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provokes all three types of behaviour (avoidance, protection, repair) to some degree. Dealing with a threat like murder, for instance, will require one individual to practice avoidance (e.g. the potential murderer must stay calm), others to protect (e.g. the police officer, who must stop the attack, or the bystander, who may be obligated to call the police), and others to repair (e.g. the doctor who must resuscitate a person who has been attacked). He implies that even the negative right not to be killed, can only be guaranteed with the help of some positive duties. Shue further maintains that the negative and positive rights distinction can be harmful, because it may result in the neglect of necessary duties.
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from this arrangement in that a smaller number of physicians inevitably leads to increased rates of reimbursement. There's nothing inherently wrong with this arrangement. However, it belies any claim that doctors should have the same right to choose their customers as barbers or babysitters. Much as the government has been willing to impose duties on radio stations (e.g., indecency codes, equal time rules) that would be impermissible if applied to newspapers, Montana might reasonably consider requiring physicians, in return for the privilege of a medical license, to prescribe medication to the dying without regard to the patient's intent.
1279:, meaning that the legitimacy of the obligation is accepted "on its face"; but even if not questioned, such obligations may still be ranked for ethical analysis. Most modern societies insist that other, very serious ethical questions need to come into play before stealing can justify killing. Due to being universally regarded as one of the highest, if not the highest obligation, the obligation not to kill is significantly greater than the obligation not to steal. This is why a breach of the latter does not justify a breach of the former act.
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1271:, as rights are ranked by their degree of importance, and violations of less important rights are accepted in the course of preventing violations of more important ones. Even if the right to not be killed is inalienable, the corresponding obligation on others to refrain from killing generally has at least one exception:
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believes that all rights (regardless of whether they seem more "negative" or "positive") requires both kinds of duties at once. Shue says that honouring a right will require avoidance (a "negative" duty), but also protective or reparative actions ("positive" duties). The negative positive distinction
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shows that the argument that there is no distinction between negative and positive rights on the ground that negative rights require police and courts as their enforcement is "mistaken." He says that the question between what one has a right to do and if anybody enforces it, are separate issues. If
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M. de
Lamartine wrote me one day: "Your doctrine is only the half of my program; you have stopped at liberty; I go on to fraternity." I answered him: "The second half of your program will destroy the first half." And, in fact, it is quite impossible for me to separate the word "fraternity" from the
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Medical licenses are a limited commodity, reflecting an artificial shortage created by a partnership between
Congress and organizations representing physicians—with medical school seats and residency positions effectively allotted by the government, much like radio frequencies. Physicians benefit
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To Shue, rights can always be understood as confronting "standard threats" against humanity. Dealing with standard threats requires duties, which may be divided across time (e.g. "if avoiding the harmful behaviour fails, begin to repair the damages"), but also divided across people. Every right
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hold that positive rights, which would include a right to be protected, do not exist until they are created by a contract. However, those with this view do not mean that police, for example, are not obligated to protect the rights of citizens. Since they contract with their employers to defend
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what is necessary to satisfy their basic needs. Needless to say, libertarians would want to deny that the poor have this liberty. But how could they justify such a denial? As this liberty of the poor has been specified, it is not a positive right to receive something, but a negative right of
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rights are only negative, then it means that no one has a duty to enforce them, however, individuals have a right to use any non-forcible means to gain the cooperation of others in protecting those rights. He says "the distinction between negative and positive is quite robust."
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citizens from violence, then they have created that obligation to their employer. A negative right to life may allow an individual to defend his life from others trying to kill him, or obtain voluntary assistance from others to defend his life.
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Other advocates of the view that there is a distinction between negative and positive rights, argue that the presence of a police force or army is not due to any positive right to these services that citizens claim, but rather because they are
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guarantee negative rights, but not all include positive rights. Positive rights are often guaranteed by other laws, and the majority of liberal democracies provide their citizens with publicly funded education, health care, social security and
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A right to adequate nutrition requires duties to avoid stealing, but also duties to act in ways that protect or repair the delivery of the supplies. The right cannot be guaranteed by only positive duties, nor only negative duties; it needs
1393:, medical professionals may not wish to offer certain services for moral or philosophical reasons. If enough practitioners opt out as a result of conscience, a right granted by the conscience clause statutes in many jurisdictions (see
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If an individual has positive rights, it implies that other people have positive duties (to take certain actions); whereas negative rights imply that others have negative duties (to avoid certain other actions). Philosopher
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1405:, a Montana woman who could not find any physician to assist her suicide in 2009. This controversy over positive and negative rights in medicine has seen an ongoing public debate between conservative ethicist
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from taking the resources on their own. All rights may not only require both "positive" and "negative" duties, but rights that do not involve forced labor may be phrased positively or negatively at will..
