163:
listen to music or podcasts where the volume is controlled as feedback, for example. Often, visual feedback is used in the form of animations on a TV screen. Visual feedback can also be provided in combination with videos and films, or even during reading tasks where the brightness of the screen represents the direct feedback. Simple games can also be used, where the game itself is controlled by the brain activity. Recent developments have tried to incorporate virtual reality (VR), and controllers can already be used for more involved engagement with the feedback.
22:
227:
represent in 3D the electrical activity distribution within the brain. The LORETA method can be used in combination with MRI to merge structural and functional activities. It is able to provide even better temporal resolution than PET or fMRI. For the application with live neurofeedback, however, 19-channel neurofeedback and LORETA has limited scientific evidence, and until now, shows no benefit over traditional 1- or 2-channel neurofeedback.
159:
used (EEG, fMRI, fNIRS, HEG). Nonetheless, further distinctions are crucial even within the realm of EEG neurofeedback, as different methodologies of analysis can be chosen, some of which are backed up by a higher number of peer-reviewed studies, whereas for others, scientific literature is scarce, and explanatory models are entirely missing.
162:
Despite these differences, a common denominator can be found in the requirement of providing feedback. Usually, feedback is provided by auditory or visual input. While original feedback was provided by sounding tones according to neurological activity, many new ways have been found. It is possible to
63:
Placebo-controlled trials have often found the control group to show the same level of improvement as the group receiving actual neurofeedback treatment, which suggests these improvements may be caused by secondary effects instead. Neurofeedback has been shown to trigger positive behavioral outcomes,
235:
There is ongoing discussion about the effect size of neurofeedback in the scientific literature. As neurofeedback is explained mostly based on the model of operant conditioning, the sensitivity of the feedback (the difficulty to receive a reward) also plays a role. It has been shown that the desired
184:
Depending on the training goal (for example, increasing attention and focus, reaching a calm state, reducing epileptic seizures, etc.), the electrodes have to be placed in different positions. Additionally, the trained frequency bands and the training directions (to higher or lower amplitudes) might
176:
Amplitude training, or frequency band training (used synonymously), is the method with the largest body of scientific literature; it also represents the original method of EEG neurofeedback. The EEG signal is analyzed with respect to its frequency spectrum, split into the common frequency bands used
226:
Normal EEG signals are restricted to the surface of the scalp. Using a high number of electrodes (19 or more), the source of certain electrical events can be localized. Similar to a tomography that renders a 3D image out of many 2D images, the many EEG channels are used to create LORETA images that
158:
The term neurofeedback is not legally protected. There are various approaches that give feedback about neuronal activity, and as such are referred to as "neurofeedback" by their respective operators. Distinctions can be made on several levels. The first takes into account which technology is being
217:
For SCP (slow cortical potentials) training, one trains the DC voltage component of the EEG signal. The application of this type of EEG neurofeedback training was mostly endorsed by research done by Niels
Birbaumer and his group. The most common symptom base for SCP training is ADHD, whereas SCPs
196:
In the sports domain, SMR training has garnered attention, with a substantial body of research suggesting that enhancing it could improve performance. This improvement is particularly evident after multiple training sessions designed to enhance motor skills critical for precise movements. Such
188:
Thus, EEG wave components that are expected to be beneficial to the training goal are rewarded with positive feedback when appearing and/or increasing in amplitude. Frequency band amplitudes that are expected to be hindering are trained downwards by reinforcement through the feedback.
236:
conditioning can be reversed if threshold values are set too low. Other publications have not found any effect of neurofeedback, apart from placebo, when using automatic thresholds that update every thirty seconds in order to maintain a constant success rate of 80%.
125:
than non-trained cats. In 1971, he reported similar improvements with an epileptic patient whose seizures could be controlled through SMR training. Joel Lubar contributed to the research of EEG biofeedback, starting with epilepsy and later with hyperactivity and
192:
As an example, considering ADHD, this would result in training low-beta or mid-beta frequencies in the central-to-frontal lobe to increase in amplitude, while simultaneously trying to reduce theta and high-beta amplitudes in the same region of the brain.
