564:
159:
become conductive, that area has almost no voltage drop and the full voltage is applied across the remaining length of the insulator, resulting in a higher gradient and electric field, causing additional areas in the insulator to break down. The breakdown quickly spreads in a conductive path through the insulator until it extends from the positive to the negative contact. The voltage at which this occurs is called the
20:
133:
is applied, all insulators become conductors. If the voltage applied across a piece of insulator is increased, at a certain electric field strength the number of charge carriers in the material suddenly increases enormously and its resistivity drops, causing a strong current to flow through it. This
158:
of the voltage. The voltage gradient may vary at different points across the object, due to its shape or local variations in composition. Electrical breakdown occurs when the field first exceeds the dielectric strength of the material in some region of the object. Once one area has broken down and
637:
The maximum voltage between collector and emitter that can be safely applied (and with no more than some specified leakage current, often) when no circuit at the base of the transistor is there to remove collector-base leakage. Typical values: 20 volts to as high as 700 volts; very early
Germanium
748:(BIL) specified. This is the crest value of an impulse waveform with a standardized wave shape, intended to simulate the electrical stress of a lightning surge or a surge induced by circuit switching. The BIL is coordinated with the typical operating voltage of the apparatus. For high-voltage
191:
The breakdown voltage of a material is not a definite value because it is a form of failure and there is a statistical probability whether the material will fail at a given voltage. When a value is given it is usually the mean breakdown voltage of a large sample. Another term is
142:
them. The released electrons are accelerated by the field and strike other atoms, creating more free electrons and ions in a chain reaction, flooding the material with charged particles. This occurs at a characteristic electric field strength in each material, measured in
238:). Using other gases, this breakdown potential may decrease to an extent that two uninsulated surfaces with different potentials might induce the electrical breakdown of the surrounding gas. This may damage an apparatus, as a breakdown is analogous to a short circuit.
752:, the impulse level is related to the clearance to ground of energized components. As an example, a transmission line rated 138 kV would be designed for a BIL of 650 kV. A higher BIL may be specified than the minimum, where the exposure to lightning is severe.
605:
Many small-signal transistors need to have any breakdown currents limited to much lower values to avoid excessive heating. To avoid damage to the device, and to limit the effects excessive leakage current may have on the surrounding circuit, the following
179:
difference that can be applied across the material before the insulator conducts. In solid insulating materials, this usually creates a weakened path within the material by creating permanent molecular or physical changes by the sudden
96:
is created across a piece of the material by applying a voltage difference between electrical contacts on different sides of the material. The force of the field causes the charge carriers within the material to move, creating an
390:
121:
all the electrons are tightly bound to atoms, so under normal conditions there are very few mobile charge carriers in the material. Applying a voltage causes only a very small current to flow, giving the material a very high
664:
The maximum voltage rating between collector and emitter with some specified resistance (or less) between base and emitter. A more realistic rating for real-world circuits than the open-base or open-emitter scenarios
205:. The impulse breakdown voltage is simulating lightning strikes, and usually uses a 1.2 microsecond rise for the wave to reach 90% amplitude, then drops back down to 50% amplitude after 50 microseconds.
222:
In standard conditions at atmospheric pressure, air serves as an excellent insulator, requiring the application of a significant voltage of 3.0 kV/mm before breaking down (e.g.,
542:
422:
676:
The maximum reverse voltage on the base with respect to the emitter. Typically around 5 volts - more for germanium transistors, less for UHF transistors usually.
510:
490:
466:
446:
198:, where the probability of failure at a given voltage is so low it is considered, when designing insulation, that the material will not fail at this voltage.
254:
860:
H. Moscicka-Grzesiak, H. Gruszka and M. Stroinski, ‘‘Influence of
Electrode Curvature on Predischarge Phenomena and Electric Strength at 50 Hz of a Vacuum
598:
Rectifier diodes (semiconductor or tube/valve) may have several voltage ratings, such as the peak inverse voltage (PIV) across the diode, and the maximum
163:
of that object. Breakdown voltage varies with the material composition, shape of an object, and the length of material between the electrical contacts.