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word "voluntary." It is quite impossible for me to conceive of fraternity as legally enforced, without liberty being legally destroyed, and justice being legally trampled underfoot.
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after a disaster. This consideration has led ethicists to agree in a general way that positive obligations are usually junior to negative obligations, as they are not reliably
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account of human rights, negative rights are often associated with the first generation of rights, while positive rights are associated with the second and third generations.
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Smith replies that this is "taking the duty to die and transforming it into a duty to kill", which he argues "reflects a profound misunderstanding of the government's role".
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James P. Sterba makes similar criticisms. He holds that any right can be made to appear either positive or negative depending on the language used to define it. He writes:
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Sterba has rephrased the traditional "positive right" to provisions, and put it in the form of a sort of "negative right"
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lists both positive and negative rights (but does not identify them as such). The constitutions of most
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that states a
Knowledge editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.
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against Clay, then Clay is required to refrain from killing Adrian; while if Adrian has a
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against Clay, then Clay is required to act as necessary to preserve the life of Adrian.
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against Clay, if and only if Clay is obliged to act upon Adrian in some way regarding
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Lukina, Anna (2017). "Soviet Union and the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights".
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will not be described as though it requires only one of the two types of duties.
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summarized the conflict between these negative and positive rights by saying:
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character. The notion of positive and negative rights may also be applied to
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What is at stake is the liberty of the poor not to be interfered with in
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confer duty. In ethics, positive obligations are almost never considered
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1587:. Irvington-on-Hudson, NY: The Foundation for Economic Education, Inc.
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163:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
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protection of person and property. Additionally, they may include
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Basic Rights: Subsistence, Affluence, and U.S. Foreign Policy
1600:"Jan Narveson – Libertarianism: A Philosophical Introduction"
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1037:, may include other civil and political rights such as the
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personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay
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2905:
1685:"Big Sky Dilemma: Must Doctors Help Their Patients Die?"
1654:"Do We Need a Pro-Choice Litmus Test for Obstetricians?"
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for prioritizing negative rights over positive rights.
1716:"The 'Right to Die' Means a Physician Duty to Kill?"
1678:
1676:
1033:, as initially proposed in 1979 by the Czech jurist
1191:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2712:of the military dictatorship in Brazil (1964-1985)
1399:Conscience clause in medicine in the United States
2800:United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights
1709:
1707:
1673:
4705:
1765:The Cost of Rights: Why Liberty Depends on Taxes
1303:they must always be agreed to through contract.
1763:review of Stephen Holmes and Cass R. Sunstein,
1468:taking from the surplus possessions of the rich
1107:. Negative rights exist unless someone acts to
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1267:. However, in practice this is often taken as
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1126:, while positive rights can be connected to
16:Rights that oblige either inaction or action
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1798:. Malden, MA : Blackwell, 1998. p. 238
1794:Sterba, J.P., "From Liberty to Welfare" in
64:Learn how and when to remove these messages
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2819:
1938:
1924:
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1543:Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action
1344:discusses this idea at length in his book
1157:When negative and positive rights conflict
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1251:Learn how and when to remove this message
1122:, negative rights can be associated with
963:to act upon Adrian in some way regarding
258:Learn how and when to remove this message
240:Learn how and when to remove this message
179:Learn how and when to remove this message
117:Learn how and when to remove this message
2840:
1805:. Aldershot, England: Ashgate Publishing
1435:
936:). These obligations may be of either a
4416:Reflections on the Revolution in France
2632:in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
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1381:often conflict with negative rights of
4706:
2724:List of human rights abuses by country
2212:during the Battle of Mosul (2016-2017)
2177:Cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment
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2814:
2795:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
1919:
1812:
1714:Smith, Wesley J. (3 September 2009).
1713:
1682:
1651:
1363:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
1142:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
1742:Shue, Henry (1980). Chapters 1–2 of
1584:Selected Essays on Political Economy
1189:adding citations to reliable sources
1160:
1047:economic, social and cultural rights
190:
128:
70:
29:
4526:The End of History and the Last Man
4436:Elements of the Philosophy of Right
1683:Appel, Jacob M. (18 October 2009).
