Nanoparticle - Knowledge

1141: 2188:: Carbon materials have a wide range of uses, ranging from composites for use in vehicles and sports equipment to integrated circuits for electronic components. The interactions between nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and natural organic matter strongly influence both their aggregation and deposition, which strongly affects their transport, transformation, and exposure in aquatic environments. In past research, carbon nanotubes exhibited some toxicological impacts that will be evaluated in various environmental settings in current EPA chemical safety research. EPA research will provide data, models, test methods, and best practices to discover the acute health effects of carbon nanotubes and identify methods to predict them. 1006:(CNT). It was believed that the changes in particle size could be described by burst nucleation alone. In 1950, Viktor LaMer used CNT as the nucleation basis for his model of nanoparticle growth. There are three portions to the LaMer model: 1. Rapid increase in the concentration of free monomers in solution, 2. fast nucleation of the monomer characterized by explosive growth of particles, 3. Growth of particles controlled by diffusion of the monomer. This model describes that the growth on the nucleus is spontaneous but limited by diffusion of the precursor to the nuclei surface. The LaMer model has not been able to explain the kinetics of nucleation in any modern system. 1027:(Finke-Watzky) 2-step model provides a firmer mechanistic basis for the design of nanoparticles with a focus on size, shape, and dispersity control. The model was later expanded to a 3-step and two 4-step models between 2004-2008. Here, an additional step was included to account for small particle aggregation, where two smaller particles could aggregate to form a larger particle. Next, a fourth step (another autocatalytic step) was added to account for a small particle agglomerating with a larger particle. Finally in 2014, an alternative fourth step was considered that accounted for a atomistic surface growth on a large particle. 1651: 983:

Homogeneous nucleation occurs when nuclei form uniformly throughout the parent phase and is less common. Heterogeneous nucleation, however, forms on areas such as container surfaces, impurities, and other defects. Crystals may form simultaneously if nucleation is fast, creating a more monodisperse product. However, slow nucleation rates can cause formation of a polydisperse population of crystals with various sizes. Controlling nucleation allows for the control of size, dispersity, and phase of nanoparticles.

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torches with a wide range of gases including inert, reducing, oxidizing, and other corrosive atmospheres. The working frequency is typically between 200 kHz and 40 MHz. Laboratory units run at power levels in the order of 30–50 kW, whereas the large-scale industrial units have been tested at power levels up to 1 MW. As the residence time of the injected feed droplets in the plasma is very short, it is important that the droplet sizes are small enough in order to obtain complete evaporation.

2173:. There are concerns that pharmaceutical companies, seeking regulatory approval for nano-reformulations of existing medicines, are relying on safety data produced during clinical studies of the earlier, pre-reformulation version of the medicine. This could result in regulatory bodies, such as the FDA, missing new side effects that are specific to the nano-reformulation. However considerable research has demonstrated that zinc nanoparticles are not absorbed into the bloodstream in vivo. 2017:. Additionally, sampling and laboratory procedures can perturb their dispersion state or bias the distribution of other properties. In environmental contexts, an additional challenge is that many methods cannot detect low concentrations of nanoparticles that may still have an adverse effect. For some applications, nanoparticles may be characterized in complex matrices such as water, soil, food, polymers, inks, complex mixtures of organic liquids such as in cosmetics, or blood. 33: 10827: 3067: 279: 1067: 10802: 1841:. These targeting agents should ideally be covalently linked to the nanoparticle and should be present in a controlled number per nanoparticle. Multivalent nanoparticles, bearing multiple targeting groups, can cluster receptors, which can activate cellular signaling pathways, and give stronger anchoring. Monovalent nanoparticles, bearing a single binding site, avoid clustering and so are preferable for tracking the behavior of individual proteins. 10839: 3081: 291: 3095: 792: 10814: 1684:

chemical surfactant surrounds the particle during formation and regulates its growth. In sufficient concentrations, the surfactant molecules stay attached to the particle. This prevents it from dissociating or forming clusters with other particles. Formation of nanoparticles using the radiolysis method allows for tailoring of particle size and shape by adjusting precursor concentrations and gamma dose.

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The final shape of a nanoparticle is also controlled by nucleation. Possible final morphologies created by nucleation can include spherical, cubic, needle-like, worm-like, and more particles. Nucleation can be controlled predominately by time and temperature as well as the supersaturation of the liquid phase and the environment of the synthesis overall.

2194:: Nanoscale cerium oxide is used in electronics, biomedical supplies, energy, and fuel additives. Many applications of engineered cerium oxide nanoparticles naturally disperse themselves into the environment, which increases the risk of exposure. There is ongoing exposure to new diesel emissions using fuel additives containing CeO 5170:"LaMer's 1950 model for particle formation: a review and critical analysis of its classical nucleation and fluctuation theory basis, of competing models and mechanisms for phase-changes and particle formation, and then of its application to silver halide, semiconductor, metal, and metal-oxide nanoparticles" 2345:. Moreover, nanoparticles for nucleic acid delivery offer an unprecedented opportunity to overcome some drawbacks related to the delivery, owing to their tunability with diverse physico-chemical properties, they can readily be functionalized with any type of biomolecules/moieties for selective targeting. 759:

that is well below a red heat (~500 °C), a remarkable change of properties takes place, whereby the continuity of the metallic film is destroyed. The result is that white light is now freely transmitted, reflection is correspondingly diminished, while the electrical resistivity is enormously increased."