64:
such as relieving symptoms related to psychiatric disorders or improving specific cognitive functions in healthy participants. These positive behavioral outcomes rely on brain plasticity mechanisms and the ability of subjects to learn throughout life.
105:
The first study to demonstrate neurofeedback was reported by Joe Kamiya in 1962. Kamiya's experiment had two parts: In the first part, a subject was asked to keep their eyes closed, and when a tone sounded, to say whether they were experiencing
142:
changes occurring after brainwave training. In this study, half an hour of voluntary control of brain rhythms led to a lasting shift in cortical excitability and intracortical function. The authors observed that the cortical response to
996:"Evaluation of the effectiveness of EEG neurofeedback training for ADHD in a clinical setting as measured by changes in T.O.V.A. scores, behavioral ratings, and WISC-R performance"
110:. Initially, the subject would guess correctly about fifty percent of the time, but some subjects would eventually develop the ability to better distinguish between states.
2522:
181:(delta, theta, alpha, beta, gamma). The activity involves training the amplitude of a certain frequency band on a defined location on the scalp to higher or lower values.
1943:"Effect of Neurofeedback Training on Aggression and Impulsivity in Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Double-Blinded Randomized Controlled Trial"
102:
of Yale
University was able to train mice to regulate their heartbeat frequency. Later on, he continued his work with humans, training them through auditory feedback.
1430:
Nicholson AA, Rabellino D, Densmore M, Frewen PA, Paret C, Kluetsch R, Schmahl C, Théberge J, Neufeld RW, McKinnon MC, Reiss JP, Jetly R, Lanius RA (January 2017).
1100:"Neurofeedback Treatment and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Effectiveness of Neurofeedback on Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and the Optimal Choice of Protocol"
76:
formulated the law of effect. In his work, he theorized that behavior is shaped by satisfying or discomforting consequences. This set the foundation for
130:. Ming-Yang Cheng was instrumental in advancing research on EEG neurofeedback, specifically targeting enhancements in SMR power among skilled golfers.
951:
Ros T, Munneke MA, Ruge D, Gruzelier JH, Rothwell JC (February 2010). "Endogenous control of waking brain rhythms induces neuroplasticity in humans".
147:(TMS) was significantly enhanced after neurofeedback, persisted for at least twenty minutes, and was correlated with an EEG time-course indicative of
429:"Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Randomized Clinical Trial of Neurofeedback for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder With 13-Month Follow-up"
576:
1489:"The Potential of Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy-Based Neurofeedback—A Systematic Review and Recommendations for Best Practice"
2467:
483:"EEG and behavioral changes in a hyperkinetic child concurrent with training of the sensorimotor rhythm (SMR): A preliminary report"
1432:"The neurobiology of emotion regulation in posttraumatic stress disorder: Amygdala downregulation via real-time fMRI neurofeedback"
127:
2492:
117:(SMR). He published this research in 1967. Sterman subsequently discovered that the SMR-trained cats were much more resistant to
1660:
Krylova M, Skouras S, Razi A, Nicholson AA, Karner A, Steyrl D, Boukrina O, Rees G, Scharnowski F, Koush Y (3 December 2021).
2444:
2416:
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53:
49:
1662:"Progressive modulation of resting-state brain activity during neurofeedback of positive-social emotion regulation networks"
1548:"Neurofeedback and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity-Disorder (ADHD) in Children: Rating the Evidence and Proposed Guidelines"
2527:
282:"Targeting the affective brain-a randomized controlled trial of real-time fMRI neurofeedback in patients with depression"
45:
144:
202:
2502:
2349:"Neurofeedback, Self-Regulation, and Brain Imaging: Clinical Science and Fad in the Service of Mental Disorders"
1155:"EEG neurofeedback treatments in children with ADHD: an updated meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials"
902:
148:
577:"Learned Voluntary Control of Heart Rate and Rhythm in Two Subjects with Premature Ventricular Contractions"
2047:"Higher power of sensorimotor rhythm is associated with better performance in skilled air-pistol shooters"
752:"Basic Concepts and Clinical Findings in the Treatment of Seizure Disorders with EEG Operant Conditioning"
2188:"Train Your Brain? Can We Really Selectively Train Specific EEG Frequencies with Neurofeedback Training"
2507:
260:
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1999:
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Dashbozorgi Z, Ghaffari A, Karamali
Esmaili S, Ashoori J, Moradi A, Sarvghadi P (10 September 2021).