1614:
1395:Conscientious objection to abortion
975:. A case in point, if Adrian has a
217:<manual of style compliance>.
13:
2222:during the Libyan civil war (2011)
2084:National human rights institutions
2079:List of human rights organisations
1385:. In controversial areas such as
1111:them. A positive right is a right
14:
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1838:
1652:Appel, Jacob M. (24 April 2009).
1521:Three generations of human rights
45:This article has multiple issues.
4496:The Open Society and Its Enemies
2207:at Guantánamo Bay detention camp
1945:
1451:may be a matter of emphasis; so
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280:
195:
133:
75:
34:
3303:Family as a model for the state
2332:in Chile under Augusto Pinochet
2038:Natural rights and legal rights
2028:Claim rights and liberty rights
1857:Claim rights and liberty rights
1852:Natural rights and legal rights
1490:Claim rights and liberty rights
1306:Nineteenth-century philosopher
1176:needs additional citations for
307:Natural rights and legal rights
297:Claim rights and liberty rights
53:or discuss these issues on the
4653:Separation of church and state
4551:Collectivism and individualism
4506:The Origins of Totalitarianism
2202:against Palestinians by Israel
1645:
1591:
1570:
1554:
1532:, which distinguished between
1368:
1200:"Negative and positive rights"
1:
4693:Category:Political philosophy
4566:Critique of political economy
1754:
1748:. Princeton University Press.
949:two parties in a court of law
947:To take an example involving
928:that oblige either inaction (
335:Economic, social and cultural
4591:Institutional discrimination
4586:History of political thought
3318:Negative and positive rights
2043:Negative and positive rights
1862:Negative and positive rights
1803:The Human Right to Education
1511:Rule according to higher law
1431:
967:. In contrast, Adrian has a
922:Negative and positive rights
631:Self-determination of people
312:Negative and positive rights
7:
4601:Justification for the state
4386:Two Treatises of Government
2785:List of human rights awards
2657:in the United Arab Emirates
2033:Individual and group rights
1867:Individual and group rights
1784:. Oxford : Blackwell.
1483:
302:Individual and group rights
215:. The specific problem is:
159:the claims made and adding
10:
4745:
3271:Bellum omnium contra omnes
2707:of the Marcos dictatorship
1781:Anarchy, State, and Utopia
1347:Anarchy, State, and Utopia
991:civil and political rights
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2652:in the State of Palestine
2637:in the Dominican Republic
2217:during the Gaddafi regime
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2020:
1992:
1981:
1953:
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1796:Ethics: The Big Questions
4476:The Revolt of the Masses
1548:
1496:Constitutional economics
1357:criticized according to
1263:Rights are deemed to be
289:Theoretical distinctions
19:Not to be confused with
4456:The Communist Manifesto
3382:Tyranny of the majority
3293:Consent of the governed
2775:History of human rights
2182:Enforced disappearances
2172:Crimes against humanity
1900:Equality before the law
1778:Nozick, Robert (1975).
1623:SSRN Electronic Journal
1526:Two Concepts of Liberty
1023:, and the right not to
716:Political particularism
3333:
3283:Clash of civilizations
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2719:Incitement to genocide
2012:Universal jurisdiction
1895:Universal jurisdiction
1582:The Law. Chapter 2 in
1506:Freedom versus license
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1442:
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1120:categorical imperative
1025:be enslaved by another
981:positive right to life
977:negative right to life
528:Other groups of rights
97:by rewriting it in an
4719:Human rights concepts
3298:Divine right of kings
2780:List of global issues
1610:on February 10, 2006.
1516:Second Bill of Rights
1464:
1439:
1421:
1419:, Appel has written:
1377:, positive rights of
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1151:unemployment benefits
1005:, protection against
824:Jean-Jacques Rousseau
348:Rights by beneficiary
4446:Democracy in America
3825:political philosophy
3808:political philosophy
3623:political philosophy
3452:political philosophy
3362:Separation of powers
3323:Night-watchman state
3308:Monopoly on violence
2842:Political philosophy
2662:in the United States
2437:in Jammu and Kashmir
1983:Fundamental concepts
1801:Hodgson, D. (1998).
1631:10.2139/ssrn.2952292
1580:(1995) . "The Law".