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was demonstrated in 2003 and it has been shown to improve conversion efficiencies and to decrease laser beam divergence. Researchers attribute the reduction in beam divergence to improved dn/dT characteristics of the organic-inorganic dye-doped nanocomposite. The optimum composition reported by these

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provides a unique opportunity for growing nanoparticles onto surface without the need for costly spin coating, electrodeposition, or physical vapor deposition. Electroless deposition processes can form colloid suspensions catalytic metal or metal oxide deposition. The suspension of nanoparticles that

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of the desired material. The size of the particles of the latter is adjusted by choosing the concentration of the reagents and the temperature of the solutions, and through the addition of suitable inert agents that affect the viscosity and diffusion rate of the liquid. With different parameters, the

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By introducing a dielectric layer, plasmonic core (metal)-shell (dielectric) nanoparticles enhance light absorption by increasing scattering. Recently, the metal core-dielectric shell nanoparticle has demonstrated a zero backward scattering with enhanced forward scattering on a silicon substrate when

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For nanoparticles dispersed in a medium of different composition, the interfacial layer — formed by ions and molecules from the medium that are within a few atomic diameters of the surface of each particle — can mask or change its chemical and physical properties. Indeed, that layer can be considered

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The initial nucleation stages of the synthesis process heavily influence the properties of a nanoparticle. Nucleation, for example, is vital to the size of the nanoparticle. A critical radius must be met in the initial stages of solid formation, or the particles will redissolve into the liquid phase.

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The properties of a material in nanoparticle form are unusually different from those of the bulk one even when divided into micrometer-size particles. Many of them arise from spatial confinement of sub-atomic particles (i.e. electrons, protons, photons) and electric fields around these particles. The

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As of 2016, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency had conditionally registered, for a period of four years, only two nanomaterial pesticides as ingredients. The EPA differentiates nanoscale ingredients from non-nanoscale forms of the ingredient, but there is little scientific data about potential

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in organisms, and their interactions with biological systems are relatively unknown. However, it is unlikely the particles would enter the cell nucleus, Golgi complex, endoplasmic reticulum or other internal cellular components due to the particle size and intercellular agglomeration. A recent study

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It would, therefore, appear desirable to process a material in such a way that it is physically uniform with regard to the distribution of components and porosity, rather than using particle size distributions that will maximize the green density. The containment of a uniformly dispersed assembly of

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are required. In this process, reducing radicals will drop metallic ions down to the zero-valence state. A scavenger chemical will preferentially interact with oxidizing radicals to prevent the re-oxidation of the metal. Once in the zero-valence state, metal atoms begin to coalesce into particles. A

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provided the first description, in scientific terms, of the optical properties of nanometer-scale metals in his classic 1857 paper. In a subsequent paper, the author (Turner) points out that: "It is well known that when thin leaves of gold or silver are mounted upon glass and heated to a temperature

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is between 0.15 and 0.6 nm, a large fraction of the nanoparticle's material lies within a few atomic diameters of its surface. Therefore, the properties of that surface layer may dominate over those of the bulk material. This effect is particularly strong for nanoparticles dispersed in a medium

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In 1997, Finke and Watzky proposed a new kinetic model for the nucleation and growth of nanoparticles. This 2-step model suggested that constant slow nucleation (occurring far from supersaturation) is followed by autocatalytic growth where dispersity of nanoparticles is largely determined. This F-W

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is a process in which large particles grow at the expense of the smaller particles as a result of dissolution of small particles and deposition of the dissolved molecules on the surfaces of the larger particles. It occurs because smaller particles have a higher surface energy than larger particles.

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wavelengths by tuning the particle geometry allows using them in the fields of molecular labeling, biomolecular assays, trace metal detection, or nanotechnical applications. Anisotropic nanoparticles display a specific absorption behavior and stochastic particle orientation under unpolarized light,

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size distribution, which is typical with nanoparticles. The reason why modern gas evaporation techniques can produce a relatively narrow size distribution is that aggregation can be avoided. However, even in this case, random residence times in the growth zone, due to the combination of drift and

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Core-shell nanoparticles can support simultaneously both electric and magnetic resonances, demonstrating entirely new properties when compared with bare metallic nanoparticles if the resonances are properly engineered. The formation of the core-shell structure from two different metals enables an

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overcomes these issues by attaching a nanoparticle to the AFM tip, allowing control oversize, shape, and material. While the colloidal probe technique is an effective method for measuring adhesion force, it remains difficult to attach a single nanoparticle smaller than 1 micron onto the AFM force

