Background radiation

464: 1117: 1471:'s 1988 report estimated the committed dose 1 km away to be 20 μSv/a for older plants or 1 μSv/a for newer plants with improved fly ash capture, but was unable to confirm these numbers by test. When coal is burned, uranium, thorium and all the uranium daughters accumulated by disintegration – radium, radon, polonium – are released. Radioactive materials previously buried underground in coal deposits are released as fly ash or, if fly ash is captured, may be incorporated into concrete manufactured with fly ash. 1108:(or, about 100–300 neutrons per square meter per second). The flux is dependent on geomagnetic latitude, with a maximum near the magnetic poles. At solar minimums, due to lower solar magnetic field shielding, the flux is about twice as high vs the solar maximum. It also dramatically increases during solar flares. In the vicinity of larger heavier objects, e.g. buildings or ships, the neutron flux measures higher; this is known as "cosmic ray induced neutron signature", or "ship effect" as it was first detected with ships at sea. 1224: 1150: 1130: 4469: 4433: 805: 4493: 4445: 1087:

observed in few places only, a protective and adaptive effect is suggested by at least one study whose authors nonetheless caution that data from Ramsar are not yet sufficiently strong to relax existing regulatory dose limits. However, the recent statistical analyses discussed that there is no correlation between the risk of negative health effects and elevated level of natural background radiation.

4481: 521:"Exposure to radiation from natural sources is an inescapable feature of everyday life in both working and public environments. This exposure is in most cases of little or no concern to society, but in certain situations the introduction of health protection measures needs to be considered, for example when working with uranium and thorium ores and other Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material ( 1552:. The former is usually more compact and affordable and reacts to several radiation types, while the latter is more complex and can detect specific radiation energies and types. Readings indicate radiation levels from all sources including background, and real-time readings are in general unvalidated, but correlation between independent detectors increases confidence in measured levels. 4457: 444: 98:

introduced and specified source. This is important where radiation measurements are taken of a specified radiation source, where the existing background may affect this measurement. An example would be measurement of radioactive contamination in a gamma radiation background, which could increase the total reading above that expected from the contamination alone.

1512:. Heavy smoking results in a radiation dose of 160 mSv/year to localized spots at the bifurcations of segmental bronchi in the lungs from the decay of polonium-210. This dose is not readily comparable to the radiation protection limits, since the latter deal with whole body doses, while the dose from smoking is delivered to a very small portion of the body. 685:

residents to high concentrations. The widespread construction of well insulated and sealed homes in the northern industrialized world has led to radon becoming the primary source of background radiation in some localities in northern North America and Europe. Basement sealing and suction ventilation reduce exposure. Some building materials, for example

673:. Concentrations over 500 times the world average have been found inside buildings in Scandinavia, the United States, Iran, and the Czech Republic. Radon is a decay product of uranium, which is relatively common in the Earth's crust, but more concentrated in ore-bearing rocks scattered around the world. Radon seeps out of these 1208:

variations in the total dose to individual workers is not known. This can be a significant confounding factor in assessing radiation exposure effects in a population of workers who may have significantly different natural background and medical radiation doses. This is most significant when the occupational doses are very low.

984:(C), (half-life 5,730 years). Excluding internal contamination by external radioactive material, these two are the largest components of internal radiation exposure from biologically functional components of the human body. About 4,000 nuclei of K decay per second, and a similar number of C. The energy of 2215: 1543:

Regular Radiation measurement is carried out at multiple levels. Government agencies compile radiation readings as part of environmental monitoring mandates, often making the readings available to the public and sometimes in near-real-time. Collaborative groups and private individuals may also make

1495:

delivers an effective dose to the whole body ranging from 1 to 20 mSv (100 to 2000 mrem). The average American receives about 3 mSv of diagnostic medical dose per year; countries with the lowest levels of health care receive almost none. Radiation treatment for various diseases also accounts for

1107:

Most of the natural neutron background is a product of cosmic rays interacting with the atmosphere. The neutron energy peaks at around 1 MeV and rapidly drops above. At sea level, the production of neutrons is about 20 neutrons per second per kilogram of material interacting with the cosmic rays

1524:

refers to the measured value from any incidental sources that affect an instrument when a specific radiation source sample is being measured. This background contribution, which is established as a stable value by multiple measurements, usually before and after sample measurement, is subtracted from

1207:

for occupational doses includes radiation that is not measured by radiation dose instruments in potential occupational exposure conditions. This includes both offsite "natural background radiation" and any medical radiation doses. This value is not typically measured or known from surveys, such that

97:

as "Dose or the dose rate (or an observed measure related to the dose or dose rate) attributable to all sources other than the one(s) specified. A distinction is thus made between the dose which is already in a location, which is defined here as being "background", and the dose due to a deliberately

947:

atoms. These cosmogenic nuclides eventually reach the Earth's surface and can be incorporated into living organisms. The production of these nuclides varies slightly with short-term variations in solar cosmic ray flux, but is considered practically constant over long scales of thousands to millions

1963:

Fornalski, K. W.; Adams, R.; Allison, W.; Corrice, L. E.; Cuttler, J. M.; Davey, Ch.; Dobrzyński, L.; Esposito, V. J.; Feinendegen, L. E.; Gomez, L. S.; Lewis, P.; Mahn, J.; Miller, M. L.; Pennington, Ch. W.; Sacks, B.; Sutou, S.; Welsh, J. S. (2015). "The assumption of radon-induced cancer risk".

1074:

recommended limit for exposure to the public from artificial sources. They additionally receive a substantial internal dose from radon. Record radiation levels were found in a house where the effective dose due to ambient radiation fields was 131 mSv (13.1 rem) per year, and the internal

684:

Although radon is naturally occurring, exposure can be enhanced or diminished by human activity, notably house construction. A poorly sealed dwelling floor, or poor basement ventilation, in an otherwise well insulated house can result in the accumulation of radon within the dwelling, exposing its

2705:

Our preliminary studies seem to indicate the presence of adaptive response in the cells of some Ramsar residents, but we do not claim to have seen hormetic effects in any of those studied. Given the apparent lack of ill effects among observed populations of these high dose rate areas, these data

1263:

Total doses from the Fukushima I accidents were between 1 and 15 mSv for the inhabitants of the affected areas. Thyroid doses for children were below 50 mSv. 167 cleanup workers received doses above 100 mSv, with 6 of them receiving more than 250 mSv (the Japanese exposure limit for emergency

1086:

Epidemiological studies are underway to identify health effects associated with the high radiation levels in Ramsar. It is much too early to draw unambiguous statistically significant conclusions. While so far support for beneficial effects of chronic radiation (like longer lifespan) has been

1539:

used for surface contamination monitoring. In an elevated gamma background the scintillator material will be affected by the background gamma, which will add to the reading obtained from any contamination which is being monitored. In extreme cases it will make the instrument unusable as the

1488:. This medical component can range much higher, with an average of 3 mSv per year across the USA population. Other human contributors include smoking, air travel, radioactive building materials, historical nuclear weapons testing, nuclear power accidents and nuclear industry operation. 1047:. This rate would convert to 0.8 Gy/a for year-round continuous exposure, but in fact the levels vary seasonally and are much lower in the nearest residences. The record measurement has not been duplicated and is omitted from UNSCEAR's latest reports. Nearby tourist beaches in 2021: 2219: 876:

crews and frequent passengers, who spend many hours per year in this environment. During their flights airline crews typically get an additional occupational dose between 2.2 mSv (220 mrem) per year and 2.19 mSv/year, according to various studies.