1283:Positive obligations
1185:improve this article
646:Water and sanitation
222:improve this article
211:to meet Knowledge's
4636:Right-wing politics
4516:A Theory of Justice
4486:The Road to Serfdom
4406:The Social Contract
3113:Christian democracy
2647:in the Soviet Union
2547:in Papua New Guinea
2197:Human rights abuses
2155:Human rights abuses
2059:Corporal punishment
1561:"Individual rights"
1477:not to be prevented
1146:liberal democracies
1091:"three generations"
1011:freedom of religion
969:positive right to x
953:negative right to x
857:Christian democracy
689:the Politics series
330:Civil and political
4729:Affirmative action
4724:Political concepts
4648:Political violence
4643:Political theology
4626:Left-wing politics
4621:Political spectrum
2642:in the Philippines
2167:Crime of apartheid
1443:
1334:natural monopolies
1087:standard of living
799:Alasdair MacIntyre
743:Important thinkers
144:possibly contains
99:encyclopedic style
86:is written like a
4701:
4700:
4611:Philosophy of law
4556:Conflict theories
4396:The Spirit of Law
4303:
4302:
3352:Original position
2808:
2807:
2790:Three generations
2150:
2149:
2067:
2066:
1913:
1912:
1761:Publishers Weekly
1578:Bastiat, Frédéric
1501:Constitutionalism
1471:non-interference.
1416:Baxter v. Montana
1269:graded absolutism
1261:
1260:
1253:
1235:
1067:national security
995:freedom of speech
919:
918:
682:
681:
340:Three generations
268:
267:
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250:
249:
242:
213:quality standards
204:This article may
189:
188:
181:
146:original research
127:
126:
119:
68:
4736:
4616:Political ethics
4606:Machiavellianism
4546:Authoritarianism
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4491:
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4461:
4451:
4441:
4431:
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4411:
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4381:
4371:
4361:
4351:
4341:
4331:
4321:
3397:
3396:
3338:
3274:
3264:Balance of power
3238:Social democracy
3233:Social Darwinism
3208:Multiculturalism
3153:Environmentalism
3128:Communitarianism
2835:
2828:
2821:
2812:
2811:
2562:in Punjab, India
2187:Forced migration
2097:
2096:
1990:
1989:
1985:and philosophies
1940:
1933:
1926:
1917:
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1890:Sovereign states
1833:
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1612:
1611:
1606:. Archived from
1604:Against Politics
1595:
1589:
1588:
1574:
1568:
1565:Ayn Rand Lexicon
1558:
1538:negative liberty
1413:. In discussing
1409:and bioethicist
1391:assisted suicide
1373:In the field of
1359:Marxism–Leninism
1308:Frédéric Bastiat
1256:
1249:
1245:
1242:
1236:
1234:
1193:
1169:
1161:
1128:imperfect duties
1085:, and a minimum
1059:public education
1039:right to counsel
999:private property
911:
904:
897:
886:
872:Social democracy
862:Radical centrism
819:Robert D. Putnam
784:Stanley Hauerwas
764:Robert N. Bellah
705:Central concepts
697:Communitarianism
684:
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621:Rest and leisure
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25:Positive liberty
21:Negative liberty
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3367:Social contract
3347:Ordered liberty
3335:Noblesse oblige
3252:
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3015:
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2809:
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2592:in South Africa
2582:in Sierra Leone
2577:in Saudi Arabia
2307:in Burkina Faso
2262:in Azad Kashmir
2146:
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1968:Intersex people
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1659:Huffington Post
1650:
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1625:. Elsevier BV.
1619:
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1598:Narveson, Jan.