245:
1049:
Kluetsch RC, Ros T, Théberge J, Frewen PA, Calhoun VD, Schmahl C, Jetly R, Lanius RA (August 2014).
87:
connected several electrodes to a patient's scalp and detected a small current by using a ballistic
2537:
2512:
2046:
1781:
1384:
1271:"Self-regulation of human brain activity using simultaneous real-time fMRI and EEG neurofeedback"
1051:"Plastic modulation of PTSD resting-state networks and subjective wellbeing by EEG neurofeedback"
91:. In his subsequent studies, Berger analyzed EEGs qualitatively, but in 1932, G. Dietsch applied
1214:"Review of the therapeutic neurofeedback method using electroencephalography: EEG Neurofeedback"
850:
811:
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280:
Mehler DM, Sokunbi MO, Habes I, Barawi K, Subramanian L, Range M, et al. (December 2018).
41:
1213:
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95:
to seven EEG records and later became the first researcher to apply quantitative EEG (QEEG).
2045:
Cheng MY, Wang KP, Hung CL, Tu YL, Huang CJ, Koester D, Schack T, Hung TM (September 2017).
1336:"Real-time fMRI neurofeedback as a new treatment for psychiatric disorders: A meta-analysis"
380:"ADHD and EEG-neurofeedback: a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled feasibility study"
113:
M. Barry
Sterman trained cats to modify their EEG patterns to exhibit more of the so-called
44:(EEG). Several neurofeedback protocols exist, with potential additional benefit from use of
2532:
2517:
1673:
77:
37:
2239:"What is the optimal task difficulty for reinforcement learning of brain self-regulation?"
8:
2000:"The effect of neurofeedback training for sport performance in athletes: A meta-analysis"
427:
Arnold LE, Arns M, Barterian J, Bergman R, Black S, Conners CK, et al. (July 2021).
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that uses electrical potentials in the brain to reinforce desired brain states through
2101:
1797:
812:"Suppression of seizures in an epileptic following sensorimotor EEG feedback training"
378:
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1829:"Sustained effects of neurofeedback in ADHD: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
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1605:"Sustained effects of neurofeedback in ADHD: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
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52:(fMRI) to localize and personalize treatment. Related technologies include
1940:
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LORETA (low resolution electromagnetic tomography analysis) training
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121:after exposure to the convulsant chemical
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56:(fNIRS) neurofeedback,
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42:electroencephalography
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2249:(9): 3033–3041.
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2074:
2042:
2036:
2035:
1995:
1989:
1988:
1970:
1938:
1932:
1931:
1921:
1881:
1875:
1874:
1864:
1824:
1818:
1817:
1777:
1771:
1770:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1705:
1657:
1651:
1650:
1640:
1600:
1594:
1593:
1583:
1543:
1537:
1536:
1526:
1508:
1484:
1478:
1477:
1467:
1427:
1421:
1420:
1380:
1374:
1373:
1355:
1331:
1325:
1324:
1290:
1266:
1260:
1259:
1249:
1209:
1203:
1202:
1192:
1174:
1150:
1144:
1143:
1095:
1089:
1088:
1078:
1046:
1040:
1039:
991:
985:
984:
948:
939:
938:
898:
887:
886:
846:
840:
839:
807:
796:
795:
747:
741:
740:
730:
713:(3): 1345–1354.
698:
692:
691:
681:
657:
651:
650:
649:
647:
614:
605:
604:
581:Clinical Science
572:
566:
565:
548:(9): 1133–1144.
