Edward Thorndike - Knowledge

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Processes in Animals", was the first in psychology where the subjects were nonhumans. Thorndike was interested in whether animals could learn tasks through imitation or observation. To test this, Thorndike created puzzle boxes. The puzzle boxes were approximately 20 inches long, 15 inches wide, and 12 inches tall. Each box had a door that was pulled open by a weight attached to a string that ran over a pulley and was attached to the door. The string attached to the door led to a lever or button inside the box. When the animal pressed the bar or pulled the lever, the string attached to the door would cause the weight to lift and the door to open. Thorndike's puzzle boxes were arranged so that the animal would be required to perform a certain response (pulling a lever or pushing a button), while he measured the amount of time it took them to escape. Once the animal had performed the desired response they were allowed to escape and were also given a reward, usually food. Thorndike primarily used cats in his puzzle boxes. When the cats were put into the cages they would wander restlessly and meow, but they did not know how to escape. Eventually, the cats would step on the switch on the floor by chance, and the door would open. To see if the cats could learn through observation, he had them observe other animals escaping from the box. He would then compare the times of those who got to observe others escaping with those who did not, and he found that there was no difference in their rate of learning. Thorndike saw the same results with other animals, and he observed that there was no improvement even when he placed the animals' paws on the correct levers, buttons, or bar. These failures led him to fall back on a trial and error explanation of learning. He found that after accidentally stepping on the switch once, they would press the switch faster in each succeeding trial inside the puzzle box. By observing and recording the animals' escapes and escape times, Thorndike was able to graph the times it took for the animals in each trial to escape, resulting in a learning curve. The animals had difficulty escaping at first, but eventually "caught on" and escaped faster and faster with each successive puzzle box trial, until they eventually leveled off. The quickened rate of escape results in the s-shape of the learning curve. The learning curve also suggested that different species learned in the same way but at different speeds. From his research with puzzle boxes, Thorndike was able to create his own theory of learning. The puzzle box experiments were motivated in part by Thorndike's dislike for statements that animals made use of extraordinary faculties such as

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subjects to form psychology of education. One of his influences on education is seen by his ideas on mass marketing of tests and textbooks at that time. Thorndike opposed the idea that learning should reflect nature, which was the main thought of developmental scientists at that time. He instead thought that schooling should improve upon nature. Unlike many other psychologist of his time, Thorndike took a statistical approach to education in his later years by collecting qualitative information intended to help teachers and educators deal with practical educational problems. Thorndike's theory was an association theory, as many were in that time. He believed that the association between stimulus and response was solidified by a reward or confirmation. He also thought that motivation was an important factor in learning. The Law of Effect introduced the relation between reinforcers and punishers. Although Thorndike's description of the relation between reinforcers and punishers was incomplete, his work in this area would later become a catalyst in further research, such as that of

693:, Thorndike introduced the concept of reinforcement. Thorndike was the first to apply psychological principles to the area of learning. His research led to many theories and laws of learning. His theory of learning, especially the law of effect, is most often considered to be his greatest achievement. In 1929, Thorndike addressed his early theory of learning, and claimed that he had been wrong. After further research, he was forced to denounce his law of exercise completely, because he found that practice alone did not strengthen an association, and that time alone did not weaken an association. He also got rid of half of the law of effect, after finding that a satisfying state of affairs strengthens an association, but punishment is not effective in modifying behavior. He placed a great emphasis on consequences of behavior as setting the foundation for what is and is not learned. His work represents the transition from the school of functionalism to behaviorism, and enabled psychology to focus on learning theory. Thorndike's work would eventually be a major influence to 626:

could "complicate or deform" what he believed were inborn differences, he believed that "if we should keep the environment of boys and girls absolutely similar these instincts would produce sure and important differences between the mental and moral activities of boys and girls". Indeed, Watson himself overtly critiqued the idea of maternal instincts in humans in a report of his observations of first-time mothers struggling to breastfeed. Watson argued that the very behaviors Thorndike referred to as resulting from a "nursing instinct" stemming from "unreasoning tendencies to pet, coddle, and 'do for' others," were performed with difficulty by new mothers and thus must have been learned, while "instinctive factors are practically nil".

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contributions to the Behavioral Psychology Society are seen through his influences in the classroom, with a particular focus on praising and ignoring behaviors. Praise is used in the classroom to encourage and support the occurrence of a desired behavior. When used in the classroom, praise has been shown to increase correct responses and appropriate behavior. Planned ignoring is used to decrease, weaken, or eliminate the occurrence of a target behavior. Planned ignoring is accomplished by removing the reinforcer that is maintaining the behavior. For example, when the teacher does not pay attention to a "whining" behavior of a student, it allows the student to realize that whining will not succeed in gaining the attention of the teacher.

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welfare of the future as well as the relief of the cripple before his eyes; and science must teach man to control his own future nature as well as the animals, plants, and physical forces amongst which he will have to live. It is a noble thing that human reason, bred of a myriad unreasoned happenings, and driven forth into life by whips made aeons ago with no thought of man's higher wants, can yet turn back to understand man's birth, survey his journey, chart and steer his future course, and free him from barriers without and defects within. Until the last removable impediment in man's own nature dies childless, human reason will not rest.

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teachers if they allow it to guide the decisions they make choosing which words to emphasize during reading instruction. Some words require more emphasis than others, and, according to Thorndike, his list informs teachers of the most frequently occurring words that should be reinforced by instruction and thus become "a permanent part of stock of word knowledge" (p. xi). If a word is not on the list but appears in an educational text, its meaning only needs to be understood temporarily in the context in which it was found, and then summarily discarded from memory.

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philosophy, the administration and practice of education, military administration, industrial personnel administration, civil service and many public and private social services. Thorndike influenced many schools of psychology as Gestalt psychologists, psychologists studying the conditioned reflex, and behavioral psychologists all studied Thorndike's research as a starting point. Thorndike was a contemporary of

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typically physically larger than women, "Women in general are thus by original nature submissive to men in general." Although these opinions lack substantiating evidence, such beliefs were commonplace during this era and in many cases served to justify prejudice against women in academia (including entrance into doctoral programs, psychological laboratories, and scientific societies).

377:. Afterwards, he became interested in the animal 'man', to the study of which he then devoted his life. Edward's thesis is sometimes thought of as the essential document of modern comparative psychology. Upon graduation, Thorndike returned to his initial interest, educational psychology. In 1898 he completed his PhD at Columbia University under the supervision of 595:

and many other psychologists. The criticisms over the law of effect mostly cover four aspects of the theory: the implied or retroactive working of the effect, the philosophical implication of the law, the identification of the effective conditions that cause learning, and the comprehensive usefulness

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Thorndike's beliefs about inborn differences between the thoughts and behavior of men and women included outdated arguments about the role of women in society. For example, along with the "nursing instinct," Thorndike talked about the instinct of "submission to mastery," arguing that because men are

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Thorndike identified the three main areas of intellectual development. The first being abstract intelligence. This is the ability to process and understand different concepts. The second is mechanical intelligence, which is the ability to handle physical objects. Lastly there is social intelligence.