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1528:– a lecture by
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1407:Wesley J. Smith
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1079:social security
1031:Positive rights
1007:being defrauded
1001:, freedom from
987:Negative rights
951:: Adrian has a
934:positive rights
930:negative rights
915:
884:Politics portal
882:
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852:
844:
843:
809:José Pérez Adán
804:Stephen Marglin
779:William Galston
754:Benjamin Barber
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721:Positive rights
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3188:Libertarianism
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2612:in Switzerland
2609:
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2599:
2597:in South Korea
2594:
2589:
2584:
2579:
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2564:
2559:
2554:
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2544:
2539:
2534:
2532:in North Korea
2529:
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2522:in New Zealand
2519:
2514:
2509:
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2499:
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2489:
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2479:
2474:
2469:
2467:in Kyrgyzstan‎
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2277:in Balochistan
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2227:in Afghanistan
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2184:
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2162:Atrocity crime
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1411:Jacob M. Appel
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1139:United Nations
1124:perfect duties
957:if and only if
955:against Clay,
942:liberty rights
938:legal or moral
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851:Related topics
850:
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839:Michael Walzer
836:
834:Charles Taylor
831:
829:Michael Sandel
826:
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814:Costanzo Preve
811:
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774:Amitai Etzioni
771:
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4596:Jurisprudence
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4426:Rights of Man
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4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3962:
3960:
3956:20th and 21st
3954:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3910:
3908:
3905:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3895:
3893:
3890:
3888:
3885:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3848:
3845:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3830:
3826:
3823:
3822:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3809:
3806:
3805:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3695:
3693:
3689:18th and 19th
3687:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3624:
3621:
3620:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3575:
3573:
3567:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3545:Nizam al-Mulk
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3492:
3490:
3486:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3453:
3450:
3449:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3404:
3402:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3389:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3337:
3336:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3273:
3272:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3261:
3259:
3255:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3228:Republicanism
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3095:
3093:
3089:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3024:
3022:
3018:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2853:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2836:
2831:
2829:
2824:
2822:
2817:
2816:
2813:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2772:
2770:
2766:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2682:in Uzbekistan
2680:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2572:in the Russia
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2452:in Kazakhstan
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2282:in Bangladesh
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2267:in Azerbaijan
2265:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2199:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2159:
2157:
2153:
2143:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2133:South America
2131:
2129:
2127:
2126:North America
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2098:
2095:
2091:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2076:
2074:
2072:Organizations
2070:
2060:
2057:
2056:
2054:
2050:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2025:
2023:
2019:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1994:
1991:
1988:
1980:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1955:
1952:
1948:
1941:
1936:
1934:
1929:
1927:
1922:
1921:
1918:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1877:
1874:
1868:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1850:
1849:
1846:
1841:
1834:
1829:
1827:
1822:
1820:
1815:
1814:
1811:
1804:
1800:
1797:
1793:
1791:
1790:0-631-15680-1
1787:
1783:
1782:
1777:
1774:
1773:0-393-32033-2
1770:
1766:
1762:
1759:
1758:
1747:
1746:
1739:
1737:
1721:
1717:
1710:
1708:
1692:
1691:
1686:
1679:
1677:
1661:
1660:
1655:
1648:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1617:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1594:
1586:
1583:
1579:
1573:
1566:
1562:
1557:
1553:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1530:Isaiah Berlin
1527:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1502:
1499:
1497:
1494:
1491:
1488:
1487:
1481:
1478:
1472:
1469:
1463:
1460:
1456:
1454:
1449:
1438:
1429:
1425:
1420:
1418:
1417:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1403:Janet Murdock
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1366:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1351:
1349:
1348:
1343:
1342:Robert Nozick
1339:
1335:
1329:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1309:
1304:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1289:
1284:
1280:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1255:
1252:
1244:
1233:
1230:
1226:
1223:
1219:
1216:
1212:
1209:
1205:
1202: –
1201:
1197:
1196:Find sources:
1190:
1186:
1180:
1179:
1174:This article
1172:
1168:
1163:
1162:
1154:
1152:
1147:
1143:
1140:
1136:
1131:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1017:
1016:habeas corpus
1012:
1008:
1004:
1003:violent crime
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
945:
943:
939:
935:
932:) or action (
931:
927:
923:
912:
907:
905:
900:
898:
893:
892:
890:
889:
885:
881:
880:
873:
870:
868:
867:Republicanism
865:
863:
860:
858:
855:
854:
848:
847:
840:
837:
835:
832:
830:
827:
825:
822:
820:
817:
815:
812:
810:
807:
805:
802:
800:
797:
795:
792:
790:
787:
785:
782:
780:
777:
775:
772:
770:
769:Phillip Blond
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
747:
746:
740:
739:
732:
729:
727:
724:
722:
719:
717:
714:
712:
711:Civil society
709:
708:
702:
701:
698:
695:
694:
690:
686:
685:
675:
670:
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663:
661:
656:
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639:
637:
634:
632:
629:
627:
624:
622:
619:
617:
614:
612:
609:
607:
604:
602:
599:
597:
594:
592:
589:
587:
584:
582:
579:
577:
574:
572:
569:
567:
564:
562:
559:
557:
554:
552:
549:
547:
544:
542:
539:
537:
534:
533:
532:
531:
527:
526:
521:
518:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
491:
488:
486:
483:
481:
478:
476:
473:
471:
468:
464:
461:
459:
456:
455:
454:
451:
449:
446:
444:
441:
437:
434:
433:
432:
429:
427:
424:
422:
419:
417:
414:
412:
409:
407:
404:
402:
399:
397:
394:
392:
389:
387:
384:
382:
379:
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
354:
353:
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351:
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341:
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336:
333:
331:
328:
327:
326:
325:
322:
319:
318:
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292:
288:
287:
283:
279:
278:
275:
272:
271:
262:
259:
244:
241:
233:
230:February 2022
223:
218:
214:
210:
209:
202:
193:
192:
183:
180:
172:
169:December 2018
162:
158:
154:
148:
147:
142:This article
140:
131:
130:
121:
118:
110:
107:December 2018
100:
96:
90:
89:
84:This article
82:
73:
72:
67:
65:
58:
57:
52:
51:
46:
41:
32:
31:
26:
22:
4677:
4576:Elite theory
4524:
4514:
4504:
4494:
4484:
4474:
4464:
4454:
4444:
4434:
4424:
4414:
4404:
4394:
4384:
4374:
4364:
4354:
4344:
4334:
4324:
4314:
3613:Guicciardini
3569:Early modern
3392:Philosophers
3342:Open society
3317:
3278:Body politic
3148:Distributism
3138:Conservatism
3133:Confucianism
3052:Gerontocracy
3042:Dictatorship
2996:Sovereignty‎
2986:Ruling class
2876:Emancipation
2861:Citizenship‎
2687:in Venezuela
2602:in Sri Lanka
2482:in Lithuania
2407:in Indonesia
2387:in Hong Kong
2382:in Guatemala
2252:in Australia
2242:in Argentina
2093:By continent
2042:
2021:Distinctions
2002:Positive law
1947:Human rights
1885:Positive law
1861:
1802:
1795:
1779:
1764:
1760:
1743:
1723:. Retrieved
1720:First Things
1719:
1694:. Retrieved
1688:
1663:. Retrieved
1657:
1647:
1622:
1616:
1608:the original
1603:
1593:
1585:
1581:
1572:
1564:
1556:
1476:
1474:
1467:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1452:
1444:
1427:
1422:
1414:
1372:
1355:Soviet Union
1352:
1345:
1338:public goods
1330:
1325:Libertarians
1320:Jan Narveson
1318:
1313:
1305:
1301:prima facie,
1300:
1296:
1286:
1281:
1273:self-defense
1262:
1247:
1241:October 2008
1238:
1228:
1221:
1214:
1207:
1195:
1183:Please help
1178:verification
1175:
1135:libertarians
1132:
1112:
1108:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1030:
1029:
1014:
989:may include
986:
985:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
952:
946:
933:
929:
921:
920:
789:G.W.F. Hegel
759:Gad Barzilai
626:Self defense
616:Reproductive
321:Human rights
311:
254:
236:
227:
220:Please help
216:
205:
175:
166:
143:
113:
104:
85:
61:
54:
48:
47:Please help
44:
4450:(1835–1840)
4330:(c. 350 BC)
4320:(c. 375 BC)
3937:Tocqueville
3902:Saint-Simon
3867:Montesquieu
3718:Bolingbroke
3650:Machiavelli
3530:Ibn Khaldun
3495:Alpharabius
3488:Middle Ages
3313:Natural law
3288:Common good
3213:Nationalism
3173:Imperialism
3143:Corporatism
3118:Colonialism
3098:Agrarianism
3077:Technocracy
3057:Meritocracy
3037:Bureaucracy
3027:Aristocracy
2734:Persecution
2702:in Zimbabwe
2627:in Thailand
2537:in Pakistan
2492:in Malaysia
2357:in Ethiopia
2317:in Cambodia
2297:in Botswana
2109:Middle East
2007:Sovereignty
1997:Natural law
1880:Natural law
1369:In medicine
1297:prima facie
1288:prima facie
1277:prima facie
1265:inalienable
1075:health care
1035:Karel Vašák
601:Development
541:Association
436:Transgender
224:if you can.