1007:

The global average internal dose from radionuclides other than radon and its decay products is 0.29 mSv/a, of which 0.17 mSv/a comes from K, 0.12 mSv/a comes from the uranium and thorium series, and 12 μSv/a comes from C.

790:, a radon decay product. The atmospheric background varies greatly with wind direction and meteorological conditions. Radon also can be released from the ground in bursts and then form "radon clouds" capable of traveling tens of kilometers. 636:

The level over the sea and other large bodies of water tends to be about a tenth of the terrestrial background. Conversely, coastal areas (and areas by the side of fresh water) may have an additional contribution from dispersed sediment.

2706:

suggest that current dose limits may be overly conservative. However, the available data do not seem sufficient to cause national or international advisory bodies to change their current conservative radiation protection recommendations;

1540:

background swamps the lower level of radiation from the contamination. In such instruments the background can be continually monitored in the "Ready" state, and subtracted from any reading obtained when being used in "Measuring" mode.

1165:. The New Zealand curve is representative for the Southern Hemisphere, the Austrian curve is representative for the Northern Hemisphere. Atmospheric nuclear weapon tests almost doubled the concentration of C in the Northern Hemisphere. 1293:

at the same compound – released substantial radioactivity into the environment. The Windscale fire resulted in thyroid doses of 5–20 mSv for adults and 10–60 mSv for children. The doses from the accidents at Mayak are unknown.

1177:; some of this material is dispersed worldwide. The increase in background radiation due to these tests peaked in 1963 at about 0.15 mSv per year worldwide, or about 7% of average background dose from all sources. The 510:. In Europe, average natural background exposure by country ranges from under 2 mSv (200 mrem) annually in the United Kingdom to more than 7 mSv (700 mrem) annually for some groups of people in Finland. 2008: 975:

Two of the essential elements that make up the human body, namely potassium and carbon, have radioactive isotopes that add significantly to our background radiation dose. An average human contains about 17 milligrams of

1251:

Total doses from the Chernobyl accident ranged from 10 to 50 mSv over 20 years for the inhabitants of the affected areas, with most of the dose received in the first years after the disaster, and over 100 mSv for

1235:

as incidents typically do not release any additional radioactive substances into the environment. Large releases of radioactivity from nuclear reactors are extremely rare. To the present day, there were two major

995:

of 40 days. This means there are about 3700 beta particles per second produced by the decay of C. However, a C atom is in the genetic information of about half the cells, while potassium is not a component of

1817: 1120:

Displays showing ambient radiation fields of 0.120–0.130 μSv/h (1.05–1.14 mSv/a) in a nuclear power plant. This reading includes natural background from cosmic and terrestrial sources.

2315:

Nair, MK; Nambi, KS; Amma, NS; Gangadharan, P; Jayalekshmi, P; Jayadevan, S; Cherian, V; Reghuram, KN (1999). "Population study in the high natural background radiation area in Kerala, India".

3850: 2423: 1468: 736: 586:

Many shorter half-life (and thus more intensely radioactive) isotopes have not decayed out of the terrestrial environment because of their on-going natural production. Examples of these are

712:

radioactive nuclides. These radioactive particles are inhaled and remain lodged in the lungs, causing continued exposure. Radon is thus assumed to be the second leading cause of

808:

Estimate of the maximum dose of radiation received at an altitude of 12 km 20 January 2005, following a violent solar flare. The doses are expressed in microsieverts per hour.

2574:

Hendry, Jolyon H; Simon, Steven L; Wojcik, Andrzej; Sohrabi, Mehdi; Burkart, Werner; Cardis, Elisabeth; Laurier, Dominique; Tirmarche, Margot; Hayata, Isamu (1 June 2009).

1532:

definition of background as being "Dose or dose rate (or an observed measure related to the dose or dose rate) attributable to all sources other than the one(s) specified.

3830: 868:

in the United States (at 1650 meters elevation) receives a cosmic ray dose roughly twice that of a location at sea level. This radiation is much more intense in the upper

583:(half-life 1.25 billion years) is only at about 8% of original activity. But during the time that humans have existed the amount of radiation has decreased very little. 1467:

estimated that coal-fired power plants of that time may contribute a whole-body committed dose of 19 μSv/a to their immediate neighbours in a radius of 500 m. The

1231:

Under normal circumstances, nuclear reactors release small amounts of radioactive gases, which cause small radiation exposures to the public. Events classified on the

1535:

The same issue occurs with radiation protection instruments, where a reading from an instrument may be affected by the background radiation. An example of this is a

1227:

Radiation level in a range of situations, from normal activities up to the nuclear accidents. Each step up the scale indicates a tenfold increase in radiation level.

860:. The immediate dose from cosmic radiation is largely from muons, neutrons, and electrons, and this dose varies in different parts of the world based largely on the 812:

The Earth and all living things on it are constantly bombarded by radiation from outer space. This radiation primarily consists of positively charged ions from

506:) per year. In some developed countries, like the US and Japan, artificial exposure is, on average, greater than the natural exposure, due to greater access to 720:, and accounts for 15,000 to 22,000 cancer deaths per year in the US alone. However, the discussion about the opposite experimental results is still going on. 2519: 1095:

Background radiation doses in the immediate vicinity of particles of high atomic number materials, within the human body, have a small enhancement due to the

1855: 1825: 1924: 3835: 1066:, primarily due to the use of local naturally radioactive limestone as a building material. The 1000 most exposed residents receive an average external 1059:. To convert to Sieverts (Sv) a radiation weighting factor is required; these weighting factors vary from 1 (beta & gamma) to 20 (alpha particles). 2454: 2068: 731:, United States may hold the record for the most radioactive dwellings in the world. International radiation protection organizations estimate that a 571:

since the formation of the Earth, because there is no significant amount currently transported to the Earth. Thus, the present activity on Earth from

2575: 101:

However, if no radiation source is specified as being of concern, then the total radiation dose measurement at a location is generally called the

1181:

of 1963 prohibited above-ground tests, thus by the year 2000 the worldwide dose from these tests has decreased to only 0.005 mSv per year.

1173:. Some of this contamination is local, rendering the immediate surroundings highly radioactive, while some of it is carried longer distances as 912:, this background radiation is much more intense, and represents a considerable obstacle to potential future long term human exploration of the 3840: 3557: 1052: 1083:

was 72 mSv (7.2 rem) per year. This unique case is over 80 times higher than the world average natural human exposure to radiation.