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Thorndike was a pioneer not only in behaviorism and in studying learning, but also in using animals in clinical experiments. Thorndike was able to create a theory of learning based on his research with animals. His doctoral dissertation, "Animal Intelligence: An Experimental Study of the Associative

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In the preface to the third book, Thorndike writes that the list contained therein "tells anyone who wishes to know whether to use a word in writing, speaking, or teaching how common the word is in standard English reading matter" (p. x), and he further advises that the list can best be employed by

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I hope to have made it clear that we have much to learn about eugenics, and also that we already know enough to justify us in providing for the original intellect and character of man in the future with a higher, purer source than the muddy streams of the past. If it is our duty to improve the face

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Identical elements theory of transfer– This theory states that the extent to which information learned in one situation will transfer to another situation is determined by the similarity between the two situations. The more similar the situations are, the greater the amount of information that will

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At first, Thorndike emphasized the importance of dissatisfaction stemming from failure as equal to the reward of satisfaction with success, though in his experiments and trials on humans he came to conclude that reward is a much more effective motivator than punishment. He also emphasized that the

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Identifiability– According to Thorndike, the identification or placement of a situation is a first response of the nervous system, which can recognize it. Then connections may be made to one another or to another response, and these connections depend upon the original identification. Therefore, a

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Law of readiness– a quality in responses and connections that results in readiness to act. Thorndike acknowledges that responses may differ in their readiness. He claims that eating has a higher degree of readiness than vomiting, that weariness detracts from the readiness to play and increases the

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Unlike later behaviorists such as John Watson, who placed a very strong emphasis on the impact of environmental influences on behavior, Thorndike believed that differences in the parental behavior of men and women were due to biological, rather than cultural, reasons. While conceding that society

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Thorndike's Educational psychology began a trend toward behavioral psychology that sought to use empirical evidence and a scientific approach to problem solving. Thorndike was among some of the first psychologists to combine learning theory, psychometrics, and applied research for school-related

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Thorndike's research focused on instrumental learning, which means that learning is developed from the organism doing something. For example, he placed a cat inside a wooden box. The cat would use various methods while trying to get out, but nothing would work until it hit the lever. Afterwards,

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large amount of learning is made up of changes in the identifiability of situations. Thorndike also believed that analysis might turn situations into compounds of features, such as the number of sides on a shape, to help the mind grasp and retain the situation, and increase their identifiability.

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revealed by plotting the time it took for an animal to escape the box each time it was in the box. He reasoned that if the animals were showing insight, then their time to escape would suddenly drop to a negligible period, which would also be shown in the learning curve as an abrupt drop; while

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It is no part of my office to moralize on these facts. But surely it would be a pitiable thing if man should forever make inferior men as a by-product of passion, and deny good men life in mistaken devotion to palliative and remedial philanthropy. Ethics and religion must teach man to want the

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Associative shifting– it is possible to shift any response from occurring with one stimulus to occurring with another stimulus. Associative shift maintains that a response is first made to situation A, then to AB, and then finally to B, thus shifting a response from one condition to another by

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Thorndike contributed a great deal to psychology. His influence on animal psychologists, especially those who focused on behavior plasticity, greatly contributed to the future of that field. In addition to helping pave the way towards behaviorism, his contribution to measurement influenced

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states that "responses that produce a desired effect are more likely to occur again whereas responses that produce an unpleasant effect are less likely to occur again". The terms 'desired effect' and 'unpleasant effect' eventually became known as 'reinforcers' and 'punishers'. Thorndike's

713:. His work on motivation and attitude formation directly affected studies on human nature as well as social order. Thorndike's research drove comparative psychology for fifty years, and influenced countless psychologists over that period of time, and even still today. 317:

survey, published in 2002, ranked Thorndike as the ninth-most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Edward Thorndike had a powerful impact on reinforcement theory and behavior analysis, providing the basic framework for empirical laws in behavior psychology with his

392:, Ohio, he became an instructor in psychology at Teachers College at Columbia University, where he remained for the rest of his career, studying human learning, education, and mental testing. In 1937 Thorndike became the second President of the 573:

of the world and human customs and traditions, so that men unborn may live in better conditions, it is doubly our duty to improve the original natures of these men themselves. For there is no surer means of improving the conditions of life.

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Thorndike believed that "Instruction should pursue specified, socially useful goals." Thorndike believed that the ability to learn did not decline until age 35, and only then at a rate of 1 percent per year. Thorndike also stated the

568:. He argued that "selective breeding can alter man's capacity to learn, to keep sane, to cherish justice or to be happy. There is no more certain and economical a way to improve man's environment as to improve his nature." He stated: 528:

readiness to sleep. Also, Thorndike argues that a low or negative status in respect to readiness is called unreadiness. Behavior and learning are influenced by the readiness or unreadiness of responses, as well as by their strength.

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Availability– The ease of getting a specific response. For example, it would be easier for a person to learn to touch their nose or mouth than it would be for them to draw a line 5 inches long with their eyes

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During the early stages of his career, he purchased a wide tract of land on the Hudson and encouraged other researchers to settle around him. Soon a colony had formed there with him as its 'tribal' chief.

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Hester, P.P.; Hendrickson, J.M.; Gable, R.A. (2009). "Forty years later – The value of praise, ignoring, and rules for preschoolers at risk for behavior disorders". Education and Treatment of Children 32

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in their problem solving: "In the first place, most of the books do not give us a psychology, but rather a eulogy of animals. They have all been about animal intelligence, never about animal stupidity."

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Common Facts and Trades: The United States Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, A New Book of Cookery, Practical Sewing and Dress Making, Garden and Farm Almanac, and mail-order catalogues

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Children's Reading: Black Beauty, Little Women, Treasure Island, A Christmas Carol, The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, Youth's Companion, school primers, first readers, second readers, and third readers

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In Appendix A to the second book, Thorndike gives credit to his word counts and how frequencies were assigned to particular words. Selected sources extrapolated from Appendix A include:

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Law of effect– if an association is followed by a "satisfying state of affairs" it will be strengthened and if it is followed by an "annoying state of affairs " it will be weakened.

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Haggbloom, Steven J.; Warnick, Renee; Warnick, Jason E.; Jones, Vinessa K.; Yarbrough, Gary L.; Russell, Tenea M.; Borecky, Chris M.; McGahhey, Reagan; et al. (2002).

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Beatty, Barbara (1998). "From laws of learning to a science of values: Efficiency and morality in Thorndyke's educational psychology". American Psychologist 53 (10): 1152

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Multiple response– problem solving through trial and error. An animal will try multiple responses if the first response does not lead to a specific state of affairs.

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Thorndike meant to distinguish clearly whether or not cats escaping from puzzle boxes were using insight. Thorndike's instruments in answering this question were

322:. Through his contributions to the behavioral psychology field came his major impacts on education, where the law of effect has great influence in the classroom. 642:(1921), two other books were written and published, each approximately a decade apart from its predecessor. The second book in the series, its full title being 4743: 4713: 3607: 4703: 552:

Thorndike tried placing the cat inside the wooden box again. This time, the cat was able to hit the lever quickly and succeeded in getting out from the box.

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in 1917. He was one of the first psychologists to be admitted to the association. Thorndike is well known for his experiments on animals supporting the

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Thorndike composed three different word books to assist teachers with word and reading instruction. After publication of the first book in the series,

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transfer. Similarly, if the situations have nothing in common, information learned in one situation will not be of any value in the other situation.

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animals using a more ordinary method of trial and error would show gradual curves. His finding was that cats consistently showed gradual learning.

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Prepotency of elements– a subject can filter out irrelevant aspects of a problem and focus and respond only to significant elements of a problem.