4708:Categories
4658:Separatism
4466:On Liberty
4366:The Prince
4095:Huntington
3598:Campanella
3525:al-Ghazali
3474:Thucydides
3432:Lactantius
3377:Statolatry
3203:Monarchism
3183:Liberalism
3108:Capitalism
3091:Ideologies
3072:Plutocracy
3020:Government
2976:Revolution
2961:Propaganda
2911:Legitimacy
2886:Government
2759:War crimes
2692:in Vietnam
2677:in Ukraine
2567:in Romania
2527:in Nigeria
2512:in Myanmar
2507:in Morocco
2497:in Manipur
2472:in Lebanon
2447:in Kashmir
2422:in Ireland
2377:in Germany
2312:in Burundi
2292:in Bolivia
2287:in Belarus
2272:in Bahrain
2257:in Austria
2247:in Armenia
2232:in Algeria
1755:References
1448:Henry Shue
1383:physicians
1211:newspapers
1063:employment
1021:fair trial
961:prohibited
591:Linguistic
566:Fair trial
448:Minorities
416:Indigenous
153:improve it
50:improve it
4376:Leviathan
4356:Monarchia
4350:(c. 1274)
4185:Oakeshott
4130:Mansfield
4125:Luxemburg
4110:Kropotkin
4005:Bernstein
3958:centuries
3872:Nietzsche
3815:Jefferson
3743:Condorcet
3691:centuries
3670:Pufendorf
3535:Marsilius
3422:Confucius
3407:Aristotle
3400:Antiquity
3328:Noble lie
3248:Third Way
3243:Socialism
3168:Feudalism
3123:Communism
3103:Anarchism
3082:Theocracy
3067:Oligarchy
3047:Democracy
3032:Autocracy
2946:Pluralism
2931:Obedience
2896:Hierarchy
2856:Authority
2672:in Uganda
2667:in Turkey
2622:in Taiwan
2557:in Poland
2542:in Panama
2502:in Mexico
2487:in Malawi
2462:in Kuwait
2427:in Israel
2362:in France
2322:in Canada
2302:in Brazil
2237:in Angola
1639:1556-5068
1432:Criticism
1101:not to be
1089:. In the
749:Aristotle
636:Sexuality
561:Education
485:Prisoners
376:Creditors
371:Consumers
157:verifying
56:talk page
4631:Centrism
4326:Politics
4316:Republic
4285:Voegelin
4265:Spengler
4250:Shariati
4225:Rothbard
4180:Nussbaum
4080:Habermas
4055:Fukuyama
4045:Foucault
3970:Ambedkar
3947:Voltaire
3917:de Staël
3892:Rousseau
3773:Franklin
3748:Constant
3708:Beccaria
3540:Muhammad
3520:Gelasius
3505:Averroes
3479:Xenophon
3459:Polybius
3412:Chanakya
3257:Concepts
3223:Populism
3193:Localism
3178:Islamism
3163:Feminism
3062:Monarchy
2966:Property
2956:Progress
2921:Monopoly
2891:Hegemony
2697:in Yemen
2617:in Syria
2607:in Sudan
2587:in Sindh
2517:in Nepal
2477:in Libya
2457:in Kenya
2442:in Japan
2432:in Italy
2402:in India
2397:in Haiti
2392:in Egypt
2372:in Ghana
2367:in Gabon
2347:in Egypt
2337:in China
2327:in Chile
2192:Genocide
1963:Children
1534:positive
1484:See also
1387:abortion
1379:patients
1375:medicine
1105:coercion
1071:military
1049:such as
997:, life,
993:such as
959:Clay is
687:Part of
606:Property
596:Movement
536:Assembly
500:Students
475:Peasants
470:Patients
421:Intersex
386:Disabled
366:Children
206:require
4668:Statism
4581:Elitism
4539:Related
4340:(51 BC)
4270:Strauss
4245:Scruton
4240:Schmitt
4230:Russell
4150:Michels
4145:Maurras
4140:Marcuse
4100:Kautsky
4070:Gramsci
4065:Gentile
4035:Dworkin
4025:Du Bois
4020:Dmowski
4015:Chomsky
4010:Burnham
3995:Benoist
3965:Agamben
3932:Thoreau
3922:Stirner
3912:Spencer
3857:Mazzini
3847:Maistre
3842:Madison
3837:Le Play
3768:Fourier