404:(1-1000 μm), "fine particles" (sized between 100 and 2500 nm), and "coarse particles" (ranging from 2500 to 10,000 nm), because their smaller size drives very different physical or chemical properties, like colloidal properties and ultrafast optical effects or electric properties. 1641:

to create the metal vapor allows to achieve higher yields. The method can easily be generalized to alloy nanoparticles by choosing appropriate metallic targets. The use of sequential growth schemes, where the particles travel through a second metallic vapor, results in growth of core-shell (CS)

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In RF induction plasma torches, energy coupling to the plasma is accomplished through the electromagnetic field generated by the induction coil. The plasma gas does not come in contact with electrodes, thus eliminating possible sources of contamination and allowing the operation of such plasma

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As of 2014, the classical nucleation theory explained that the nucleation rate will correspond to the driving force. One method for measuring the nucleation rate is through the induction time method. This process uses the stochastic nature of nucleation and determines the rate of nucleation by

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is frequently used to produce metallic nanoparticles. The metal is evaporated in a vacuum chamber containing a reduced atmosphere of an inert gas. Condensation of the supersaturated metal vapor results in creation of nanometer-size particles, which can be entrained in the inert gas stream and

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analysis of the time between constant supersaturation and when crystals are first detected. Another method includes the probability distribution model, analogous to the methods used to study supercooled liquids, where the probability of finding at least one nucleus at a given time is derived.

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Besides being cheap and convenient, the wet chemical approach allows fine control of the particle's chemical composition. Even small quantities of dopants, such as organic dyes and rare earth metals, can be introduced in the reagent solutions end up uniformly dispersed in the final product.

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or other biomolecules can be conjugated to nano particles to aid targeted delivery. This nanoparticle-assisted delivery allows for spatial and temporal controls of the loaded drugs to achieve the most desirable biological outcome. Nanoparticles are also studied for possible applications as

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lays the foundation for the nanoparticle synthesis. Initial nuclei play a vital role on the size and shape of the nanoparticles that will ultimately form by acting as templating nuclei for the nanoparticle itself. Long-term stability is also determined by the initial nucleation procedures.

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process, yielding inhomogeneous densification. Some pores and other structural defects associated with density variations have been shown to play a detrimental role in the sintering process by growing and thus limiting end-point densities. Differential stresses arising from inhomogeneous

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of other substances, distinct from both the particle's material and of the surrounding medium. Even when only a single molecule thick, these coatings can radically change the particles' properties, such as and chemical reactivity, catalytic activity, and stability in suspension.

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As of 2019, the early stages of nucleation and the rates associated with nucleation were modelled through multiscale computational modeling. This included exploration into an improved kinetic rate equation model and density function studies using the phase-field crystal model.

655:, with the critical size range (or particle diameter) typically ranging from nanometers (10 m) to micrometers (10 m). Colloids can contain particles too large to be nanoparticles, and nanoparticles can exist in non-colloidal form, for examples as a powder or in a solid matrix. 1301:

is the main contributor to the adhesive force under ambient conditions. The adhesion and friction force can be obtained from the cantilever deflection if the AFM tip is regarded as a nanoparticle. However, this method is limited by tip material and geometric shape. The

1094:) regardless of their size, for nanoparticles, however, this is different: the volume of the surface layer (a few atomic diameters-wide) becomes a significant fraction of the particle's volume; whereas that fraction is insignificant for particles with a diameter of one 2176:

Concern has also been raised over the health effects of respirable nanoparticles from certain combustion processes. Preclinical investigations have demonstrated that some inhaled or injected noble metal nano-architectures avoid persistence in organisms. As of 2013 the

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As the most prevalent morphology of nanomaterials used in consumer products, nanoparticles have an enormous range of potential and actual applications. Table below summarizes the most common nanoparticles used in various product types available on the global markets.

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Whitehead CB, Özkar S, Finke RG (2019). "LaMer's 1950 Model for Particle Formation of Instantaneous Nucleation and Diffusion-Controlled Growth: A Historical Look at the Model's Origins, Assumptions, Equations, and Underlying Sulfur Sol Formation Kinetics Data".

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into or out of the particles at very large rates. The small particle diameter, on the other hand, allows the whole material to reach homogeneous equilibrium with respect to diffusion in a very short time. Thus many processes that depend on diffusion, such as

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Nanoparticles have different analytical requirements than conventional chemicals, for which chemical composition and concentration are sufficient metrics. Nanoparticles have other physical properties that must be measured for a complete description, such as

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in solution. This relatively simple technique uses a minimum number of chemicals. These including water, a soluble metallic salt, a radical scavenger (often a secondary alcohol), and a surfactant (organic capping agent). High gamma doses on the order of 10

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temperature and crystallinity may affect deformation and change the elastic modulus when compared to the bulk material. However, size-dependent behavior of elastic moduli could not be generalized across polymers. As for crystalline metal nanoparticles,

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media, for the stability of their magnetization state, those particles smaller than 10 nm are unstable and can change their state (flip) as the result of thermal energy at ordinary temperatures, thus making them unsuitable for that application.