2133: 4688: 1412: 1042:"The Relation between Memory for Words and Memory for Numbers, and the Relation between Memory over Short and Memory over Long Intervals," 4738: 2035:

Furumoto, Laurel; Scarborough, Elizabeth (1986). "Placing Women in the History of Psychology: The First American Women Psychologists".

705:, like Thorndike, put animals in boxes and observed them to see what they were able to learn. The learning theories of Thorndike and 866:

A Teacher's Word Book of the Twenty Thousand Words Found Most Frequently and Widely in General Reading for Children and Young People

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A Teacher's Word Book of the Twenty Thousand Words Found Most Frequently and Widely in General Reading for Children and Young People

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Shields, Stephanie S. (1975). "Functionalism, Darwinism, and the Psychology of Women: A Study in Social Myth".

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Adams, M. A. (2000). Reinforcement theory and behavior analysis. Behavioral Developmental Bulletin, 9(1), 3–6.

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Waters, R. H. (1934). The law of effect as a principle of learning. Psychological Bulletin , 31(6), 408–425.

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In 1899, after a year of unhappy initial employment at the College for Women of Case Western Reserve in

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Galef, Bennett G. (October 1998). "Edward Thorndike: Revolutionary psychologist, ambiguous biologist".

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Ed. William A. Darity, Jr.. Vol. 8. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2008. pp 358–359.

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The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, Vol. 2, No. 20, September 28, 1905.

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The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, Vol. 4, No. 2, January 17, 1907.

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Response by analogy– responses from a related or similar context may be used in a new context.

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Thorndike's law of effect and puzzle box methodology were subjected to detailed criticism by

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The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, Vol. 14, No. 14, July 5, 1917.

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The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, Vol. 6, No. 9, April 29, 1909.

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The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, Vol. 4, No. 12, June 6, 1907.

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process led to his "theory of connectionism" and helped lay the scientific foundation for

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in 1897. His two brothers (Lynn and Ashley) also became important scholars. The younger,

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satisfaction must come immediately after the success, or the lesson would not sink in.

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Thomson, Godfrey. Prof. Edward L. Thorndike. Nature. V 164. p474. September 17, 1949

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test used to evaluate illiterate, unschooled, and non-English speaking recruits.

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in Biological Lectures From The Marine Biological Laboratory of Woods Holl, 1899.

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in Biological Lectures From The Marine Biological Laboratory of Woods Holl, 1899.

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Thorndike's law of exercise has two parts; the law of use and the law of disuse.

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On August 29, 1900, he wed Elizabeth Moulton. They had four children, among them

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Thorndike put his testing expertise to work for the United States Army during

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Thorndike's original apparatus used in his puzzle-box experiments as seen in

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Law of use– the more often an association is used the stronger it becomes.

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Law of disuse– the longer an association is unused the weaker it becomes.

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Classics in the history of Psychology – Animal Intelligence by Thorndike

1213: 1205: 1199: 1194: 1188: 1183: 1175: 1167: 1096: 1056: 1018:"A Note on the Specialization of Mental Functions with Varying Content," 4457: 4292: 4088: 3945: 3836: 3674: 2832: 2702: 2660: 2565: 1637: 1143: 1135: 1127: 1112: 1104: 1080: 1072: 1064: 1048: 1040: 1024: 1016: 1003:"The Effect of Practice in the Case of a Purely Intellectual Function," 1001: 993: 985: 963: 955: 941: 933: 909: 779: 741:. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1932 and the 1806: 1151: 1088: 1032: 765:

in New York voted unanimously to remove his name from Thorndike Hall.

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Goodenough, Florence L. (1950), "Edward Lee Thorndike: 1874–1949".

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Law of recency– the most recent response is most likely to reoccur.

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specializing in the history of science and magic, while the older,

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Because of his "racist, sexist, and antisemitic ideals", amid the

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Set or attitude– animals are predisposed to act in a specific way.

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The American Journal of Psychology, Vol. 27, No. 4, October 1916.

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in 1934. That same year, Thorndike was elected president of the

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The American Journal of Psychology, Vol. 26, No. 2, April 1915.

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with R. S. Woodworth, The Psychological Review, Vol. VII, 1900.

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Studies on the growth of the emotions, in Psychologies of 1925

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The American Journal of Psychology, Vol. 21, No. 3, July 1910.

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The American Journal of Psychology, Vol. 21, No. 3, July 1910.

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The American Journal of Psychology, Vol. 19, No. 3, July 1908.

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Educational Psychology Volume II: The Psychology of Learning.

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The Elementary School Journal, Vol. 18, No. 2, October 1917.

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Introduction to the Theory of Mental and Social Measurements

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Science, New Series, Vol. 40, No. 1038, November 20, 1914.

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While at Harvard, he was interested in how animals learn (

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Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences

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Science, New Series, Vol. 11, No. 268, February 16, 1900.

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Gray, Peter. Psychology (6 ed.). Worth, NY. pp. 108–109.

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Science, New Series, Vol. 37, No. 943, January 24, 1913.

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The Elementary School Teacher, Vol. 10, No. 9, May 1910.

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Woodworth, R. S. (1950), "Edward Thorndike 1874–1949".

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The Sane Positivist: A Biography of Edward L. Thorndike

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The Mathematics Teacher, Vol. 15, No. 7, November 1922.

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The Mathematics Teacher, Vol. 14, No. 8, December 1921.

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The Mathematics Teacher, Vol. 15, No. 6, October 1922.

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Science, New Series, Vol. 31, No. 794, March 18, 1910.

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Science, New Series, Vol. 14, No. 345, August 9, 1901.

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Edward Thorndike, puzzle-boxes, and the law of effect

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The Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. XI, 1920.

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The American Naturalist, Vol. 49, No. 582, June 1915.

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Science, New Series, Vol. 33, No. 859, June 16, 1911.

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Presidents of the American Psychological Association

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The Mathematics Teacher, Vol. 15, No. 3, March 1922.

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Science, New Series, Vol. 23, No. 596, June 1, 1906.

819: 4699:

Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni

2034: 1481:"Syracuse University Genealogical Data – Biography" 1101:

The Mathematics Teacher, Vol. 6, No. 3, March 1914.

747:

American Association for the Advancement of Science

280:(August 31, 1874 – August 9, 1949) was an American 2577:Educational Psychology: A Century of Contributions 2574: 1313:Educational Psychology: A Century of Contributions 1310: 1093:The English Journal, Vol. 2, No. 9, November 1913. 1061:The Mathematics Teacher, Vol. 3, No. 4, June 1911. 362:, was an English professor and noted authority on 2347:International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences 2296:The Psychology of Wants, Interests, and Attitudes 1846: 1711:With Special Reference to Intellect and Character 1058:"Testing the Results of the Teaching of Science," 946:The School Review, Vol. 10, No. 2, February 1902. 878:The Psychology of Wants, Interests, and Attitudes 721:In 1912, Thorndike was elected president for the 4645: 1129:"The Resemblance of Young Twins in Handwriting," 987:"The Mental Antecedents of Voluntary Movements," 668:, Tennyson, Wordsworth, Cowper, Pope, and Milton 477:This is the ability to handle human interaction 400:who had established the society and its journal 342:(1891), in West Roxbury, Massachusetts and from 4719:Fellows of the American Statistical Association 2572: 2407: 2302:APA PsycNet, American Psychological Association 1308: 1098:"An Experiment in Grading Problems in Algebra," 540: 2321:Theories of Learning in Educational Psychology 2246: 1700: 1693: 1691: 1621: 4744:Members of the American Philosophical Society 4714:Teachers College, Columbia University faculty 3659: 2760: 2573:Zimmerman, Barry J.; Schunk, Dale H. (2003), 1796: 1747:sfn error: no target: CITEREFThorndike_1913 ( 1689: 1687: 1685: 1683: 1681: 1679: 1677: 1675: 1673: 1671: 1544: 1542: 1540: 1538: 1536: 1534: 1309:Zimmerman, Barry J.; Schunk, Dale H. (2003), 1302: 4704:Teachers College, Columbia University alumni 2507:Evolution of American Educational Technology 2429:An Introduction to the History of Psychology 2408:Hergenhahn, B.R.; Olson, Matthew H. (2005), 1842:(6th ed.). Worth, NY. pp. 108–109. 1588: 1586: 1584: 1582: 1580: 1578: 1576: 1574: 1572: 1562: 1560: 1558: 1556: 1554: 1532: 1530: 1528: 1526: 1524: 1522: 1520: 1518: 1516: 1514: 1293: 1077:The School Review, Vol. 20, No. 5, May 1912. 2410:An Introduction to the Theories of Learning 976:The Bookman, Vol. XXIII, March/August 1906. 325: 303:Thorndike was a member of the board of the 3666: 3652: 2767: 2753: 2737: 2426: 1742: 1668: 1215:"The Constitution of Algebraic Abilities," 1074:"The Measurement of Educational Products," 950:"The Careers of Scholarly Men in America," 903:"Some Experiments on Animal Intelligence," 752: 461:, participating in the development of the 31: 2535: 2523: 2462: 2379: 2324:, www.lifecircles-inc.com, archived from 2254:Animal Intelligence: Experimental Studies 2210: 2019: 1961: 1946: 1925: 1661: 1659: 1657: 1655: 1653: 1651: 1649: 1647: 1645: 1592: 1569: 1551: 1511: 1463: 1354: 922:The Psychological Review, Vol. VII, 1900. 813:Animal Intelligence: Experimental Studies 633: 599: 2504: 1614: 1612: 1610: 1608: 1606: 1478: 1034:"Repeaters in the Upper Grammar Grades," 675: 422: 4664:People from Williamsburg, Massachusetts 2445: 2185:GODFREY, THOMSON (September 17, 1949). 2184: 2164:American Academy of Arts & Sciences 1898: 1438:Thomson, Godfrey (September 17, 1949). 1437: 1252:"The Associative Processes in Animals," 884:The Teacher's Word Book of 30,000 Words 648:The Teacher's Word Book of 30,000 Words 4646: 2469:, University of Durham, archived from 2344: 2337:The Social Ideas of American Educators 2317: 2004: 1870:"John B. Watson Biography (1878–1956)" 1642: 1440:"Prof. Edward L. Thorndike (Obituary)" 1386: 1384: 1382: 886:(co-authored with Irving Lorge) (1944) 284:who spent nearly his entire career at 3647: 2748: 2365: 2061: 2022:Educational psychology briefer course 1949:Educational psychology briefer course 1603: 906:Science, Vol. VII, January/June 1898. 743:American Academy of Arts and Sciences 286:Teachers College, Columbia University 2485: 1932:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 1797:Guthrie, E.R.; Powers, F.F. (1950). 1479:Hiemstra, Roger (November 1, 1998). 1196:"The Nature of Algebraic Abilities," 1185:"The Psychology of Problem Solving," 895: 822:Education Psychology: briefer course 4689:20th-century American psychologists 2134:"Who Discovered the Law of Effect?" 1379: 1050:"Practice in the Case of Addition," 995:"On the Function of Visual Images," 621:Beliefs about the behavior of women 524:associating it with that condition. 13: 4739:American educational psychologists 2777:American Psychological Association 2675:Works by or about Edward Thorndike 2402:The American Journal of Psychology 1867: 1472: 943:"Psychology in Secondary Schools," 761:of 2020, the Board of Trustees of 723:American Psychological Association 716: 346:(B.S. 1895). He earned an M.A. at 309:American Psychological Association 14: 4755: 2596: 2560:, New Series. 111(2880), p. 251. 1405: 1169:"The Psychology of the Equation," 768: 452: 381:, one of the founding fathers of 16:American psychologist (1874–1949) 3875: 2691: 2650: 2382:Interlingua Institute: A History 1837: 1413:"Psychology History – Biography" 782:Literary and Scientific Circle, 731:American Statistical Association 664:Standard Literature: The Bible, 418: 396:, following in the footsteps of 2431:, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2369:The Search for Laws of Learning 2286: 2240: 2219: 2178: 2152: 2126: 2101: 2082: 2055: 2028: 2013: 1998: 1955: 1940: 1919: 1892: 1861: 1831: 1822: 1813: 1790: 1781: 1764: 1755: 1724: 1630: 1317:, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 952:The Century Magazine, May 1903. 852:The Measurement of Intelligence 487:All animals learn the same way. 307:and served as president of the 127: 3673: 2581:, Lawrence Erlbaum Associate, 2524:Thorndike, Edward Lee (1911), 1431: 1330: 1299:Saettler, 2004, pp. 52–56 820:Edward L. Thorndike. (1999) , 725:. In 1917 he was elected as a 484:Learning occurs automatically. 411:, who became a mathematician. 