533:
527:
526:
478:
467:
466:
456:
424:
418:
417:
407:
375:
369:
368:
358:
326:
320:
319:
309:
277:
93:Fourier analysis
74:Edward Thorndike
2553:
2552:
2548:
2547:
2546:
2544:
2543:
2542:
2538:Neuropsychology
2513:Neurotechnology
2483:
2482:
2466:
2458:
2453:
2447:
2419:
2402:
2400:Further reading
2397:
2396:
2345:
2341:
2290:
2286:
2235:
2231:
2184:
2180:
2127:
2123:
2114:
2112:
2082:
2078:
2043:
2039:
1996:
1992:
1939:
1935:
1882:
1878:
1825:
1821:
1778:
1774:
1723:
1719:
1658:
1654:
1601:
1597:
1544:
1540:
1485:
1481:
1428:
1424:
1381:
1377:
1332:
1328:
1267:
1263:
1210:
1206:
1151:
1147:
1096:
1092:
1047:
1043:
992:
988:
949:
942:
899:
890:
847:
843:
808:
799:
748:
744:
699:
695:
658:
654:
645:
643:
641:
615:
608:
573:
569:
534:
530:
479:
470:
425:
421:
376:
372:
327:
323:
278:
274:
269:
261:Neuromodulation
242:
233:
224:
215:
174:
169:
156:
136:
134:Neuroplasticity
70:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2551:
2541:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2481:
2480:
2464:
2457:
2456:External links
2454:
2452:
2451:
2445:
2432:
2423:
2417:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2395:
2394:
2359:(4): 193–207.
2339:
2304:(7): 679–688.
2284:
2229:
2178:
2121:
2076:
2037:
1990:
1953:(5): 693–702.
1933:
1876:
1839:(3): 293–305.
1819:
1792:(3): 214–218.
1772:
1717:
1652:
1615:(3): 293–305.
1595:
1538:
1479:
1442:(1): 541–560.
1422:
1375:
1326:
1261:
1224:(3): 213–220.
1204:
1145:
1090:
1061:(2): 123–136.
1041:
986:
940:
913:(6): 626–636.
888:
861:(3): 157–184.
841:
797:
742:
693:
652:
639:
606:
587:(3): 17P–18P.
567:
528:
493:(3): 293–306.
468:
439:(7): 841–855.
419:
390:(2): 275–284.
370:
321:
271:
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100:Neal E. Miller
69:
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9:
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2498:Medical tests
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2041:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1994:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
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1937:
1929:
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1911:
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1137:
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1125:
1121:
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1113:
1109:
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1101:
1094:
1086:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1045:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
990:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
947:
945:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
897:
895:
893:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
845:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
806:
804:
802:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
746:
738:
734:
729:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
697:
689:
685:
680:
675:
671:
667:
663:
656:
642:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
613:
611:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
571:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
532:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
477:
475:
473:
464:
460:
455:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
423:
415:
411:
406:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
374:
366:
362:
357:
352:
348:
344:
341:(3): 171–80.
340:
336:
332:
325:
317:
313:
308:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
276:
272:
262:
259:
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244:
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210:
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164:
160:
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131:
129:
124:
120:
116:
111:
109:
103:
101:
96:
94:
90:
86:
81:
79:
75:
65:
61:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
35:
32:is a form of
31:
30:Neurofeedback
23:
19:
2475:
2469:
2436:
2427:
2408:
2356:
2352:
2342:
2301:
2297:
2287:
2246:
2242:
2232:
2195:
2191:
2181:
2138:
2134:
2124:
2113:, retrieved
2093:
2089:
2079:
2054:
2050:
2040:
2007:
2003:
1993:
1950:
1946:
1936:
1893:
1889:
1879:
1836:
1832:
1822:
1789:
1785:
1775:
1737:(1): 21–35.
1734:
1730:
1720:
1672:(1): 23363.
1669:
1665:
1655:
1612:
1608:
1598:
1558:(2): 39–48.