1016:

Some areas have greater dosage than the country-wide averages. In the world in general, exceptionally high natural background locales include

669:). Radon is unevenly distributed and varies with weather, such that much higher doses apply to many areas of the world, where it represents a 4350: 3716: 3530: 1327: 1307: 3330: 470:

used by early researchers first detected cosmic rays and other background radiation. They can be used to visualize the background radiation

3013: 1310:, and other U.S. and international agencies, require that licensees limit radiation exposure to individual members of the public to 1 4335: 3157: 963:

created by nuclear reactions of high energy particles and gamma rays. At higher altitudes there is also the contribution of continuous

459:(0.82 mSv/a) This is very close to the world average background radiation of 0.87 mSv/a from cosmic and terrestrial sources. 3183: 3131: 3388: 62: 2847: 1039:

The highest level of purely natural radiation ever recorded on the Earth's surface was 90 μGy/h on a Brazilian black beach (

2923: 2374: 4304: 2816: 2299: 3881: 3496: 3460: 3290: 2959: 2536: 2281: 1918: 1769: 1731: 1277:: In addition to the civilian accidents described above, several accidents at early nuclear weapons facilities – such as the 486:

from radioactive materials that remain outside the body and from cosmic radiation from space. The worldwide average natural

4330: 4299: 4244: 3492: 1638: 1200:

recommends limiting occupational radiation exposure to 50 mSv (5 rem) per year, and 100 mSv (10 rem) in 5 years.

724: 1800: 1575:

List of international near-real-time collaborative/private measurement sites, employing primarily Geiger-Muller detectors:

1215:

conference in 2002, it was recommended that occupational doses below 1–2 mSv per year do not warrant regulatory scrutiny.

904:

which accumulates cosmic rays and results from the Earth's magnetic field. Outside low Earth orbit, as experienced by the

3963: 3845: 2689: 2244: 1759: 677:

into the atmosphere or into ground water or infiltrates into buildings. It can be inhaled into the lungs, along with its

3513: 1491:

A typical chest x-ray delivers 20 μSv (2 mrem) of effective dose. A dental x-ray delivers a dose of 5 to 10 μSv. A

708:

Radiation exposure from radon is indirect. Radon has a short half-life (4 days) and decays into other solid particulate

498:) per year. This is four times the worldwide average artificial radiation exposure, which in 2008 amounted to about 0.6 4279: 3825: 3550: 3428: 1529: 514: 94: 3434: 2190: 2165: 2062: 1695: 1232: 1000:. The decay of a C atom inside DNA in one person happens about 50 times per second, changing a carbon atom to one of 17: 2093: 4345: 2542: 2010:

Indoor Radon Concentration Data: Its Geographic and Geologic Distribution, an Example from the Capital District, NY

2396:

Zhang, SP (2010). "Mechanism study of adaptive response in high background radiation area of Yangjiang in China".

1847: 3866: 2901:

Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation - UNSCEAR 2000 Report to the General Assembly, with Scientific Annexes

1903: 1330:

life-cycle assessment, nearly all sources of energy result in some level of occupational and public exposure to

463: 3648: 2455:"Gamma dose rates and distribution of natural radionuclides in sand beaches – Ilha Grande, Southeastern Brazil" 1609: 1116: 3039: 567:

are intensely radioactive but occur in low concentrations. Most of these sources have been decreasing, due to

478:, rocks, water, air, and vegetation, from which it is inhaled and ingested into the body. In addition to this 4513: 4411: 3931: 3876: 3871: 3543: 3110: 1464: 1303: 1248:– which caused substantial contamination. The Chernobyl accident was the only one to cause immediate deaths. 1245: 2047: 633:

the same peak for atmospheric radon). Potassium-40 is detectable directly via its 1461 keV gamma peak.

2493: 53:

Background radiation originates from a variety of sources, both natural and artificial. These include both

4523: 4167: 1886: 1654: 1649: 889: 535: 58: 31: 2769:"Enhancement of natural background gamma-radiation dose around uranium microparticles in the human body" 2624: 543:, for the purpose of the table above, only includes sources that remain external to the body. The major 4423: 4399: 4254: 4227: 3919: 3658: 2144: 2122: 1268: 1169:

Frequent above-ground nuclear explosions between the 1940s and 1960s scattered a substantial amount of

3254: 2898: 2422: 1901: 1719: 1568: 4437: 4284: 4137: 3605: 1170: 2988: 1545: 1544:

real-time readings available to the public. Instruments used for radiation measurement include the

959:

The cosmic radiation at sea level usually manifests as 511 keV gamma rays from annihilation of

4222: 4132: 3996: 3915: 3902: 3897: 3521: 2720:"Cancer Mortality Among People Living in Areas With Various Levels of Natural Background Radiation" 1556:

List of near-real-time government radiation measurement sites, employing multiple instrument types:

1257: 1067: 901: 487: 2949: 2576:"Human exposure to high natural background radiation: what can it teach us about radiation risks?" 2053:. In Greenberg, Michael I.; Hamilton, Richard J.; Phillips, Scott D.; McCluskey, Gayla J. (eds.). 105:, and this is usually the case where an ambient dose rate is measured for environmental purposes. 4162: 3956: 3693: 3342: 1315: 1178: 728: 670: 503: 495: 78: 3266: 3260: 3002: 443: 4528: 4403: 4314: 3988: 3923: 3820: 3753: 3505: 1644: 1549: 1536: 1253: 1137:

doses in the continental United States resulting from all exposure routes from all atmospheric

3526: 3003:"OCCUPATIONAL RADIATION PROTECTION: PROTECTING WORKERS AGAINST EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION" 2900: 525:). These situations have become the focus of greater attention by the Agency in recent years." 4407: 4142: 3927: 3736: 1721: 924: 917: 448: 1484:

The global average human exposure to artificial radiation is 0.6 mSv/a, primarily from

1463:

which is inhaled and ingested by neighbours, and incorporated into crops. A 1978 paper from

113:

Background radiation varies with location and time, and the following table gives examples:

4518: 4264: 4152: 4109: 3748: 3741: 3566: 3270: 3256: 3198: 3073: 2590: 2324: 1949: 1889:, Center for Technology and National Security Policy, National Defense University, May 2005 1664: 1096: 992: 927:

in the atmosphere, in which secondary radiation generated by the cosmic rays combines with

829: 686: 3230: 2649:

Ghiassi-nejad, M; Mortazavi, SM; Cameron, JR; Niroomand-rad, A; Karam, PA (January 2002).