1: 3971:Industrial and organizational 2450:, Wesleyan University Press, 2311: 2020:Thorndike, Edward L. (1914). 1962:Thorndike, Edward L. (1914). 1947:Thorndike, Edward L. (1914). 1926:Thorndike, Edward L. (1911). 1236: 564:Thorndike was a proponent of 4212:Human factors and ergonomics 2699:Works by Edward L. Thorndike 2641:Resources in other libraries 2622:Resources in other libraries 2538:The Fundamentals of Learning 2380:Esterhill, Frank J. (2000), 2076:10.1037/0003-066X.53.10.1128 1638:"Edward Thorndike 1874–1949" 1343:Review of General Psychology 872:The Fundamentals of Learning 845:The Psychology of Arithmetic 735:National Academy of Sciences 586: 541:Development of law of effect 314:Review of General Psychology 7: 4734:Roxbury Latin School alumni 4709:Columbia University faculty 2690:(public domain audiobooks) 2446:Joncich, Geraldine (1968), 2345:Darity, William A. (2008), 1984:10.1126/science.57.1476.430 1876:. about.com. Archived from 1260: 890: 559: 338:. Thorndike graduated from 332:Williamsburg, Massachusetts 61:Williamsburg, Massachusetts 10: 4760: 4694:Wesleyan University alumni 4684:19th-century psychologists 2708:Edward Thorndike biography 2536:Thorndike, Edward (1932), 2505:Saettler, L. Paul (2004), 2463:Kentridge, Robert (2005), 2187:"Prof.Edward L. Thorndike" 2098:, retrieved July 16, 2016. 1593:Thorndike, Edward (1911). 1224:The Survey, April 1, 1928. 982:The Bookman, October 1906. 805:The Elements of Psychology 709:were later synthesized by 544: 4598: 4535: 4242: 4152: 4064: 3901:Applied behavior analysis 3884: 3873: 3709: 3681: 3492: 3331: 3170: 3009: 2848: 2783: 2723:Thorndike, E. L. (1913). 2684:Works by Edward Thorndike 2666:Works by Edward Thorndike 2636:Resources in your library 2617:Resources in your library 2427:Hergenhahn, B.R. (2009), 2384:, Interlingua Institute, 2049:10.1037/0003-066x.41.1.35 1365:10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139 1026:"Collegiate Instruction," 733:. He was admitted to the 650:, was published in 1944. 305:Psychological Corporation 271: 258:Leta Stetter Hollingworth 225: 215: 210: 200: 190: 157: 152: 148: 137: 114: 95: 87: 68: 42: 30: 23: 4679:Animal cognition writers 3602:Jessica Henderson Daniel 2488:Eugenics: A Reassessment 2005:Watson, John B. (1926). 1964:"Educational psychology" 1287: 1082:"Educational Diagnosis," 481:Learning is incremental. 340:The Roxbury Latin School 326:Early life and education 4177:Behavioral neuroscience 3741:Behavioral neuroscience 3566:Suzanne Bennett Johnson 3178:Robert Richardson Sears 3023:Harry Levi Hollingworth 2910:Walter Bowers Pillsbury 2815:George Stuart Fullerton 1719:Popular Science Monthly 957:"Measurement of Twins," 935:"Adaptation in Vision," 838:The Teacher's Word Book 824:, New York: Routledge, 753:Opposition to Thorndike 640:The Teacher's Word Book 4227:Psychology of religion 4167:Behavioral engineering 4104:Human subject research 3760:Cognitive neuroscience 3726:Affective neuroscience 3286:George Armitage Miller 2976:Margaret Floy Washburn 2892:Henry Rutgers Marshall 2486:Lynn, Richard (2001), 2318:Cooper, Sunny (2009), 2160:"Edward Lee Thorndike" 2094:June 16, 2016, at the 1799:Educational Psychology 1627:Thorndike, 1911, p.22. 911:"Do Fishes Remember?," 790:Educational Psychology 784:Chautauqua Institution 634:Thorndike's word books 600:Thorndike on education 584: 575: 432: 298:educational psychology 290:comparative psychology 101:educational psychology 4603:Wiktionary definition 4139:Self-report inventory 4134:Quantitative research 2412:, Pearson Education, 2335:Curti, Merle (1935), 2064:American Psychologist 2037:American Psychologist 1901:American Psychologist 776:The Human Nature Club 759:George Floyd protests 676:Thorndike's influence 579: 570: 545:Further information: 426: 336:Lowell, Massachusetts 109:Behavior modification 4674:American eugenicists 4129:Qualitative research 4084:Behavior epigenetics 3608:Rosie Phillips Davis 3339:Wilbert J. McKeachie 3119:John Edward Anderson 3059:Louis Leon Thurstone 3053:Walter Richard Miles 3047:Walter Samuel Hunter 2970:Shepherd Ivory Franz 2904:Charles Hubbard Judd 2886:James Rowland Angell 2809:James McKeen Cattell 2797:George Trumbull Ladd 2727:NY: Teacher College. 2366:Dewey, Russ (2007), 1707:Thorndike, Edward L. 1487:on February 28, 2008 1282:Transfer of learning 1222:"The Teachable Age," 973:"Sex and Education," 398:Louis Leon Thurstone 394:Psychometric Society 379:James McKeen Cattell 278:Edward Lee Thorndike 195:James McKeen Cattell 47:Edward Lee Thorndike 4608:Wiktionary category 4172:Behavioral genetics 4144:Statistical surveys 4001:Occupational health 3736:Behavioral genetics 3560:Melba J. T. Vasquez 3429:Charles Spielberger 3387:Janet Taylor Spence 3196:Orval Hobart Mowrer 3190:Laurance F. Shaffer 3071:Albert Poffenberger 2934:Robert S. Woodworth 2880:Mary Whiton Calkins 2718:Edward L. Thorndike 2630:By Edward Thorndike 2527:Animal Intelligence 2473:on December 5, 2022 2256:by E. L. Thorndike" 2250:(January 4, 1912). 2203:1949Natur.164Q.474T 2140:on January 21, 2013 2089:List of ASA Fellows 1596:Animal Intelligence 1456:1949Natur.164Q.474T 1419:on February 4, 2008 1392:"Dushkin Biography" 1277:Robert L. Thorndike 689:. However, unlike 429:Animal Intelligence 404:the previous year. 373:), and worked with 344:Wesleyan University 330:Thorndike, born in 242:Laurance F. Shaffer 220:Columbia University 180:Columbia University 162:Wesleyan University 153:Academic background 4580:Schools of thought 4483:Richard E. Nisbett 4363:Donald T. Campbell 4041:Sport and exercise 3554:Carol D. Goodheart 3322:Donald T. Campbell 3113:Calvin Perry Stone 3101:Leonard Carmichael 3000:I. Madison Bentley 2958:John Wallace Baird 2898:George M. Stratton 2868:William Lowe Bryan 2821:James Mark Baldwin 2775:Presidents of the 2655:Works by or about 2540:, AMS Press Inc., 2404:. 63, pp. 291–301. 