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that can act as address tags, directing them to specific sites within the body specific organelles within the cell, or causing them to follow specifically the movement of individual protein or RNA molecules in living cells. Common address tags are

1329:. In general, the measurement of the mechanical properties of nanoparticles is influenced by many factors including uniform dispersion of nanoparticles, precise application of load, minimum particle deformation, calibration, and calculation model. 1968:

Inert gas evaporation and inert gas deposition are free many of these defects due to the distillation (cf. purification) nature of the process and having enough time to form single crystal particles, however even their non-aggreated deposits have

2205:: Nano titanium dioxide is currently used in many products. Depending on the type of particle, it may be found in sunscreens, cosmetics, and paints and coatings. It is also being investigated for use in removing contaminants from drinking water. 650:

and nanoparticle are not interchangeable. A colloid is a mixture which has particles of one phase dispersed or suspended within an other phase. The term applies only if the particles are larger than atomic dimensions but small enough to exhibit

555:(Pt) due to their fascinating optical properties are finding diverse applications. Non-spherical geometries of nanoprisms give rise to high effective cross-sections and deeper colors of the colloidal solutions. The possibility of shifting the 2198:

nanoparticles, and the environmental and public health impacts of this new technology are unknown. EPA's chemical safety research is assessing the environmental, ecological, and health implications of nanotechnology-enabled diesel fuel

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For biological applications, the surface coating should be polar to give high aqueous solubility and prevent nanoparticle aggregation. In serum or on the cell surface, highly charged coatings promote non-specific binding, whereas

1931:, Cu + C). In condensed bodies formed from fine powders, the irregular particle sizes and shapes in a typical powder often lead to non-uniform packing morphologies that result in packing density variations in the powder compact. 5378:

Finney EE, Finke RG (2008). "The Four-Step, Double-Autocatalytic Mechanism for Transition-Metal Nanocluster Nucleation, Growth, and Then Agglomeration: Metal, Ligand, Concentration, Temperature, and Solvent Dependency Studies".

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and other mechanical property tests. These nanoparticles are hard, and impart their properties to the polymer (plastic). Nanoparticles have also been attached to textile fibers in order to create smart and functional clothing.

393:. The term is sometimes used for larger particles, up to 500 nm, or fibers and tubes that are less than 100 nm in only two directions. At the lowest range, metal particles smaller than 1 nm are usually called 5594:

Valenti G, Rampazzo R, Bonacchi S, Petrizza L, Marcaccio M, Montalti M, et al. (2016). "Variable Doping Induces Mechanism Swapping in Electrogenerated Chemiluminescence of Ru(bpy)32+ Core Shell Silica Nanoparticles".

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are studying certain products to see whether they transfer nano-size silver particles in real-world scenarios. EPA is researching this topic to better understand how much nano-silver children come in contact with in their

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Kent PD, Mondloch JE, Finke RG (2014). "A Four-Step Mechanism for the Formation of Supported-Nanoparticle Heterogeneous Catalysts in Contact with Solution: The Conversion of Ir(1,5-COD)Cl/γ-Al2O3 to Ir(0)~170/γ-Al2O3".

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Being smaller than the wavelengths of visible light, nanoparticles can be dispersed in transparent media without affecting its transparency at those wavelengths. This property is exploited in many applications, such as

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Watzky MA, Finke RG (1997). "Transition Metal Nanocluster Formation Kinetic and Mechanistic Studies. A New Mechanism when Hydrogen is the Reductant: Slow, Continuous Nucleation and Fast Autocatalytic Surface Growth".

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600:, a nanoparticle is an object with all three external dimensions in the nanoscale, whose longest and shortest axes do not differ significantly, with a significant difference typically being a factor of at least 3. 5287:"Transition-Metal Nanocluster Kinetic and Mechanistic Studies Emphasizing Nanocluster Agglomeration: Demonstration of a Kinetic Method That Allows Monitoring of All Three Phases of Nanocluster Formation and Aging" 6654:

Valenti G, Rampazzo E, Kesarkar S, Genovese D, Fiorani A, Zanut A, et al. (2018). "Electrogenerated chemiluminescence from metal complexes-based nanoparticles for highly sensitive sensors applications".

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than the bulk material. Furthermore, the high surface-to-volume ratio in nanoparticles makes dislocations more likely to interact with the particle surface. In particular, this affects the nature of the

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Asphalt modification through nanoparticles can be considered as an interesting low-cost technique in asphalt pavement engineering providing novel perspectives in making asphalt materials more durable.

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was launched in the United States, the term nanoparticle became more common, for example, see the same senior author's paper 20 years later addressing the same issue, lognormal distribution of sizes.

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between nanoparticle and substrate. The particle deformation can be measured by the deflection of the cantilever tip over the sample. The resulting force-displacement curves can be used to calculate

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Besson C, Finney EE, Finke RG (2005). "Nanocluster Nucleation, Growth, and Then Agglomeration Kinetic and Mechanistic Studies: A More General, Four-Step Mechanism Involving Double Autocatalysis".