1555:
1551:
1541:
1496:
1492:
1482:
1439:
1435:
1425:
1392:
1388:
1378:
1343:
1339:
1329:
1278:
1274:
1264:
1221:
1217:
1207:
1162:
1158:
1148:
1110:(2): 69–77.
1107:
1103:
1093:
1058:
1054:
1044:
1006:(1): 83–99.
1003:
999:
989:
959:(4): 770–8.
956:
952:
910:
906:
858:
854:
844:
822:(1): 89–95.
819:
815:
762:(1): 45–55.
759:
755:
745:
710:
706:
696:
672:(1): 65–73.
669:
665:
655:
644:, retrieved
622:
584:
580:
570:
545:
541:
531:
490:
486:
436:
432:
422:
387:
383:
373:
338:
334:
324:
289:
285:
275:
256:Mind machine
234:
225:
216:
213:SCP training
199:golf putting
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:neuroscience
175:
161:
157:
140:neuroplastic
137:
112:
104:
97:
89:galvanometer
82:
71:
62:
29:
28:
18:
2533:Naturopathy
2518:Behaviorism
2010:: 114–122.
1281:: 985–995.
207:free throws
108:alpha waves
85:Hans Berger
34:biofeedback
2487:Categories
2141:(1): 1–8.
1389:NeuroImage
1346:: 110605.
1275:NeuroImage
267:References
48:(QEEG) or
2476:The Times
2373:0033-3190
2318:1935-990X
2263:1388-2457
2155:1573-3270
2057:: 47–53.
2032:148988970
2024:1469-0292
1985:237880490
1910:1535-1645
1896:(6): 46.
1853:1435-165X
1751:1090-0586
1694:2045-2322
1629:1018-8827
1572:1090-0586
1515:1662-453X
1456:1065-9471
1395:: 75–92.
1370:250586279
1305:1053-8119
1288:1301.4689
1238:1840-4812
1181:1662-5161
1124:0022-3018
1020:1573-3270
927:1543-2904
776:0009-9155
688:1087-4208
601:0301-0538
507:0363-3586
98:In 1950,
72:In 1898,
2389:17750375
2381:26021883
2326:29016171
2271:27472538
2224:32210777
2173:30255461
2115:28 April
2110:19607994
2071:33780406
1977:35173923
1928:31139966
1871:29445867
1814:31198834
1806:12662600
1759:16614940
1712:34862407
1647:29445867
1590:32206963
1533:32848528
1474:27647695
1417:72333597
1409:30862532
1362:35843369
1313:23668969
1256:30465705
1199:25431555
1140:25210316
1132:26825263
1085:24266644
1036:19193823
981:16969327
973:20384819
935:26866770
883:15698128
792:43506749
784:10638352
737:22800733
646:28 April
562:34674879
523:17141352
463:32853703
414:21165661
365:22446998
316:29967368
240:See also
2334:4650115
2279:3686790
2215:7077336
2164:6373269
1968:8818111
1919:6538574
1862:6404655
1767:1445660
1703:8642545
1674:Bibcode
1638:6404655
1581:7250955
1524:7396619
1499:: 594.
1465:6866912
1321:2836232
1247:6716090
1190:4230047
1165:: 906.
1076:4442612
1028:7786929
836:4113278
728:3424312
454:7904968
405:3051071
356:3419351
307:6186421
177:in EEG
68:History
2443:
2415:
2387:
2379:
2371:
2332:
2324:
2316:
2277:
2269:
2261:
2222:
2212:
2198:: 22.