2166:. February 9, 2023 2109:"Edward Thorndike" 433: 348:Harvard University 171:Harvard University 80:Montrose, New York 4641: 4640: 4618:Wikimedia Commons 4545:Counseling topics 4508:Ronald C. Kessler 4498:Shelley E. Taylor 4423:Lawrence Kohlberg 4398:Stanley Schachter 4197:Consumer behavior 4079:Archival research 3847:Psycholinguistics 3731:Affective science 3641: 3640: 3620:Jennifer F. Kelly 3590:Susan H. McDaniel 3572:Donald N. Bersoff 3500:Norine G. Johnson 3483:Patrick H. DeLeon 3453:Robert J. Resnick 3411:Raymond D. Fowler 3405:Bonnie Strickland 3357:Nicholas Cummings 3351:M. Brewster Smith 3250:Charles E. Osgood 3131:Edwin Ray Guthrie 2964:Walter Dill Scott 2720:at www.nwlink.com 2670:Project Gutenberg 2603:Library resources 2588:978-0-8058-3682-0 2547:978-0-404-06429-7 2516:978-1-59311-139-7 2497:978-0-275-95822-0 2438:978-0-495-50621-8 2419:978-81-317-2056-1 2391:978-0-917848-02-5 2356:978-0-02-865965-7 2266:(2201): 306–307. 2113:www.nasonline.org 2070:(10): 1128–1134. 1807:10.1037/14555-000 1324:978-0-8058-3682-0 1233: 1232: 919:"Mental Fatigue," 831:978-0-415-21011-9 763:Teachers' College 275: 274: 266:Tsuruko Haraguchi 250:Truman Lee Kelley 230:Walter V. Bingham 226:Doctoral students 120:Elizabeth Moulton 37:Thorndike in 1912 4751: 4575:Research methods 4518:Richard Davidson 4513:Joseph E. LeDoux 4388:George A. Miller 4378:David McClelland 4373:Herbert A. Simon 4273:Edward Thorndike 4094:Content analysis 3879: 3852:Psychophysiology 3668: 3661: 3654: 3645: 3644: 3626:Frank C. Worrell 3524:Ronald F. Levant 3518:Diane F. Halpern 3512:Robert Sternberg 3435:Jack Wiggins Jr. 3417:Joseph Matarazzo 3363:Florence Denmark 3345:Theodore H. Blau 3298:Kenneth B. Clark 3208:Theodore Newcomb 3184:J. McVicker Hunt 3083:Edward C. Tolman 3041:Herbert Langfeld 2928:Howard C. Warren 2922:Edward Thorndike 2827:Hugo Münsterberg 2769: 2762: 2755: 2746: 2745: 2741: 2731:Edward Thorndike 2695: 2694: 2679:Internet Archive 2657:Edward Thorndike 2654: 2608:Edward Thorndike 2591: 2580: 2550: 2531: 2519: 2500: 2481: 2480: 2478: 2458: 2441: 2422: 2394: 2373: 2372:, www.psywww.com 2359: 2329: 2328:on June 29, 2011 2306: 2305: 2290: 2284: 2283: 2272:10.1038/088306a0 2244: 2238: 2237: 2236:. July 16, 2020. 2223: 2217: 2216: 2214: 2212:10.1038/164474a0 2182: 2176: 2175: 2173: 2171: 2156: 2150: 2149: 2147: 2145: 2136:. Archived from 2130: 2124: 2123: 2121: 2119: 2105: 2099: 2086: 2080: 2079: 2059: 2053: 2052: 2032: 2026: 2025: 2017: 2011: 2010: 2002: 1996: 1995: 1959: 1953: 1952: 1944: 1938: 1937: 1923: 1917: 1916: 1913:10.1037/h0076948 1896: 1890: 1889: 1887: 1885: 1868:Cherry, Kendra. 1865: 1859: 1855: 1844: 1843: 1835: 1829: 1826: 1820: 1817: 1811: 1810: 1794: 1788: 1785: 1779: 1776:10.1037/h0073664 1768: 1762: 1759: 1753: 1752: 1740: 1731: 1730:Lynn 2001, 25–26 1728: 1722: 1709:(August 1913). " 1704: 1698: 1695: 1666: 1663: 1640: 1634: 1628: 1625: 1619: 1616: 1601: 1600: 1590: 1567: 1564: 1549: 1548:Hergenhahn, 2003 1546: 1509: 1506: 1497: 1496: 1494: 1492: 1483:. Archived from 1476: 1470: 1469: 1467: 1465:10.1038/164474a0 1435: 1429: 1428: 1426: 1424: 1415:. Archived from 1409: 1403: 1402: 1400: 1398: 1388: 1377: 1376: 1358: 1334: 1328: 1327: 1316: 1306: 1300: 1297: 1272:Benjamin D. Wood 896: 834: 786:Chautauqua Press 577:And furthermore: 254:Percival Symonds 191:Doctoral advisor 131: 129: 75: 56: 54: 35: 25:Edward Thorndike 21: 20: 4759: 4758: 4754: 4753: 4752: 4750: 4749: 4748: 4644: 4643: 4642: 4637: 4594: 4570:Psychotherapies 4531: 4488:Martin Seligman 4453:Daniel Kahneman 4393:Richard Lazarus 4343:Raymond Cattell 4247: 4238: 4237: 4236: 4148: 4060: 3887: 3880: 3871: 3832:Neuropsychology 3712: 3705: 3677: 3672: 3642: 3637: 3614:Sandra Shullman 3506:Philip Zimbardo 3488: 3471:Martin Seligman 3441:Frank H. Farley 3327: 3274:Gardner Lindzey 3226:Wolfgang Köhler 3202:E. Lowell Kelly 3166: 3107:Herbert Woodrow 3065:Joseph Peterson 3005: 2994:G. Stanley Hall 2844: 2791:G. Stanley Hall 2779: 2773: 2692: 2647: 2646: 2645: 2627: 2626: 2611: 2610: 2606: 2599: 2589: 2548: 2517: 2498: 2476: 2474: 2439: 2420: 2392: 2357: 2314: 2309: 2292: 2291: 2287: 2245: 2241: 2225: 2224: 2220: 2183: 2179: 2169: 2167: 2158: 2157: 2153: 2143: 2141: 2132: 2131: 2127: 2117: 2115: 2107: 2106: 2102: 2096:Wayback Machine 2087: 2083: 2060: 2056: 2033: 2029: 2018: 2014: 2003: 1999: 1960: 1956: 1945: 1941: 1924: 1920: 1897: 1893: 1883: 1881: 1880:on July 7, 2011 1866: 1862: 1856: 1847: 1836: 1832: 1827: 1823: 1818: 1814: 1795: 1791: 1786: 1782: 1769: 1765: 1760: 1756: 1746: 1741: 1734: 1729: 1725: 1705: 1701: 1697:Thorndike, 1932 1696: 1669: 1664: 1643: 1635: 1631: 1626: 1622: 1617: 1604: 1591: 1570: 1566:Kentridge, 2005 1565: 1552: 1547: 1512: 1507: 1500: 1490: 1488: 1477: 1473: 1436: 1432: 1422: 1420: 1411: 1410: 1406: 1396: 1394: 1390: 1389: 1380: 1356:10.1.1.586.1913 1335: 1331: 1325: 1307: 1303: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1263: 1258: 1239: 1234: 1121: 1010: 893: 832: 771: 755: 719: 717:Accomplishments 678: 636: 623: 602: 589: 562: 549: 543: 455: 446:learning curves 421: 328: 264: 260: 256: 252: 248: 244: 240: 238:Alan S. Kaufman 236: 234:William S. Gray 232: 178: 169: 133: 130: 1900) 125: 121: 107: 103: 83: 77: 73: 64: 58: 57:August 31, 1874 52: 50: 49: 48: 38: 26: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4757: 4747: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4731: 4726: 4721: 4716: 4711: 4706: 4701: 4696: 4691: 4686: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4656: 4639: 4638: 4636: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4605: 4599: 4596: 4595: 4593: 4592: 4587: 4582: 4577: 4572: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4541: 4539: 4533: 4532: 4530: 4528:Roy Baumeister 4525: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4505: 4500: 4495: 4490: 4485: 4480: 4475: 4470: 4465: 4463:Michael Posner 4460: 4455: 4450: 4448:Elliot Aronson 4445: 4443:Walter Mischel 4440: 4435: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4415: 4410: 4408:Albert Bandura 4405: 4400: 4395: 4390: 4385: 4383:Leon Festinger 4380: 4375: 4370: 4365: 4360: 4355: 4353:Neal E. Miller 4350: 4348:Abraham Maslow 4345: 4340: 4335: 4333:Ernest Hilgard 4330: 4328:Donald O. Hebb 4325: 4320: 4315: 4310: 4308:J. P. Guilford 4305: 4303:Gordon Allport 4300: 4295: 4290: 4285: 4283:John B. 