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A material may have lower melting point in nanoparticle form than in the bulk form. For example, 2.5 nm gold nanoparticles melt at about 300 °C, whereas bulk gold melts at 1064 °C.

536:. However, nanoparticles exhibit different dislocation mechanics, which, together with their unique surface structures, results in mechanical properties that are different from the bulk material. 608:"Nanoscale" is usually understood to be the range from 1 to 100 nm because the novel properties that differentiate particles from the bulk material typically develop at that range of sizes. 7438:

Llamosa D, Ruano M, Martínez L, Mayoral A, Roman E, García-Hernández M, et al. (2014). "The ultimate step towards a tailored engineering of core@shell and core@shell@shell nanoparticles".

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nanopowders and nanoparticle suspensions. Absorption of solar radiation is much higher in materials composed of nanoparticles than in thin films of continuous sheets of material. In both solar

623:, stable dispersion, etc., substantial changes characteristic of nanoparticles are observed for particles as large as 500 nm. Therefore, the term is sometimes extended to that size range. 2231:, one of its more prominent current uses is to remove contamination from groundwater. This use, supported by EPA research, is being piloted at a number of sites across the United States. 6445:

Wu J, Yu P, Susha AS, Sablon KA, Chen H, Zhou Z, et al. (1 April 2015). "Broadband efficiency enhancement in quantum dot solar cells coupled with multispiked plasmonic nanostars".

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in the precursor preparation, or the shape of pores in a surrounding solid matrix. Some applications of nanoparticles require specific shapes, as well as specific sizes or size ranges.

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energy exchange between the core and the shell, typically found in upconverting nanoparticles and downconverting nanoparticles, and causes a shift in the emission wavelength spectrum.

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Nanoparticles present possible dangers, both medically and environmentally. Most of these are due to the high surface to volume ratio, which can make the particles very reactive or

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Hassellöv M, Readman JW, Ranville JF, Tiede K (July 2008). "Nanoparticle analysis and characterization methodologies in environmental risk assessment of engineered nanoparticles".

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Chae SY, Park MK, Lee SK, Kim TY, Kim SK, Lee WI (August 2003). "Preparation of Size-Controlled TiO 2 Nanoparticles and Derivation of Optically Transparent Photocatalytic Films".

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Cassano D, Mapanao AK, Summa M, Vlamidis Y, Giannone G, Santi M, et al. (21 October 2019). "Biosafety and Biokinetics of Noble Metals: The Impact of Their Chemical Nature".

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can also give rise to microstructural heterogeneity. Differential stresses that develop as a result of non-uniform drying shrinkage are directly related to the rate at which the

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Greulich C, Diendorf J, Simon T, Eggeler G, Epple M, Köller M (January 2011). "Uptake and intracellular distribution of silver nanoparticles in human mesenchymal stem cells".

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Kulik A, Kis A, Gremaud G, Hengsberger S, Luengo G, Zysset P, et al. (2007), Bhushan B (ed.), "Nanoscale Mechanical Properties – Measuring Techniques and Applications",

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linked to terminal hydroxyl or methoxy groups repel non-specific interactions. By the immobilization of thiol groups on the surface of nanoparticles or by coating them with

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Powers KW, Palazuelos M, Moudgil BM, Roberts SM (January 2007). "Characterization of the size, shape, and state of dispersion of nanoparticles for toxicological studies".

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The inclusion of nanoparticles in a solid or liquid medium can substantially change its mechanical properties, such as elasticity, plasticity, viscosity, compressibility.

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Scientific research on nanoparticles is intense as they have many potential applications in pre-clinical and clinical medicine, physics, optics, and electronics. The U.S.

1724:. Alternatively, if the particles are meant to be deposited on the surface of some solid substrate, the starting solutions can be by coated on that surface by dipping or 2972: 2956: 1774:

may be used to treat the surfaces of dielectric materials such as sapphire and silica to make composites with near-surface dispersions of metal or oxide nanoparticles.

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Sadri R (15 October 2017). "Study of environmentally friendly and facile functionalization of graphene nanoplatelet and its application in convective heat transfer".

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Chen CC, Zhu C, White ER, Chiu CY, Scott MC, Regan BC, et al. (April 2013). "Three-dimensional imaging of dislocations in a nanoparticle at atomic resolution".

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The chemical processing and synthesis of high-performance technological components for the private, industrial, and military sectors requires the use of high-purity

1614:. The thermal plasma can reach temperatures of 10.000 K and can thus also synthesize nanopowders with very high boiling points. Metal wires can be vaporized by the 1341:

were found to influence the mechanical properties of nanoparticles, contradicting the conventional view that dislocations are absent in crystalline nanoparticles.

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Lange FF, Metcalf M (June 1983). "Processing-Related Fracture Origins: II, Agglomerate Motion and Cracklike Internal Surfaces Caused by Differential Sintering".

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Wang B, Zhang Y, Mao Z, Yu D, Gao C (1 August 2014). "Toxicity of ZnO Nanoparticles to Macrophages Due to Cell Uptake and Intracellular Release of Zinc Ions".