2427: 8: 4497: 4381: 4259: 4172: 3763: 3673: 3357: 3135: 2852:

Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center

2821:

Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center

2216:"Radioactive human body – Harvard University Natural Science Lecture Demonstrations" 1659: 576: 4340: 3274: 3202: 3077: 2594: 2328: 4485: 4473: 4376: 4197: 4177: 4157: 4041: 3949: 3610: 3600: 3595: 3304: 3296: 3222: 2976: 2793: 2768: 2744: 2719: 2681: 2611: 2340: 1989: 1241: 1063: 1017: 953: 936: 779: 709: 474:

Radioactive material is found throughout nature. Detectable amounts occur naturally in

43: 3501: 2855: 2651:"Very high background radiation areas of Ramsar, Iran: preliminary biological studies" 2602: 1055:

were later evaluated at 14 and 15 μGy/h. Note that the values quoted here are in

4269: 4147: 4084: 4049: 3653: 3424: 3380: 3286: 3214: 3091: 2955: 2798: 2749: 2673: 2669: 2648: 2616: 2532: 2485: 2477: 2405: 2366: 2348: 2277: 2058: 1981: 1914: 1765: 1727: 1691: 1562: 948:

of years. The constant production, incorporation into organisms and relatively short

861: 568: 3226: 2824: 2685: 2521:

Natural Radioactivity in Extreme South of Bahia, Brazil Using Gamma-Ray Spectrometry

2296: 1993: 4449: 4274: 3794: 3789: 3372: 3308: 3278: 3206: 3182:

McBride, J. P.; Moore, R. E.; Witherspoon, J. P.; Blanco, R. E. (8 December 1978).

3081: 2951:

The 2007 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection

2788: 2780: 2739: 2731: 2665: 2606: 2598: 2469: 2332: 2101: 1973: 1619: 1290: 1142: 610: 276: 82: 54: 3468: 3417:

Radiation Exposure of the UK Population from Medical and Dental X-ray Examinations

3210: 2573: 2473: 2007:

Thomas, John J.; Thomas, Barbara R.; Overeynder, Helen M. (27–30 September 1995).

1764:. Bethesda, Md.: National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. 2009. 778:

Most of the atmospheric background is caused by radon and its decay products. The

4386: 4371: 4187: 4099: 4089: 3941: 3688: 3663: 3517: 2303: 1804: 1688:

IAEA Safety Glossary: Terminology Used in Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection

1613: 1485: 1174: 1138: 991:

C is present in the human body at a level of about 3700 Bq (0.1 μCi) with a

717: 662: 507: 335:

worldwide average to workers only is 0.7 mSv, mostly due to radon in mines;

74: 4234: 4192: 4182: 4104: 4094: 4064: 3779: 3726: 3643: 3590: 3376: 3255:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (1988).

2899:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (2000).

2650: 1902:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (2006).

1797: 1720:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (2008).

1509: 1278: 1185: 1076: 1025: 964: 905: 897: 845: 821: 732: 2233: 1977: 1775: 666: 629:. Uranium-238 manifests as 609, 1120, and 1764 keV peaks of bismuth-214 ( 4507: 4309: 4069: 4054: 3633: 3510: 2877: 2735: 2481: 2020:. Nashville, TN: American Association of Radon Scientists and Technologists. 1334:

as result of their manufacturing or operations. The following table uses man·

1223: 985: 928: 893: 694: 678: 658: 467: 3415: 956:

of ancient biological materials, such as wooden artifacts or human remains.

4461: 4289: 4249: 4114: 3758: 3678: 3615: 3218: 3095: 2802: 2784: 2753: 2677: 2620: 2489: 2409: 2352: 2269: 1985: 1962: 1950:"Radon and Cancer: Questions and Answers – National Cancer Institute (USA)" 1505: 1492: 1331: 988:

produced by K is about 10 times that from the beta particles from C decay.

977: 913: 825: 654: 626: 622: 580: 544: 266: 180: 118: 3384: 2717: 2017: 1904:"Annex E: Sources-to-effects assessment for radon in homes and workplaces" 4031: 3799: 3731: 3668: 1796:

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan

1561:

Europe and Canada: European Radiological Data Exchange Platform (EURDEP)

1282: 1158: 1149: 1056: 869: 787: 713: 614: 602: 572: 3265:. Radiation Research. Vol. 120. New York: United Nations. pp. 4079: 4026: 3683: 3535: 3300: 2344: 1154: 799: 690: 606: 3184:"Radiological impact of airborne effluents of coal and nuclear plants" 2424:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

1469:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

1129: 590:-226 (decay product of thorium-230 in decay chain of uranium-238) and 4366: 4239: 4074: 4021: 4011: 3972: 3721: 3638: 3585: 2518:

Vasconcelos, Danilo C.; et al. (27 September – 2 October 2009).

2276:(Revised and updated ed.). New York: ACE books. pp. 37–39. 1048: 1033: 1029: 1021: 981: 949: 940: 881: 828:. This radiation interacts with atoms in the atmosphere to create an 591: 548: 452: 184: 3282: 3086: 3061: 2336: 1606: 872:, around 10 km altitude, and is thus of particular concern for 316:

peak of 0.11 mSv in 1963 and declining since; higher near sites

4016: 4001: 3784: 1044: 1001: 960: 944: 853: 618: 356:

peak of 0.04 mSv in 1986 and declining since; higher near site

3108: 1761:

Ionizing radiation exposure of the population of the United States

1685: 1062:

The highest background radiation in an inhabited area is found in

575:

is only half as much as it originally was because of its 4.5

4294: 3815: 3698: 3158:"Life Cycle Assessment of Electricity Generation Options | UNECE" 1460: 1335: 1311: 1162: 1134: 932: 873: 857: 650: 649:, a radioactive gas that emanates from the ground. Radon and its 556: 552: 499: 491: 272: 1584:(mix of old-data detector stations and some near-real-time ones) 804: 456: 1600: 1508:, originating from the decay products of radon, which stick to 1011: 865: 841: 813: 756: 702: 645:

The biggest source of natural background radiation is airborne

595: 587: 560: 70: 2528: 1626: 681:, where they will reside for a period of time after exposure. 374:

up to 0.02 mSv near sites; excludes occupational exposure

4119: 4006: 3181: 1887:

A Primer on the Detection of Nuclear and Radiological Weapons

1286: 1080: 885: 833: 646: 564: 157: 66: 46:

present in the environment at a particular location which is

2531:. Rio de Janeiro: Associação Brasileira de Energia Nuclear. 601:

Thorium and uranium (and their daughters) primarily undergo

2718:

Dobrzyński, L.; Fornalski, K.W.; Feinendegen, L.E. (2015).

1913:. Vol. II. New York: United Nations (published 2008). 1681: 1679: 1212: 1197: 1071: 909: 880:

Similarly, cosmic rays cause higher background exposure in

849: 837: 817: 698: 674: 522: 475: 4456: 2924:"Resuming Nuclear Testing a Slap in the Face to Survivors" 884:

than in humans on the surface of Earth. Astronauts in low

3037: 1594: 1581: 1496:

some dose, both in individuals and in those around them.

997: 783: 3358:"Revised Radiation Doses for Typical X-Ray Examinations" 2314: 1726:. New York: United Nations (published 2010). p. 4. 1676: 609:, and are not easily detectable. However, many of their 392:

Industrial, security, medical, educational, and research

3040:"Health effects of the Chernobyl accident: an overview" 2766: 1588: 661:

all contribute to an average inhaled dose of 1.26

117:

Average annual human exposure to ionizing radiation in

3132:"Radiological Consequences of the 1957 Windscale Fire" 2767:

Pattison, J. E.; Hugtenburg, R. P.; Green, S. (2009).