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Watson 2937: 2931: 2925: 2919: 2913: 2907: 2901: 2895: 2889: 2883: 2877: 2871: 2865: 2862:Edmund Sanford 2859: 2852: 2850: 2846: 2845: 2843: 2842: 2839:Joseph Jastrow 2836: 2830: 2824: 2818: 2812: 2806: 2800: 2794: 2787: 2785: 2781: 2780: 2772: 2771: 2764: 2757: 2749: 2743: 2742: 2728: 2721: 2715: 2710: 2705: 2696: 2681: 2672: 2663: 2644: 2643: 2638: 2632: 2628: 2625: 2624: 2619: 2613: 2612: 2601: 2600: 2598: 2597:External links 2595: 2594: 2593: 2587: 2569: 2568: 2553: 2552: 2546: 2533: 2521: 2515: 2502: 2496: 2483: 2460: 2443: 2437: 2424: 2418: 2405: 2397: 2396: 2390: 2376: 2375: 2362: 2361: 2355: 2341: 2340: 2332: 2331: 2313: 2310: 2308: 2307: 2294:"Abstract for 2285: 2248:Brown, William 2239: 2218: 2177: 2151: 2125: 2100: 2081: 2054: 2027: 2012: 1997: 1954: 1939: 1918: 1907:(7): 739–754. 1891: 1860: 1845: 1830: 1821: 1812: 1789: 1780: 1763: 1754: 1745:, p. 138. 1743:Thorndike 1913 1732: 1723: 1699: 1667: 1641: 1629: 1620: 1602: 1568: 1550: 1510: 1498: 1471: 1430: 1404: 1378: 1349:(2): 139–152. 1329: 1323: 1301: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1285: 1284: 1279: 1274: 1269: 1262: 1259: 1257: 1256: 1248: 1238: 1235: 1231: 1230: 1226: 1225: 1219: 1211: 1203: 1192: 1181: 1173: 1165: 1157: 1149: 1141: 1133: 1123: 1119: 1118: 1110: 1102: 1094: 1086: 1078: 1070: 1062: 1054: 1046: 1038: 1030: 1022: 1012: 1008: 1007: 999: 991: 983: 977: 969: 961: 953: 947: 939: 931: 923: 915: 907: 894: 892: 889: 888: 887: 881: 875: 869: 863: 859:Human Learning 855: 849: 841: 835: 830: 817: 809: 801: 793: 787: 772: 770: 769:Selected works 767: 754: 751: 718: 715: 683:John B. Watson 677: 674: 673: 672: 669: 662: 635: 632: 622: 619: 601: 598: 588: 585: 561: 558: 542: 539: 538: 537: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 514: 511: 508: 505: 502: 501: 500: 497: 491: 488: 485: 482: 454: 453:Adult learning 451: 420: 417: 327: 324: 288:. His work on 273: 272: 269: 268: 227: 223: 222: 217: 213: 212: 208: 207: 202: 201:Other advisors 198: 197: 192: 188: 187: 159: 155: 154: 150: 149: 146: 145: 139: 135: 134: 123: 119: 118: 116: 112: 111: 97: 96:Known for 93: 92: 89: 85: 84: 78: 76:(aged 74) 72:August 9, 1949 70: 66: 65: 59: 46: 44: 40: 39: 36: 28: 27: 24: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4756: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4720: 4717: 4715: 4712: 4710: 4707: 4705: 4702: 4700: 4697: 4695: 4692: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4651: 4649: 4634: 4631: 4629: 4626: 4624: 4621: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4609: 4606: 4604: 4601: 4600: 4597: 4591: 4588: 4586: 4583: 4581: 4578: 4576: 4573: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4565:Psychologists 4563: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4555:Organizations 4553: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4543: 4542: 4540: 4538: 4534: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4521: 4519: 4516: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4504: 4503:John Anderson 4501: 4499: 4496: 4494: 4491: 4489: 4486: 4484: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4433:Ulric Neisser 4431: 4429: 4426: 4424: 4421: 4419: 4418:Endel Tulving 4416: 4414: 4411: 4409: 4406: 4404: 4403:Robert Zajonc 4401: 4399: 4396: 4394: 4391: 4389: 4386: 4384: 4381: 4379: 4376: 4374: 4371: 4369: 4366: 4364: 4361: 4359: 4358:Jerome Bruner 4356: 4354: 4351: 4349: 4346: 4344: 4341: 4339: 4336: 4334: 4331: 4329: 4326: 4324: 4323:B. F. Skinner 4321: 4319: 4316: 4314: 4311: 4309: 4306: 4304: 4301: 4299: 4296: 4294: 4291: 4289: 4288:Clark L. Hull 4286: 4284: 4281: 4279: 4276: 4274: 4271: 4269: 4268:Sigmund Freud 4266: 4264: 4261: 4259: 4258:William James 4256: 4254: 4253:Wilhelm Wundt 4251: 4249: 4246: 4245:Psychologists 4241: 4233: 4232:Psychometrics 4230: 4228: 4225: 4223: 4220: 4218: 4215: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4198: 4195: 4193: 4192:Consciousness 4190: 4188: 4185: 4183: 4180: 4178: 4175: 4173: 4170: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4124:Psychophysics 4122: 4120: 4117: 4115: 4112: 4110: 4107: 4105: 4102: 4100: 4097: 4095: 4092: 4090: 4087: 4085: 4082: 4080: 4077: 4075: 4072: 4071: 4069: 4067: 4066:Methodologies 4063: 4057: 4054: 4052: 4049: 4047: 4044: 4042: 4039: 4037: 4034: 4032: 4029: 4027: 4026:Psychotherapy 4024: 4022: 4021:Psychometrics 4019: 4017: 4014: 4012: 4009: 4007: 4004: 4002: 3999: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3974: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3962: 3959: 3957: 3954: 3952: 3949: 3947: 3944: 3942: 3939: 3937: 3934: 3932: 3929: 3927: 3924: 3922: 3919: 3917: 3914: 3912: 3909: 3907: 3904: 3902: 3899: 3897: 3894: 3893: 3891: 3889: 3883: 3878: 3868: 3865: 3863: 3860: 3858: 3855: 3853: 3850: 3848: 3845: 3843: 3840: 3838: 3835: 3833: 3830: 3828: 3825: 3823: 3820: 3818: 3815: 3813: 3810: 3808: 3805: 3803: 3800: 3798: 3795: 3793: 3790: 3788: 3787:Developmental 3785: 3783: 3780: 3778: 3775: 3773: 3770: 3766: 3763: 3762: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3752: 3749: 3747: 3744: 3742: 3739: 3737: 3734: 3732: 3729: 3727: 3724: 3722: 3719: 3718: 3716: 3714: 3708: 3702: 3699: 3697: 3694: 3692: 3689: 3687: 3684: 3683: 3680: 3676: 3669: 3664: 3662: 3657: 3655: 3650: 3649: 3646: 3633: 3630: 3627: 3624: 3621: 3618: 3615: 3612: 3609: 3606: 3603: 3600: 3597: 3594: 3591: 3588: 3585: 3582: 3579: 3578:Nadine Kaslow 3576: 3573: 3570: 3567: 3564: 3561: 3558: 3555: 3552: 3549: 3548:James H. Bray 3546: 3543: 3540: 3537: 3534: 3531: 3528: 3525: 3522: 3519: 3516: 3513: 3510: 3507: 3504: 3501: 3498: 3497: 3495: 3491: 3484: 3481: 3478: 3477:Richard Suinn 3475: 3472: 3469: 3466: 3465:Norman Abeles 3463: 3460: 3457: 3454: 3451: 3448: 3447:Ronald E. Fox 3445: 3442: 3439: 3436: 3433: 3430: 3427: 3424: 3421: 3418: 3415: 3412: 3409: 