587:
in the diode. Exceeding the breakdown voltage of a diode, per se, is not destructive; although, exceeding its current capacity will be. In fact,
713:
Field-effect transistors have similar maximum ratings, the most important one for junction FETs is the gate-drain voltage rating.
50:, the breakdown voltage is the minimum reverse voltage that makes the diode conduct appreciably in reverse. Some devices (such as
709:
Collector to emitter rating when a specific base-emitter voltage is supplied, such as in some high voltage switching scenarios.
201:
Two different breakdown voltage measurements of a material are the AC and impulse breakdown voltages. The AC voltage is the
138:. Breakdown occurs when the electric field becomes strong enough to pull electrons from the molecules of the material,
869:
R. V. Latham, High
Voltage Vacuum Insulation: Basic concepts and technological practice, Academic Press, London, 1995.
113:, are free to move about the crystal lattice. An electric field causes a large current to flow, so metals have low
744:
are exposed to transient lightning surge voltages induced on the power circuit. Electrical apparatus will have a
911:
887:
906:
515:
208:
Two technical standards governing performing these tests are ASTM D1816 and ASTM D3300 published by ASTM.
184:. Within rarefied gases found in certain types of lamps, breakdown voltage is also sometimes called the
154:
When a voltage is applied across a piece of insulator, the electric field at each point is equal to the
398:
595:
normal diodes that exploit the breakdown voltage of a diode to provide regulation of voltage levels.
194:
820:
J. M. Meek and J. D. Craggs, Electrical
Breakdown of Gases, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 1978.
77:
592:
469:
32:
172:
847:
G. Cuttone, C. Marchetta, L. Torrisi, G. Della Mea, A. Quaranta, V. Rigato and S. Zandolin,
838:
Kalyatskii, I.I., Kassirov, G.M., and
Smirnov, G.V., Prib. Tekh. Eksp., 1974, no. 4, p. 84.
135:
73:
67:
40:
36:
8:
772:
762:
749:
176:
155:
148:
110:
803:
782:
777:
584:
545:
495:
475:
451:
431:
551:
A detailed derivation, and some background information, is given in the article about
385:{\displaystyle V_{\mathrm {b} }={\frac {B\,p\,d}{\ln \left(A\,p\,d\right)-\ln \left}}}
883:
741:
202:
599:
552:
242:
181:
98:
85:
849:
Surface
Treatment of HV Electrodes for Superconducting Cyclotron Beam Extraction,
767:
733:
425:
227:
130:
93:
89:
231:
900:
638:
point-contact transistors such as the OC10 had values around 5 volts or less.
217:
687:
Collector to emitter rating when base is shorted to emitter; equivalent to
583:
that can be applied without causing an exponential increase in the leakage
35:
is the minimum voltage that causes a portion of an insulator to experience
117:, making them good conductors. In contrast in materials like plastics and
729:
588:
123:
114:
81:
829:
Emelyanov, A.A., Izv. Vyssh. Uchebn. Zaved., Fiz., 1989, no. 4, p. 103.
737:
235:
139:
572:
223:
512:
represents the distance in centimetres between the electrodes, and
106:
101:
from the positive contact to the negative contact. For example, in
602:
input voltage to the rectifier circuit (which will be much less).
580:
563:
118:
576:
102:
51:
47:
880:
Standard
Handbook for Electrical Engineers, Eleventh Edition
248:
The breakdown voltage in a partial vacuum is represented as
144:
607:
84:. A conductor is a substance which contains many mobile
19:
740:
and other electrical apparatus connected to overhead
518:
498:
478:
454:
434:
401:
257:
241:
In a gas, the breakdown voltage can be determined by
92:
which are free to move about inside the material. An
558:
536:
504:
484:
460:
440:
416:
384:
898:
610:transistor maximum ratings are often specified:
492:represents the pressure of the surrounding gas,
851:IEEE. Trans. DEI, Vol. 4, pp. 218<223, 1997.
23:High voltage breakdown of an insulator string
16:Voltage at which insulator becomes conductive
171:Breakdown voltage is a characteristic of an
307:
303:
283:
279:
562:
18:
723:
649:The maximum collector-to-base voltage,
537:{\displaystyle \gamma _{\mathrm {se} }}
126:, and these are classed as insulators.