2145:"Radiation exposure during commercial airline flights" 2123:"Radiation Exposure During Commercial Airline Flights" 2094:"Background Radiation & Other Sources of Exposure" 2055:

Occupational, industrial, and environmental toxicology

2006: 1459:

Coal plants emit radiation in the form of radioactive

1070:

of 6 mSv (600 mrem) per year, six times the

4421: 3423:. National Radiological Protection Board. p. 9. 1525:

the rate measured when the sample is being measured.

50:

due to deliberate introduction of radiation sources.

3404:(5,000 patient dose measurements from 375 hospitals) 1198:

International Commission on Radiological Protection

3971: 3109:U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (August 2009). 2452: 2142: 1885:Gary W. Philips, David J. Nagel, Timothy Coffey – 1818:"Naturally-Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM)" 1111: 939:can be produced, but probably the most notable is 782:shows prominent peaks at 609, 1120, and 1764 337:US is mostly due to medical and aviation workers. 246:sizeable population groups receive 10–20 mSv 4505: 3262:Sources, Effects and Risks of Ionizing Radiation 3111:"Backgrounder on the Three Mile Island Accident" 297:cigarettes, air travel, building materials, etc. 108: 27:Measure of ionizing radiation in the environment 2297:Annual terrestrial radiation doses in the world 1474: 438: 3413: 3331:"Coal Combustion: Nuclear Resource or Danger?" 3059: 1897: 1895: 1124: 723:About 100,000 Bq/m of radon was found in 559:and their decay products, some of which, like 3957: 3551: 3531:United States Environmental Protection Agency 1715: 1713: 1711: 1709: 1707: 1308:United States Environmental Protection Agency 1188:has caused up to 2.4 million deaths by 2020. 3355: 2045: 1848:"Exposure to radiation from natural sources" 1012:Areas with high natural background radiation 3717:Airborne radioactive particulate monitoring 3458: 2569: 2567: 2565: 2563: 2517: 2057:(2nd ed.). St Louis, Missouri: Mosby. 2046:Upfal, Mark J.; Johnson, Christine (2003). 1892: 1810: 1686:International Atomic Energy Agency (2007). 1622:(the green circles are real-time detectors) 1569:near-real-time and laboratory data by state 727:basement in 1984. He and his neighbours in 617:is detectable via a 239 keV peak from 3964: 3950: 3558: 3544: 3502:Environmental and Background Radiation FAQ 2434:. Vol. 1. United Nations. p. 121 1704: 980:(K) and about 24 nanograms (10 g) of 451:on a hot summer day. Displayed background 3085: 2845: 2792: 2743: 2610: 2529:International Nuclear Atlantic Conference 2432:Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation 1754: 1752: 1750: 1723:Sources and effects of ionizing radiation 943:, which is produced by interactions with 63:naturally occurring radioactive materials 30:For background radiation from space, see 3565: 3038:World Health Organization (April 2006). 2560: 1881: 1879: 1877: 1875: 1873: 1222: 1191: 1148: 1128: 1115: 952:of carbon-14 are the principles used in 931:in the atmosphere to generate different 803: 462: 442: 3328: 2941: 2817:"Atmospheric δC record from Wellington" 900:of the Earth, but also suffer from the 864:and altitude. For example, the city of 93:Background radiation is defined by the 73:), as well as man-made medical X-rays, 14: 4506: 4305:Wireless electronic devices and health 2954:. ICRP publication 103. Vol. 37. 2892: 2773:Journal of the Royal Society Interface 2462:Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 2268: 1747: 1515: 529: 3945: 3882:Radiation Protection Convention, 1960 3539: 3497:Radiation Effects Research Foundation 3019:from the original on 29 November 2003 2921: 2395: 2272:(1976) . "The Explosions Within Us". 2250:from the original on 27 February 2008 2243:. Argonne National Lab. August 2005. 2195:sciencedemonstrations.fas.harvard.edu 1870: 1520:In a radiation metrology laboratory, 1297: 1102: 739:(EEC) of radon by a factor of 8 to 9 735:may be calculated by multiplying the 206:depends on soil and building material 4331:List of civilian radiation accidents 4300:Wireless device radiation and health 4295:Biological dose units and quantities 4245:Electromagnetic radiation and health 3335:Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review 2947: 2915: 1858:from the original on 9 February 2016 1639:Background radiation equivalent time 1218: 737:equilibrium equivalent concentration 701:, may emanate radon if they contain 3440:from the original on 9 October 2022 3394:from the original on 9 October 2022 2695:from the original on 9 October 2022 2074:from the original on 9 October 2022 2027:from the original on 9 October 2022 1930:from the original on 9 October 2022 793: 640: 447:The weather station outside of the 24: 4280:Radioactivity in the life sciences 3010:International Atomic Energy Agency 2583:Journal of Radiological Protection 2377:from the original on 15 April 2003 1530:International Atomic Energy Agency 832:of secondary radiation, including 621:, 511, 583 and 2614 keV from 515:International Atomic Energy Agency 95:International Atomic Energy Agency 25: 4540: 3486: 3134:. 10 October 1997. Archived from 2453:Freitas, AC; Alencar, AS (2004). 1607:http://radioactiveathome.org/map/ 1499: 1321: 1233:International Nuclear Event Scale 970: 193:Terrestrial radiation from ground 4491: 4479: 4467: 4455: 4443: 4431: 3493:Background radiation description 3365:The British Journal of Radiology 2670:10.1097/00004032-200201000-00011 1090: 896:, are partially shielded by the 625:, and 911 and 969 keV from 160:, depends on indoor accumulation 3452: 3407: 3349: 3322: 3248: 3175: 3150: 3124: 3102: 3053: 3031: 2995: 2870: 2846:Levin, I.; et al. (1994). 