7966:"Dynamic recruitment of phospholipase C at transiently immobilized GPI-anchored receptor clusters induces IP3 Ca2+ signaling: single-molecule tracking study 2" 6402:

Hewakuruppu YL, Dombrovsky LA, Chen C, Timchenko V, Jiang X, Baek S, et al. (2013). "Plasmonic "pump probe" method to study semi-transparent nanofluids".

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defined a nanoparticle as "a particle of any shape with dimensions in the 1 × 10 and 1 × 10 m range". This definition evolved from one given by IUPAC in 1997.

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Fan Y, Saito T, Isogai A (17 March 2010). "Individual chitin nano-whiskers prepared from partially deacetylated α-chitin by fibril surface cationization".

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Oh SH, Legros M, Kiener D, Dehm G (February 2009). "In situ observation of dislocation nucleation and escape in a submicrometre aluminium single crystal".

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Belloni J, Mostafavi M, Remita H, Marignier JL, Delcourt AM (1998). "Radiation-induced synthesis of mono- and multi-metallic clusters and nanocolloids".

3388:"Collective optical Kerr effect exhibited by an integrated configuration of silicon quantum dots and gold nanoparticles embedded in ion-implanted silica" 2525: 772: 11107: 8915:

Thake, T.H.F, Webb, J.R, Nash, A., Rappoport, J.Z., Notman, R. (2013). "Permeation of polystyrene nanoparticles across model lipid bilayer membranes".

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Ghosh Chaudhuri R, Paria S (11 April 2012). "Core/Shell Nanoparticles: Classes, Properties, Synthesis Mechanisms, Characterization, and Applications".

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It has been shown that catalytic activity and sintering rates of a functionalized nanoparticle catalyst is correlated to nanoparticles' number density

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Loo JF, Chien YH, Yin F, Kong SK, Ho HP, Yong KT (December 2019). "Upconversion and downconversion nanoparticles for biophotonics and nanomedicine".

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Kulkarni SA, Kadam SS, Meekes H, Stankiewicz AI, Ter Horst JH (2013). "Crystal Nucleation Kinetics from Induction Times and Metastable Zone Widths".

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Kulkarni SA, Kadam SS, Meekes H, Stankiewicz AI, Ter Horst JH (2013). "Crystal Nucleation Kinetics from Induction Times and Metastable Zone Widths".

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Kulkarni SA, Kadam SS, Meekes H, Stankiewicz AI, Ter Horst JH (2013). "Crystal Nucleation Kinetics from Induction Times and Metastable Zone Widths".

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Jacques Simonis J, Koetzee Basson A (2011). "Evaluation of a low-cost ceramic micro-porous filter for elimination of common disease microorganisms".

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Heim J, Felder E, Tahir MN, Kaltbeitzel A, Heinrich UR, Brochhausen C, et al. (21 May 2015). "Genotoxic effects of zinc oxide nanoparticles".

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are used to determine particle size, with each method suitable for different size ranges and particle compositions. Some miscellaneous methods are

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Kralj S, Makovec D (27 October 2015). "Magnetic Assembly of Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticle Clusters into Nanochains and Nanobundles".

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Non-spherical nanoparticles (e.g., prisms, cubes, rods etc.) exhibit shape-dependent and size-dependent (both chemical and physical) properties (

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Sung KM, Mosley DW, Peelle BR, Zhang S, Jacobson JM (2004). "Synthesis of monofunctionalized gold nanoparticles by fmoc solid-phase reactions".

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Kiss LB, Söderlund J, Niklasson GA, Granqvist CG (1 March 1999). "New approach to the origin of lognormal size distributions of nanoparticles".

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or more. In other words, the surface area/volume ratio impacts certain properties of the nanoparticles more prominently than in bulk particles.

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hydrogel core shell can be dyed with affinity baits, internally. These affinity baits allow the nanoparticles to isolate and remove undesirable

10040: 430:. For the same reason, dispersions of nanoparticles in transparent media can be transparent, whereas suspensions of larger particles usually 6876:

Whitesides, G.M., et al. (1991). "Molecular Self-Assembly and Nanochemistry: A Chemical Strategy for the Synthesis of Nanostructures".

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that is inversely proportional to the size of the particle, also well known to impede dislocation motion, in the same way as it does in the

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Clay nanoparticles, when incorporated into polymer matrices, increase reinforcement, leading to stronger plastics, verifiable by a higher

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Saito T, Kimura S, Nishiyama Y, Isogai A (August 2007). "Cellulose Nanofibers Prepared by TEMPO-Mediated Oxidation of Native Cellulose".

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There are unique challenges associated with the measurement of mechanical properties on the nanoscale, as conventional means such as the

6821:"Effects of Plasmonic Metal Core -Dielectric Shell Nanoparticles on the Broadband Light Absorption Enhancement in Thin Film Solar Cells" 3321: 2357:

what is known as the self-cleaning effect, which lend useful water-repellant and antibacterial properties to paints and other products.