61:
899:
105:one or more of the negatively charged
472:that depend on the surrounding gas,
424:is the breakdown potential in volts
211:
13:
653:. Typical values 25 to 1200 volts.
528:
525:
408:
361:
358:
264:
72:Materials are often classified as
14:
923:
579:that defines the largest reverse
417:{\displaystyle V_{\mathrm {b} }}
559:Diodes and other semiconductors
872:
863:
854:
841:
832:
823:
814:
796:
1:
789:
746:basic lightning impulse level
716:Some devices may also have a
129:However, if a strong enough
7:
755:
546:Secondary Electron Emission
203:line frequency of the mains
147:per centimeter, called its
10:
928:
804:"Benefits of BDV testing?"
215:
65:
878:D. G. Fink, H. W. Beaty,
651:with emitter open-circuit
234:, or the electrodes of a
175:that defines the maximum
166:
56:forward breakdown voltage
39:and become electrically
571:Breakdown voltage is a
720:of voltage specified.
718:maximum rate of change
568:
538:
506:
486:
462:
442:
418:
386:
24:
912:Electrical parameters
882:, McGraw-Hill, 1978,
591:are essentially just
566:
539:
507:
487:
463:
443:
419:
387:
109:in each atom, called
22:
907:Electrical breakdown
724:Electrical apparatus
516:
496:
476:
452:
432:
399:
255:
136:electrical breakdown
111:conduction electrons
68:Electrical breakdown
62:Electrical breakdown
37:electrical breakdown
773:Dielectric strength
763:Avalanche breakdown
620:(sometimes written
230:across plates of a
149:dielectric strength
783:Lichtenberg figure
778:Electrical treeing
750:transmission lines
742:transmission lines
569:
534:
502:
482:
458:
438:
414:
382:
25:
567:Diode I-V diagram
505:{\displaystyle d}
485:{\displaystyle p}
461:{\displaystyle B}
441:{\displaystyle A}
380:
367:
195:withstand voltage
161:breakdown voltage
86:charged particles
29:breakdown voltage
919:
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734:circuit breakers
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212:Gases and vacuum
186:striking voltage
99:electric current
927:
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920:
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890:, page 17-20 ff
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810:. 17 June 2021.
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768:Avalanche diode
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706:
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544:represents the
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90:charge carriers
80:based on their
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216:Main article:
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131:electric field
94:electric field
66:Main article:
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60:
54:) also have a
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9:
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593:heavily doped
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556:
554:
553:Paschen's law
549:
548:Coefficient.
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243:Paschen's law
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218:Gas discharge
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730:transformers
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589:Zener diodes
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128:
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26:
808:www.pact.in
124:resistivity
115:resistivity
82:resistivity
901:Categories
888:007020974X
790:References
738:switchgear
236:spark plug
134:is called
78:insulators
74:conductors
41:conductive
573:parameter
521:γ
470:constants
354:γ
334:
323:
317:−
293:
232:capacitor
224:lightning
173:insulator
107:electrons
33:insulator
756:See also
228:sparking
156:gradient
140:ionizing
119:ceramics
632:(BR)CEO
608:bipolar
585:current
581:voltage
182:current
177:voltage
88:called
886:
728:Power
665:above.
395:where
167:Solids
103:metals
52:TRIACs
48:diodes
31:of an
694:when
577:diode
575:of a
226:, or
145:volts
884:ISBN
698:= 0.
468:are
448:and
46:For
27:The
705:CEX
692:CER
683:CES
672:EBO
660:CER
645:CBO
627:or
625:CEO
618:CEO
600:RMS
76:or
903::
806:.
736:,
732:,
622:BV
555:.
428:,
426:DC
331:ln
320:ln
290:ln
245:.
188:.
151:.
58:.
43:.
702:V
696:R
689:V
680:V
669:V
657:V
642:V
634:)
629:V
615:V
529:e
526:s
500:d
480:p
456:B
436:A
409:b
404:V
376:]
371:)
362:e
359:s
350:1
345:+
342:1
338:(
327:[
313:)
309:d
305:p
301:A
297:(
285:d
281:p
277:B
271:=
265:b
260:V
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