2839: 2809: 2760: 2711: 2642: 2511: 2446: 2416: 2389: 2359: 2308: 2290: 2262: 2226: 2208: 2183: 2170:Federal Aviation Administration 2158: 2136: 2115: 2086: 2039: 2000: 1956: 1528:This is in accordance with the 1454: 1112:Artificial background radiation 908:astronauts who traveled to the 3649:Computed tomography dose index 3461:"Doses from cigarette smoking" 3060:Geoff Brumfiel (23 May 2012). 2398:Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi 1942: 1840: 1790: 1774:. NCRP No. 160. Archived from 1563:Simple map of Gamma Dose Rates 1285:by the nuclear waste from the 13: 1: 3414:Hart, D.; Wall, B.F. (2002). 3356:Wall, B.F.; Hart, D. (1997). 3211:10.1126/science.202.4372.1045 2474:10.1016/j.jenvrad.2004.01.002 2018:International Radon Symposium 1911:Effects of Ionizing Radiation 1852:Nuclear Safety & Security 1670: 1465:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 1304:Nuclear Regulatory Commission 1246:Fukushima I nuclear accidents 166:Ingestion of food & water 109:Background dose rate examples 88: 42:is a measure of the level of 3341:(3–4): 18–19. Archived from 2922:Adams, Lilly (26 May 2020). 2166:"Radiobiology Research Team" 1824:. March 2019. Archived from 1601:http://radiationnetwork.com/ 1475:Other sources of dose uptake 1256:. There were 28 deaths from 490:to humans is about 2.4 439:Natural background radiation 7: 4168:Cosmic background radiation 3062:"Fukushima's doses tallied" 2603:10.1088/0952-4746/29/2A/S03 1966:Cancer Causes & Control 1655:Flight-time equivalent dose 1650:Environmental radioactivity 1632: 1627:http://www.uradmonitor.com/ 1620:http://safecast.org/tilemap 1281:, the contamination of the 1125:Atmospheric nuclear testing 1043:in Portuguese) composed of 890:International Space Station 613:are strong gamma emitters. 536:Environmental radioactivity 303:Atmospheric nuclear testing 212:Cosmic radiation from space 59:environmental radioactivity 32:cosmic background radiation 10: 4545: 4397: 4255:Lasers and aviation safety 3913: 3377:10.1259/bjr.70.833.9227222 1798:"Radiation in environment" 1479: 1269:Three Mile Island accident 1267:The average dose from the 797: 533: 265:worldwide figure excludes 29: 4395: 4359: 4323: 4285:Radioactive contamination 4210: 4138:Electromagnetic radiation 4128: 4040: 3987: 3980: 3911: 3890: 3859: 3808: 3772: 3707: 3624: 3606:Radioactive contamination 3573: 3527:Radiation Dose Calculator 2098:Radiation Safety Training 1978:10.1007/s10552-015-0638-9 1822:World Nuclear Association 1171:radioactive contamination 824:derived from outside the 671:significant health hazard 4398:See also the categories 4336:1996 Costa Rica accident 3997:Acoustic radiation force 3914:See also the categories 3903:Radiation-induced cancer 3898:Acute radiation syndrome 3522:American Nuclear Society 2848:"δC record from Vermunt" 2736:10.1177/1559325815592391 2191:"Radioactive Human Body" 2143:Health Physics Society. 1258:acute radiation syndrome 1068:effective radiation dose 902:Van Allen radiation belt 4310:Radiation heat-transfer 4163:Gravitational radiation 2880:. University of Utrecht 2373:. ABC. 3 October 2002. 2241:Human Health Fact Sheet 1179:Limited Test Ban Treaty 925:elemental transmutation 923:Cosmic rays also cause 729:Boyertown, Pennsylvania 705:and are porous to gas. 79:nuclear weapons testing 4351:1990 Zaragoza accident 4346:1984 Moroccan accident 4315:Linear energy transfer 3989:Non-ionizing radiation 3754:Semiconductor detector 3710:measurement techniques 3506:Health Physics Society 3465:Health Physics Society 3329:Gabbard, Alex (1993). 2823:. 1994. Archived from 2785:10.1098/rsif.2009.0300 2048:"65 Residential Radon" 1645:Banana equivalent dose 1595:http://www.radmon.org/ 1582:http://www.gmcmap.com/ 1550:Scintillation detector 1537:scintillation detector 1228: 1166: 1146: 1121: 809: 482:, humans also receive 471: 460: 431:millisieverts per year 399:sub total (artificial) 4341:1987 Goiânia accident 4143:Synchrotron radiation 4133:Earth's energy budget 4115:Radioactive materials 4110:Particle accelerators 3773:Protection techniques 3737:Scintillation counter 1803:22 March 2011 at the 1612:29 March 2016 at the 1226: 1192:Occupational exposure 1152: 1132: 1119: 807: 598:-226 in said chain). 541:Terrestrial radiation 466: 449:Atomic Testing Museum 446: 322:Occupational exposure 4514:Background radiation 4412:Radiation protection 4265:Radiation protection 4153:Black-body radiation 4060:Background radiation 3975:(physics and health) 3932:Radiation protection 3749:Radiation monitoring 3742:Proportional counter 3627:quantities and units 3581:Background radiation 3567:Radiation protection 3516:15 July 2018 at the 3511:Radiation Dose Chart 3236:on 27 September 2012 2878:"Radiocarbon dating" 2858:on 23 September 2008 2323:(6 Suppl): S145–48. 2302:23 June 2007 at the 1665:Low-background steel 1589:http://www.netc.com/ 1522:background radiation 1205:background radiation 1097:photoelectric effect 993:biological half-life 687:lightweight concrete 594:(a decay product of 579:year half-life, and 271:US figure is mostly 103:background radiation 40:Background radiation 4382:Radiation hardening 4324:Radiation incidents 4260:Medical radiography 4219:Radiation syndrome 4173:Cherenkov radiation 3764:Whole-body counting 3674:Mean glandular dose 3611:Radioactive sources 3345:on 5 February 2007. 3275:1989RadR..120..187K 3203:1978Sci...202.1045M 3078:2012Natur.485..423B 2595:2009JRP....29...29H 2548:on 21 February 2014 2499:on 21 February 2014 2329:1999RadR..152S.145N 1807:retrieved 2011-6-29 1660:Noise (electronics) 1599:Radiation Network: 1516:Radiation metrology 1504:Cigarettes contain 1342: 1264:response workers). 