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The nanoparticles formed by this method are then separated from the solvent and soluble byproducts of the reaction by a combination of

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Nanoclusters are agglomerates of nanoparticles with at least one dimension between 1 and 10 nanometers and a narrow size distribution.

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Omidvar A (2016). "Metal-enhanced fluorescence of graphene oxide by palladium nanoparticles in the blue-green part of the spectrum".

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and allows the dislocations to escape the particle before they can multiply, reducing the dislocation density and thus the extent of

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Prime KL, Whitesides GM (1991). "Self-assembled organic monolayers: model systems for studying adsorption of proteins at surfaces".

4894:"Smart Hydrogel Particles: Biomarker Harvesting: One-Step Affinity Purification, Size Exclusion, and Protection against Degradation" 4688:

Choy J.H., Jang E.S., Won J.H., Chung J.H., Jang D.J., Kim Y.W. (2004). "Hydrothermal route to ZnO nanocoral reefs and nanofibers".

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Ultra-fine particles: exploratory science and technology (1997 Translation of the Japan report of the related ERATO Project 1981 86)

2211:: Nano Silver is being incorporated into textiles, clothing, food packaging, and other materials to eliminate bacteria. EPA and the 1297:

forces are important considerations in nanofabrication, lubrication, device design, colloidal stabilization, and drug delivery. The

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from sample preparation, or from probe tip geometry in the case of scanning probe microscopy. Additionally, microscopy is based on

1467: 1384:

are nanoparticles of semiconducting material that are small enough (typically sub 10 nm or less) to have quantized electronic

8902: 1965:

densification have also been shown to result in the propagation of internal cracks, thus becoming the strength-controlling flaws.

1782:

Many properties of nanoparticles, notably stability, solubility, and chemical or biological activity, can be radically altered by

1290:. However, it is unclear whether particle size and indentation depth affect the measured elastic modulus of nanoparticles by AFM. 10491:"EMERGNANO: A review of completed and near completed environment, health and safety research on nanomaterials and nanotechnology" 2212: 2083: 584:

In the same 2012 publication, the IUPAC extends the term to include tubes and fibers with only two dimensions below 100 nm.

321: 1821: 767:

During the 1970s and 80s, when the first thorough fundamental studies with nanoparticles were underway in the United States by

95: 9113:"Statement of Evidence: Particulate Emissions and Health (An Bord Plenala, on Proposed Ringaskiddy Waste-to-Energy Facility)." 9112: 6278: 1960:

In addition, any fluctuations in packing density in the compact as it is prepared for the kiln are often amplified during the

1140: 449:

The properties of nanoparticles often differ markedly from those of larger particles of the same substance. Since the typical

11385: 10459: 9355: 8833: 8726: 8222: 7664: 7630: 7576: 6051: 5764: 4365: 4338: 4284: 4092: 4065: 3971: 3919:

Knauer A, Koehler JM (2016). "Explanation of the size dependent in-plane optical resonance of triangular silver nanoprisms".

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This process is typically undesirable in nanoparticle synthesis as it negatively impacts the functionality of nanoparticles.

39:(a, b, and c) images of prepared mesoporous silica nanoparticles with mean outer diameter: (a) 20nm, (b) 45nm, and (c) 80nm. 9645:

Omidvar A (2018). "Enhancing the nonlinear optical properties of graphene oxide by repairing with palladium nanoparticles".

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Singh BN, Prateeksha GV, Chen J, Atanasov AG (2017). "Organic Nanoparticle-Based Combinatory Approaches for Gene Therapy".

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Linsinger TP, Roebben G, Solans C, Ramsch R (January 2011). "Reference materials for measuring the size of nanoparticles".

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techniques can be used to separate nanoparticles by size or other physical properties before or during characterization.

1407:

applications, by controlling the size, shape, and material of the particles, it is possible to control solar absorption.

1211:, since dislocation climb requires vacancy migration. In addition, there exists a very high internal pressure due to the 9127:"Blood Pressure and Same-Day Exposure to Air Pollution at School: Associations with Nano-Sized to Coarse PM in Children" 5991:

Feruz Y, Mordehai D (January 2016). "Towards a universal size-dependent strength of face-centered cubic nanoparticles".

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often results in aggregates and agglomerates rather than single primary particles. This inconvenience can be avoided by

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Fu A, Micheel CM, Cha J, Chang H, Yang H, Alivisatos AP (2004). "Discrete nanostructures of quantum dots/Au with DNA".

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of different composition since the interactions between the two materials at their interface also becomes significant.