3406: 3403: 3400: 3397: 3394: 3391: 3388: 3385: 3382: 3379: 3376: 3375:William Bevan 3373: 3370: 3367: 3364: 3361: 3358: 3355: 3352: 3349: 3346: 3343: 3340: 3337: 3336: 3334: 3330: 3323: 3320: 3317: 3314: 3311: 3308: 3305: 3304:Anne Anastasi 3302: 3299: 3296: 3293: 3290: 3287: 3284: 3281: 3278: 3275: 3272: 3269: 3266: 3263: 3262:Jerome Bruner 3260: 3257: 3256:Quinn McNemar 3254: 3251: 3248: 3245: 3244:Paul E. Meehl 3242: 3239: 3236: 3233: 3230: 3227: 3224: 3221: 3218: 3215: 3212: 3209: 3206: 3203: 3200: 3197: 3194: 3191: 3188: 3185: 3182: 3179: 3176: 3175: 3173: 3169: 3162: 3159: 3156: 3153: 3150: 3147: 3144: 3141: 3138: 3137:Henry Garrett 3135: 3132: 3129: 3126: 3123: 3120: 3117: 3114: 3111: 3108: 3105: 3102: 3099: 3096: 3093: 3090: 3089:John Dashiell 3087: 3084: 3081: 3078: 3077:Clark L. Hull 3075: 3072: 3069: 3066: 3063: 3060: 3057: 3054: 3051: 3048: 3045: 3042: 3039: 3036: 3033: 3030: 3027: 3024: 3021: 3018: 3015: 3014: 3012: 3008: 3001: 2998: 2995: 2992: 2989: 2986: 2983: 2982:Knight Dunlap 2980: 2977: 2974: 2971: 2968: 2965: 2962: 2959: 2956: 2953: 2952:Robert Yerkes 2950: 2947: 2946:Raymond Dodge 2944: 2941: 2938: 2935: 2932: 2929: 2926: 2923: 2920: 2917: 2916:Carl Seashore 2914: 2911: 2908: 2905: 2902: 2899: 2896: 2893: 2890: 2887: 2884: 2881: 2878: 2875: 2874:William James 2872: 2869: 2866: 2863: 2860: 2857: 2854: 2853: 2851: 2847: 2840: 2837: 2834: 2831: 2828: 2825: 2822: 2819: 2816: 2813: 2810: 2807: 2804: 2803:William James 2801: 2798: 2795: 2792: 2789: 2788: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2770: 2765: 2763: 2758: 2756: 2751: 2750: 2747: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2729: 2726: 2722: 2719: 2716: 2714: 2711: 2709: 2706: 2704: 2700: 2697: 2689: 2685: 2682: 2680: 2676: 2673: 2671: 2667: 2664: 2662: 2658: 2653: 2649: 2648: 2642: 2639: 2637: 2634: 2633: 2631: 2623: 2620: 2618: 2615: 2614: 2609: 2604: 2590: 2584: 2579: 2578: 2571: 2570: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2554: 2549: 2543: 2539: 2534: 2529: 2528: 2522: 2518: 2512: 2508: 2503: 2499: 2493: 2489: 2484: 2472: 2468: 2467: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2444: 2440: 2434: 2430: 2425: 2421: 2415: 2411: 2406: 2403: 2399: 2398: 2393: 2387: 2383: 2378: 2377: 2371: 2370: 2364: 2363: 2358: 2352: 2348: 2343: 2342: 2339:. pp. 459–98. 2338: 2334: 2333: 2327: 2323: 2322: 2316: 2315: 2303: 2299: 2297: 2289: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2255: 2249: 2243: 2235: 2234:(ABC7NewYork) 2233: 2228: 2222: 2213: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2197:(4168): 474. 2196: 2192: 2188: 2181: 2165: 2161: 2155: 2139: 2135: 2129: 2114: 2110: 2104: 2097: 2093: 2090: 2085: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2058: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2031: 2023: 2016: 2008: 2001: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1958: 1950: 1943: 1935: 1931: 1930: 1929:Individuality 1922: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1895: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1864: 1854: 1852: 1850: 1841: 1838:Gray, Peter. 1834: 1825: 1816: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1793: 1784: 1777: 1773: 1767: 1758: 1750: 1744: 1739: 1737: 1727: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1703: 1694: 1692: 1690: 1688: 1686: 1684: 1682: 1680: 1678: 1676: 1674: 1672: 1662: 1660: 1658: 1656: 1654: 1652: 1650: 1648: 1646: 1639: 1633: 1624: 1615: 1613: 1611: 1609: 1607: 1598: 1597: 1589: 1587: 1585: 1583: 1581: 1579: 1577: 1575: 1573: 1563: 1561: 1559: 1557: 1555: 1545: 1543: 1541: 1539: 1537: 1535: 1533: 1531: 1529: 1527: 1525: 1523: 1521: 1519: 1517: 1515: 1505: 1503: 1486: 1482: 1475: 1466: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1450:(4168): 474. 1449: 1445: 1441: 1434: 1418: 1414: 1408: 1393: 1387: 1385: 1383: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1357: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1333: 1326: 1320: 1315: 1314: 1305: 1296: 1292: 1283: 1280: 1278: 1275: 1273: 1270: 1268: 1265: 1264: 1254: 1253: 1249: 1246: 1245: 1241: 1240: 1229: 1223: 1220: 1217: 1216: 1212: 1209: 1208: 1204: 1201: 1198: 1197: 1193: 1190: 1187: 1186: 1182: 1179: 1178: 1174: 1171: 1170: 1166: 1163: 1162: 1158: 1155: 1154: 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553: 548: 547:Law of effect 534: 530: 526: 522: 518: 515: 512: 509: 506: 503: 498: 495: 494: 492: 489: 486: 483: 480: 479: 478: 474: 472: 471:law of effect 466: 464: 460: 450: 447: 442: 439: 430: 425: 419:Connectionism 416: 412: 410: 405: 403: 402:Psychometrika 399: 395: 391: 386: 384: 383:psychometrics 380: 376: 375:William James 372: 367: 365: 361: 357: 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 333: 323: 321: 320:law of effect 316: 315: 310: 306: 301: 299: 295: 291: 287: 283: 279: 270: 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 247: 246:Knight Dunlap 243: 239: 235: 231: 228: 224: 221: 218: 214: 211:Academic work 209: 206: 205:William James 203: 199: 196: 193: 189: 185: 181: 176: 172: 167: 163: 160: 156: 151: 147: 144: 141:4, including 140: 136: 117: 113: 110: 106: 105:Law of effect 102: 98: 94: 90: 86: 81: 71: 67: 62: 45: 41: 34: 29: 22: 19: 4478:Larry Squire 4473:Bruce McEwen 4468:Amos Tversky 4438:Jerome Kagan 4428:Noam Chomsky 4368:Hans Eysenck 4338:Harry Harlow 4318:Erik Erikson 4272: 4217:Intelligence 4114:Neuroimaging 3857:Quantitative 3822:Mathematical 3817:Intelligence 3807:Experimental 3802:Evolutionary 3792:Differential 3701:Psychologist 3632:Thema Bryant 3536:Sharon Brehm 3493:2001–present 3399:Logan Wright 3292:George Albee 3220:Harry Harlow 3214:Lee Cronbach 3035:Karl Lashley 3029:Edwin Boring 2988:Lewis Terman 2921: 2856:Josiah Royce 2735:Find a Grave 2724: 2629: 2607: 2576: 2557: 2537: 2526: 2506: 2487: 2475:, retrieved 2471:the original 2465: 2447: 2428: 2409: 2401: 2381: 2368: 2346: 2336: 2326:the original 2320: 2301: 2295: 2288: 2263: 2259: 2253: 2242: 2230: 2221: 2194: 2190: 2180: 2168:. 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