937:cosmogenic nuclides 530:Terrestrial sources 232:sub total (natural) 225:depends on altitude 122: 4524:Ionizing radiation 4438:Nuclear technology 4377:Radioactive source 4198:Radiation exposure 4178:Askaryan radiation 4158:Particle radiation 4042:Ionizing radiation 3601:Internal dosimetry 3596:Ionizing radiation 3012:. 30 August 2002. 2827:on 1 February 2014 2630:on 21 October 2013 2317:Radiation Research 1952:. 6 December 2011. 1828:on 20 January 2016 1778:on 2 February 2014 1605:Radioactive@Home: 1546:Geiger–Müller tube 1341: 1298:Nuclear fuel cycle 1289:compound, and the 1242:Chernobyl accident 1229: 1167: 1147: 1145:from 1951 to 1962. 1122: 1103:Neutron background 954:radiocarbon dating 810: 759:by a factor of 40 472: 461: 455:level is 9.8 362:Nuclear fuel cycle 343:Chernobyl accident 116: 44:ionizing radiation 4419: 4418: 4400:Radiation effects 4270:Radiation therapy 4206: 4205: 4148:Thermal radiation 4085:Neutron radiation 4050:Radioactive decay 3939: 3938: 3920:Radiation effects 3891:Radiation effects 3654:Counts per minute 3459:Dade W. Moeller. 3292:978-92-1-142143-9 3197:(4372): 1045–50. 2961:978-0-7020-3048-2 2538:978-85-99141-03-8 2283:978-1-157-09468-5 1920:978-92-1-142263-4 1771:978-0-929600-98-7 1733:978-92-1-142274-0 1452: 1451: 1219:Nuclear accidents 1141:conducted at the 1032:in Australia and 935:. Many so-called 888:, such as in the 862:geomagnetic field 611:daughter products 569:radioactive decay 484:external exposure 480:internal exposure 436: 435: 393: 375: 357: 338: 317: 298: 280: 247: 226: 207: 188: 161: 143:Inhalation of air 83:nuclear accidents 18:Natural radiation 16:(Redirected from 4536: 4496: 4495: 4494: 4484: 4483: 4482: 4472: 4471: 4470: 4460: 4459: 4448: 4447: 4446: 4436: 4435: 4434: 4427: 4360:Related articles 4275:Radiation damage 4100:Nuclear reactors 3985: 3984: 3966: 3959: 3952: 3943: 3942: 3795:Radon mitigation 3790:Potassium iodide 3708:Instruments and 3560: 3553: 3546: 3537: 3536: 3481: 3480: 3478: 3476: 3471:on 2 August 2014 3467:. Archived from 3456: 3450: 3449: 3447: 3445: 3439: 3422: 3411: 3405: 3403: 3401: 3399: 3393: 3371:(833): 437–439. 3362: 3353: 3347: 3346: 3326: 3320: 3319: 3317: 3315: 3252: 3246: 3245: 3243: 3241: 3235: 3229:. Archived from 3188: 3179: 3173: 3172: 3170: 3168: 3154: 3148: 3147: 3145: 3143: 3128: 3122: 3121: 3119: 3117: 3106: 3100: 3099: 3089: 3072:(7399): 423–24. 3057: 3051: 3050: 3048: 3046: 3035: 3029: 3028: 3026: 3024: 3018: 3007: 2999: 2993: 2992: 2986: 2982: 2980: 2972: 2970: 2968: 2945: 2939: 2938: 2936: 2934: 2919: 2913: 2912: 2910: 2908: 2896: 2890: 2889: 2887: 2885: 2874: 2868: 2867: 2865: 2863: 2854:. Archived from 2843: 2837: 2836: 2834: 2832: 2813: 2807: 2806: 2796: 2764: 2758: 2757: 2747: 2715: 2709: 2708: 2702: 2700: 2694: 2655: 2646: 2640: 2639: 2637: 2635: 2629: 2623:. Archived from 2614: 2580: 2571: 2558: 2557: 2555: 2553: 2547: 2541:. Archived from 2526: 2515: 2509: 2508: 2506: 2504: 2498: 2492:. Archived from 2459: 2450: 2444: 2443: 2441: 2439: 2420: 2414: 2413: 2393: 2387: 2386: 2384: 2382: 2363: 2357: 2356: 2312: 2306: 2294: 2288: 2287: 2266: 2260: 2259: 2257: 2255: 2249: 2238: 2230: 2224: 2223: 2222:on 12 June 2015. 2218:. Archived from 2212: 2206: 2205: 2203: 2201: 2187: 2181: 2180: 2178: 2176: 2162: 2156: 2155: 2153: 2151: 2140: 2134: 2133: 2131: 2129: 2119: 2113: 2112: 2110: 2108: 2102:Miami University 2090: 2084: 2083: 2081: 2079: 2073: 2052: 2043: 2037: 2036: 2034: 2032: 2026: 2015: 2004: 1998: 1997: 1960: 1954: 1953: 1946: 1940: 1939: 1937: 1935: 1929: 1908: 1899: 1890: 1883: 1868: 1867: 1865: 1863: 1844: 1838: 1837: 1835: 1833: 1814: 1808: 1794: 1788: 1787: 1785: 1783: 1756: 1745: 1744: 1742: 1740: 1717: 1702: 1701: 1683: 1567:USA: EPA Radnet 1343: 1340: 1291:Kyshtym disaster 1240:accidents – the 1143:Nevada Test Site 794:Cosmic radiation 774: 772: 771: 768: 765: 754: 752: 751: 748: 745: 725:Stanley Watras's 641:Airborne sources 391: 373: 355: 334: 315: 296: 277:nuclear medicine 264: 245: 224: 205: 178: 155: 126:Radiation source 123: 115: 55:cosmic radiation 21: 4544: 4543: 4539: 4538: 4537: 4535: 4534: 4533: 4504: 4503: 4502: 4492: 4490: 4480: 4478: 4468: 4466: 4454: 4444: 4442: 4432: 4430: 4422: 4420: 4415: 4414: 4391: 4387:Havana syndrome 4372:Nuclear physics 4355: 4319: 4212: 4202: 4188:Unruh radiation 4124: 4105:Nuclear weapons 4090:Nuclear fission 4036: 3976: 3970: 3940: 3935: 3934: 3916:Medical physics 3907: 3886: 3855: 3804: 3768: 3709: 3703: 3664:Equivalent dose 3626: 3620: 3569: 3564: 3518:Wayback Machine 3489: 3484: 3474: 3472: 3457: 3453: 3443: 3441: 3437: 3431: 3420: 3412: 3408: 3397: 3395: 3391: 3360: 3354: 3350: 3327: 3323: 3313: 3311: 3293: 3283:10.2307/3577647 3253: 3249: 3239: 3237: 3233: 3186: 3180: 3176: 3166: 3164: 3156: 3155: 3151: 3141: 3139: 3130: 3129: 3125: 3115: 3113: 3107: 3103: 3087:10.1038/485423a 3058: 3054: 3044: 3042: 3036: 3032: 3022: 3020: 3016: 3005: 3001: 3000: 2996: 2984: 2983: 2974: 2973: 2966: 2964: 2962: 2946: 2942: 2932: 2930: 2920: 2916: 2906: 2904: 2897: 2893: 2883: 2881: 2876: 2875: 2871: 2861: 2859: 2844: 2840: 2830: 2828: 2815: 2814: 2810: 2765: 2761: 2716: 2712: 2698: 2696: 2692: 2653: 2647: 2643: 2633: 2631: 2627: 2589:(2A): A29–A42. 2578: 2572: 2561: 2551: 2549: 2545: 2539: 2524: 2516: 2512: 2502: 2500: 2496: 2457: 2451: 2447: 2437: 2435: 2421: 2417: 2394: 2390: 2380: 2378: 2367:"Extreme Slime" 2365: 2364: 2360: 2337:10.2307/3580134 2313: 2309: 2304:Wayback Machine 2295: 2291: 2284: 2274:Only A Trillion 2267: 2263: 2253: 2251: 2247: 2236: 2232: 2231: 2227: 2214: 2213: 2209: 2199: 2197: 2189: 2188: 2184: 2174: 2172: 2164: 2163: 2159: 2149: 2147: 2141: 2137: 2127: 2125: 2121: 2120: 2116: 2106: 2104: 2092: 2091: 2087: 2077: 2075: 2071: 2065: 2050: 2044: 2040: 2030: 2028: 2024: 2013: 2005: 2001: 1972:(26): 1517–18. 