3733:Carlyle
3713:Bentham
3703:Bastiat
3698:Bakunin
3675:Spinoza
3665:MĂĽntzer
3635:Leibniz
3608:Grotius
3588:Bossuet
3555:Plethon
3500:Aquinas
3469:Sun Tzu
3437:Mencius
3427:Han Fei
3198:Marxism
3158:Fascism
2991:Society
2916:Liberty
2901:Justice
2881:Freedom
2768:Related
2754:Victims
2749:Torture
2744:Slavery
2552:in Peru
2417:in Iraq
2412:in Iran
2342:in Cuba
2138:Oceania
2052:Aspects
1453:a right
1225:scholar
1117:Kantian
1055:housing
586:Housing
556:Digital
515:Workers
505:Victims
463:Mothers
458:Fathers
453:Parents
406:Fetuses
401:Farmers
361:Animals
356:Accused
208:cleanup
151:Please
93:Please
4714:Rights
4530:(1992)
4520:(1971)
4510:(1951)
4500:(1945)
4490:(1944)
4480:(1929)
4470:(1859)
4460:(1848)
4440:(1820)
4430:(1791)
4420:(1790)
4410:(1762)
4400:(1748)
4390:(1689)
4380:(1651)
4370:(1532)
4360:(1313)
4290:Walzer
4280:Taylor
4235:Sartre
4200:Popper
4195:Pareto
4190:Ortega
4175:Nozick
4165:Mouffe
4115:Laclau
4075:Guénon
4060:Gandhi
4000:Berlin
3990:Bauman
3985:Badiou
3975:Arendt
3942:Tucker
3832:Le Bon
3793:Herder
3783:Haller
3778:Godwin
3763:Fichte
3758:Engels
3753:Cortés
3723:Bonald
3680:Suárez
3655:Milton
3645:Luther
3618:Hobbes
3603:Filmer
3593:Calvin
3578:Boétie
3571:period
3550:Ockham
3417:Cicero
3218:Nazism
3006:Utopia
2981:Rights
2971:Regime
2941:People
2926:Nation
2729:Murder
2121:Europe
2104:Africa
1958:Humans
1842:theory
1840:Rights
1788:
1771:
1725:9 June
1696:9 June
1665:9 June
1637:
1293:triage
1227:
1220:
1213:
1206:
1198:
1109:negate
1043:police
926:rights
641:Speech
611:Repair
581:Health
546:Asylum
495:States
490:Robots
480:Plants
411:Humans
396:Family
391:Elders
274:Rights
4679:Index
4308:Works
4295:Weber
4260:Spann
4255:Sorel
4220:Röpke
4215:Rawls
4170:Negri
4160:Mosca
4155:Mises
4120:Lenin
4090:Hoppe
4085:Hayek
4050:Fromm
4040:Evola
4030:Dugin
3927:Taine
3907:Smith
3887:Renan
3882:Paine
3803:Iqbal
3788:Hegel
3738:Comte
3728:Burke
3640:Locke
3630:James
3583:Bodin
3515:Dante
3510:Bruni
3464:Shang
3447:Plato
3001:State
2951:Power
2936:Peace
2871:Elite
2849:Terms
1973:Women
1549:Notes
1441:both.
1232:JSTOR
1218:books
1113:to be
520:Youth
510:Women
426:Kings
4210:Rand
4205:Qutb
4105:Kirk
3980:Aron
3897:Sade
3877:Owen
3862:Mill
3852:Marx
3820:Kant
3798:Hume
3660:More
3560:Wang
3442:Mozi
2866:Duty
2739:Rape
2114:Asia
1786:ISBN
1769:ISBN
1727:2018
1698:2018
1667:2018
1635:ISSN
1536:and
1397:and
1389:and
1361:the
1353:The
1204:news
1051:food
1041:and
1019:, a
924:are
571:Food
431:LGBT
381:Deaf
4275:Sun
4135:Mao
3011:War
2906:Law
1627:doi
1336:or
1187:by
443:Men
155:by
23:or
4710::
1767:,
1735:^
1718:.
1706:^
1687:.
1675:^
1656:.
1633:.
1602:.
1563:,
1350:.
1153:.
1130:.
1081:,
1077:,
1073:,
1069:,
1065:,
1061:,
1057:,
1053:,
1027:.
1013:,
1009:,
944:.
691:on
59:.
2834:e
2827:t
2820:v
1939:e
1932:t
1925:v
1832:e
1825:t
1818:v
1775:.
1729:.
1700:.
1669:.
1641:.
1629::
1567:.
1254:)
1248:(
1243:)
1239:(
1229:·
1222:·
1215:·
1208:·
1181:.
973:x
965:x
910:e
903:t
896:v
673:e
666:t
659:v
261:)
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243:)
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