by
4330::
3932:–
3862:.
3750:.
3740:.
3732:.
3724:.
3712:.
3708:.
3688:.
3669:.
3650:.
3638:^
3628:.
3609:.
3594:^
3566:^
3552:.
3542:.
3534:.
3522:12
3520:.
3516:.
3504:^
3460:.
3449:^
3433:}}
3429:{{
3417:.
3396:^
3380:.
3376:.
3350:.
3325:.
3255:.
3237:.
3218:.
3178:.
3151:.
3140:^
3130:.
3074:.
3008:^
2928:.
2918:.
2908:.
2898:22
2896:.
2892:.
2844:.
2840:.
2754:^
2725:.
2682:^
2665:.
2637:.
2611:.
2572:.
2546:.
2521:.
2496:.
2421:.
2358:^
2300:.
2266:.
2255:^
2237:.
2227:35
2225:.
2221:.
2185:^
2145:.
2133:.
2107:.
2050:,
2009:.
1603:5
1595:4
1587:3
1579:2
1571:1
1218:,
1150:.
1146:,
1128:.
994:,
940:.
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