1961: 1957: 1948: 1947: 1943: 1933: 1931: 1927: 1921: 1906: 1900: 1893: 1884: 1871: 1861: 1859: 1846: 1845: 1841: 1831: 1829: 1816: 1815: 1811: 1805:Wayback Machine 1795: 1791: 1781: 1779: 1772: 1758: 1757: 1748: 1738: 1736: 1734: 1718: 1705: 1698: 1684: 1677: 1673: 1635: 1614:Wayback Machine 1518: 1502: 1486:medical imaging 1482: 1477: 1457: 1324: 1300: 1221: 1194: 1175:nuclear fallout 1127: 1114: 1105: 1093: 1014: 973: 846:alpha particles 802: 796: 786:, belonging to 769: 766: 763: 762: 760: 755:and the EEC of 749: 746: 743: 742: 740: 643: 547:of concern are 538: 532: 508:medical imaging 453:gamma radiation 441: 336: 270: 121:(mSv) per year 111: 91: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4542: 4532: 4531: 4526: 4521: 4516: 4501: 4500: 4488: 4476: 4464: 4452: 4440: 4417: 4416: 4396: 4393: 4392: 4390: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4363: 4361: 4357: 4356: 4354: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4327: 4325: 4321: 4320: 4318: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4287: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4257: 4252: 4247: 4242: 4237: 4235:Health physics 4232: 4231: 4230: 4225: 4216: 4214: 4208: 4207: 4204: 4203: 4201: 4200: 4195: 4193:Dark radiation 4190: 4185: 4183:Bremsstrahlung 4180: 4175: 4170: 4165: 4160: 4155: 4150: 4145: 4140: 4135: 4129: 4126: 4125: 4123: 4122: 4117: 4112: 4107: 4102: 4097: 4095:Nuclear fusion 4092: 4087: 4082: 4077: 4072: 4067: 4065:Alpha particle 4062: 4057: 4052: 4046: 4044: 4038: 4037: 4035: 4034: 4029: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4009: 4004: 3999: 3993: 3991: 3982: 3978: 3977: 3969: 3968: 3961: 3954: 3946: 3937: 3936: 3912: 3909: 3908: 3906: 3905: 3900: 3894: 3892: 3888: 3887: 3885: 3884: 3879: 3874: 3869: 3863: 3861: 3857: 3856: 3854: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3828: 3823: 3818: 3812: 3810: 3806: 3805: 3803: 3802: 3797: 3792: 3787: 3782: 3780:Lead shielding 3776: 3774: 3770: 3769: 3767: 3766: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3745: 3744: 3739: 3734: 3729: 3727:Geiger counter 3724: 3719: 3713: 3711: 3705: 3704: 3702: 3701: 3696: 3691: 3686: 3681: 3676: 3671: 3666: 3661: 3659:Effective dose 3656: 3651: 3646: 3644:Committed dose 3641: 3636: 3630: 3628: 3622: 3621: 3619: 3618: 3613: 3608: 3603: 3598: 3593: 3591:Health physics 3588: 3583: 3577: 3575: 3571: 3570: 3563: 3562: 3555: 3548: 3540: 3534: 3533: 3524: 3508: 3499: 3488: 3487:External links 3485: 3483: 3482: 3451: 3430:978-0859514682 3429: 3406: 3348: 3321: 3291: 3247: 3174: 3149: 3138:on 17 May 2013 3123: 3101: 3052: 3030: 2994: 2985:|journal= 2960: 2940: 2914: 2891: 2869: 2838: 2808: 2779:(45): 603–11. 2759: 2710: 2658:Health Physics 2641: 2559: 2537: 2510: 2445: 2415: 2388: 2358: 2307: 2289: 2282: 2261: 2225: 2207: 2182: 2157: 2135: 2114: 2085: 2063: 2038: 1999: 1955: 1941: 1919: 1891: 1869: 1839: 1809: 1789: 1770: 1746: 1732: 1703: 1696: 1674: 1672: 1669: 1668: 1667: 1662: 1657: 1652: 1647: 1642: 1634: 1631: 1630: 1629: 1625:uRad Monitor: 1623: 1616: 1603: 1597: 1591: 1585: 1572: 1571: 1565: 1517: 1514: 1510:tobacco leaves 1501: 1500:Consumer items 1498: 1481: 1478: 1476: 1473: 1456: 1453: 1450: 1449: 1446: 1444: 1440: 1439: 1436: 1434: 1430: 1429: 1426: 1424: 1420: 1419: 1416: 1413: 1409: 1408: 1405: 1402: 1398: 1397: 1394: 1391: 1387: 1386: 1383: 1380: 1376: 1375: 1372: 1369: 1368:Coal (modern) 1365: 1364: 1361: 1358: 1357:Nuclear power 1354: 1353: 1350: 1347: 1323: 1322:Energy sources 1320: 1299: 1296: 1279:Windscale fire 1271:was 0.01 mSv. 1220: 1217: 1193: 1190: 1186:global fallout 1153:Atmospheric C 1126: 1123: 1113: 1110: 1104: 1101: 1092: 1089: 1077:committed dose 1026:Karunagappalli 1013: 1010: 986:beta particles 972: 971:Food and water 969: 965:bremsstrahlung 898:magnetic field 798:Main article: 795: 792: 780:gamma spectrum 733:committed dose 679:decay products 665:(millisievert 659:decay products 642: 639: 534:Main article: 531: 528: 527: 526: 468:Cloud chambers 440: 437: 434: 433: 428: 425: 422: 419: 413: 412: 410: 407: 404: 401: 395: 394: 389: 387: 384: 381: 377: 376: 371: 368: 366: 363: 359: 358: 353: 350: 347: 344: 340: 339: 332: 329: 326: 323: 319: 318: 313: 310: 307: 304: 300: 299: 294: 292: 289: 286: 285:Consumer items 282: 281: 262: 259: 256: 253: 249: 248: 243: 240: 237: 234: 228: 227: 222: 219: 216: 213: 209: 208: 203: 200: 197: 194: 190: 189: 176: 173: 170: 167: 163: 162: 153: 150: 147: 144: 140: 139: 136: 133: 130: 127: 110: 107: 90: 87: 49: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4541: 4530: 4529:Radioactivity 4527: 4525: 4522: 4520: 4517: 4515: 4512: 4511: 4509: 4499: 4489: 4487: 4477: 4475: 4465: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4451: 4441: 4439: 4429: 4428: 4425: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4404:Radioactivity 4401: 4394: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4373: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4364: 4362: 4358: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4328: 4326: 4322: 4316: 4313: 4311: 4308: 4306: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4251: 4248: 4246: 4243: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4229: 4226: 4224: 4221: 4220: 4218: 4217: 4215: 4209: 4199: 4196: 4194: 4191: 4189: 4186: 4184: 4181: 4179: 4176: 4174: 4171: 4169: 4166: 4164: 4161: 4159: 4156: 4154: 4151: 4149: 4146: 4144: 4141: 4139: 4136: 4134: 4131: 4130: 4127: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4103: 4101: 4098: 4096: 4093: 4091: 4088: 4086: 4083: 4081: 4078: 4076: 4073: 4071: 4070:Beta particle 4068: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4056: 4055:Cluster decay 4053: 4051: 4048: 4047: 4045: 4043: 4039: 4033: 4030: 4028: 4025: 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