2171:
2161:
2153:
2108:
2069:
2030:
2022:
1983:
1975:
1965:
1926:
1916:
1908:
1869:
1859:
1851:
1812:
1804:
1765:
1757:
1749:
1710:
1700:
1692:
1645:
1635:
1627:
1588:
1578:
1570:
1531:
1521:
1513:
1472:
1462:
1454:
1415:
1407:
1368:
1360:
1319:
1311:
1303:
1254:
1244:
1236:
1197:
1187:
1179:
1138:
1130:
1122:
1083:
1073:
1034:
1026:
1018:
979:
971:
933:
925:
881:
875:812560
873:
834:
790:
782:
774:
735:
725:
686:
637:
599:
560:
521:
515:990355
513:
505:
461:
451:
412:
402:
363:
353:
314:
304:
2385:S2CID
2330:S2CID
2275:S2CID
2067:S2CID
2028:S2CID
1981:S2CID
1810:S2CID
1763:S2CID
1413:S2CID
1366:S2CID
1317:S2CID
1283:arXiv
1136:S2CID
1032:S2CID
977:S2CID
879:S2CID
788:S2CID
519:S2CID
2441:ISBN
2413:ISBN
2377:PMID
2369:ISSN
2322:PMID
2314:ISSN
2267:PMID
2259:ISSN
2220:PMID
2169:PMID
2151:ISSN
2117:2023
2106:PMID
2020:ISSN
1973:PMID
1924:PMID
1906:ISSN
1867:PMID
1849:ISSN
1802:PMID
1755:PMID
1747:ISSN
1708:PMID
1690:ISSN
1643:PMID
1625:ISSN
1586:PMID
1568:ISSN
1529:PMID
1511:ISSN
1470:PMID
1452:ISSN
1405:PMID
1358:PMID
1309:PMID
1301:ISSN
1252:PMID
1234:ISSN
1195:PMID
1177:ISSN
1128:PMID
1120:ISSN
1081:PMID
1024:PMID
1016:ISSN
969:PMID
931:PMID
923:ISSN
871:PMID
832:PMID
780:PMID
772:ISSN
733:PMID
684:ISSN
648:2023
635:ISBN
597:ISSN
558:PMID
511:PMID
503:ISSN
459:PMID
410:PMID
361:PMID
312:PMID
128:ADHD
2361:doi
2306:doi
2251:doi
2247:127
2210:PMC
2200:doi
2159:PMC
2143:doi
2098:doi
2059:doi
2012:doi
1963:PMC
1955:doi
1914:PMC
1898:doi
1857:PMC
1841:doi
1794:doi
1739:doi
1698:PMC
1682:doi
1633:PMC
1617:doi
1576:PMC
1560:doi
1519:PMC
1501:doi
1460:PMC
1444:doi
1397:doi
1393:193
1348:doi
1344:119
1293:doi
1242:PMC
1226:doi
1185:PMC
1167:doi
1112:doi
1108:204
1071:PMC
1063:doi
1059:130
1008:doi
961:doi
915:doi
863:doi
824:doi
764:doi
723:PMC
715:doi
674:doi
627:doi
589:doi
550:doi
546:177
495:doi
449:PMC
441:doi
400:PMC
392:doi
388:118
351:PMC
343:doi
302:PMC
294:doi
2489::
2474:.
2383:.
2375:.
2367:.
2357:84
2355:.
2351:.
2328:.
2320:.
2312:.
2302:72
2300:.
2296:.
2273:.
2265:.
2257:.
2245:.
2241:.
2218:.
2208:.
2196:14
2194:.
2190:.
2167:.
2157:.
2149:.
2139:44
2137:.
2133:.
2104:,
2094:86
2092:,
2088:,
2065:.
2055:32
2053:.
2049:.
2026:.
2018:.
2008:36
2006:.
2002:.
1979:.
1971:.
1961:.
1951:12
1949:.
1945:.
1922:.
1912:.
1904:.
1894:21
1892:.
1888:.
1865:.
1855:.
1847:.
1837:28
1835:.
1831:.
1808:.
1800:.
1788:.
1784:.
1761:.
1753:.
1745:.
1735:31
1733:.
1729:.
1706:.
1696:.
1688:.
1680:.
1670:11
1668:.
1664:.
1641:.
1631:.
1623:.
1613:28
1611:.
1607:.
1584:.
1574:.
1566:.
1556:45
1554:.
1550:.
1527:.
1517:.
1509:.
1497:14
1495:.
1491:.
1468:.
1458:.
1450:.
1440:38
1438:.
1434:.
1411:.
1403:.
1391:.
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