10678: 10354:"Morphometric and stereological assessment of the effects of zinc oxide nanoparticles on the mouse testicular tissue" 9805:"The Effect of Different Levels of Cu, Zn and Mn Nanoparticles in Hen Turkey Diet on the Activity of Aminopeptidases" 9131: 5865: 1991: 1494:, or other size-reducing mechanism until enough of them are in the nanoscale size range. The resulting powder can be 11402: 9922: 9880: 3784:

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and then condensing the vapor by expansion or quenching in a suitable gas or liquid. The plasma can be produced by

1332:

Like bulk materials, the properties of nanoparticles are materials dependent. For spherical polymer nanoparticles,

1314: 493:

structures, they often exhibit phenomena that are not observed at either scale. They are an important component of

36: 10297:"Retinopathy Induced by Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles in Rats Assessed by Micro-computed Tomography and Histopathology" 10027:

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Another method to create nanoparticles is to turn a suitable precursor substance, such as a gas (e.g. methane) or

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fiber- or needle-like nanoparticles. The biopolymers are disintegrated mechanically in combination with chemical

9803:

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Various nanoparticle chemical compounds which are commonly used in the consumer products by industrial sectors

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into their nanoscale building blocks is considered a potential route to produce nanoparticles with enhanced

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Semi-solid and soft nanoparticles have been produced. A prototype nanoparticle of semi-solid nature is the

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Nanoparticles of sufficiently uniform size may spontaneously settle into regular arrangements, forming a

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Nanoparticles occur in a great variety of shapes, which have been given many names such as nanospheres,

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methods generate images of individual nanoparticles to characterize their shape, size, and location.

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deposited on a substrate or studied in situ. Early studies were based on thermal evaporation. Using

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Bulk materials (>100 nm in size) are expected to have constant physical properties (such as

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differences, which otherwise usually result in a material either sinking or floating in a liquid.

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at the rate of thousands of tons per year, is in the nanoparticle range; and the same is true of

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strongly interacting particles in suspension requires total control over interparticle forces.

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spray pyrolysis, in which the precursor liquid is forced through an orifice at high pressure.

7654: 7083:"Biosynthesis and antibacterial activity of gold nanoparticles coated with reductase enzymes" 5286: 3255: 2832: 2079: 2044:

is not useful. Electron microscopes can be coupled to spectroscopic methods that can perform

1847:

Coatings that mimic those of red blood cells can help nanoparticles evade the immune system.

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The high surface area of a material in nanoparticle form allows heat, molecules, and ions to

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can take place at lower temperatures and over shorter time scales which can be important in

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The process of nucleation and growth within nanoparticles can be described by nucleation,

434:

some or all visible light incident on them. Nanoparticles also easily pass through common

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are agglomerates of ultrafine particles, nanoparticles, or nanoclusters. Nanometer-sized

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same general process may yield other nanoscale structures of the same material, such as

1692:

Nanoparticles of certain materials can be created by "wet" chemical processes, in which

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Nanoparticles occur widely in nature and are objects of study in many sciences such as

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Artificial nanoparticles can be created from any solid or liquid material, including

1424: 1357: 1231: 1124:

of nanoparticles are possible since the interaction of the particle surface with the

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There are several overall categories of methods used to characterize nanoparticles.

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The small size of nanoparticles affects their magnetic and electric properties. The

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Amorphous particles typically adopt a spherical shape (due to their microstructural

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nanoparticles on human immune cells has found varying levels of susceptibility to

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products. The production of nanoparticles with specific properties is a branch of

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high (muco)adhesive and cellular uptake enhancing properties can be introduced.

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1 kg of particles of 1 mm has the same surface area as 1 mg of particles of 1 nm

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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is being investigated for many uses, including "smart fluids" for uses such as

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may be broken down into their individual nanoscale building blocks, obtaining

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since prehistory, albeit without knowledge of their nature. They were used by

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In general, the small size of nanoparticles leads to a lower concentration of

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of suitable compounds are mixed or otherwise treated to form an insoluble

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The original theory from 1927 of nucleation in nanoparticle formation was

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Nanotechnologies: 6. What are potential harmful effects of nanoparticles?

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large surface to volume ratio is also significant factor at this scale.

415:

that conversely are usually understood to range from 1 to 1000 nm.

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are the dominant methods. Because nanoparticles have a size below the

528:

compared to their bulk counterparts, but they do support a variety of

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10.1002/1521-4117(200207)19:3<129::AID-PPSC129>3.0.CO;2-G

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variation in toxicity. Testing protocols still need to be developed.

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can be removed, and thus highly dependent upon the distribution of

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Quantum effects are responsible for the deep-red to black color of

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Shishodia S, Chouchene B, Gries T, Schneider R (31 October 2023).

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concentration in nanocrystals can negatively affect the motion of

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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

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Akerman ME, Chan WC, Laakkonen P, Bhatia SN, Ruoslahti E (2002).

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in microscopy. Anisotropic nanoparticles are a good candidate in

1946: 1892: 1872: 1838: 1830: 1814: 1783: 1736: 1702: 1595: 1591: 1551: 1486:

Friable macro- or micro-scale solid particles can be ground in a

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Sol-Gel Science: The Physics and Chemistry of Sol-Gel Processing

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There are several methods for creating nanoparticles, including

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Taylor RA, Phelan PE, Otanicar TP, Adrian R, Prasher R (2011).

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Accretion of Extraterrestrial Matter Throughout Earth's History

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Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein

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Module 3: Characteristics of Particles Particle Size Categories

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The shapes of nanoparticles may be determined by the intrinsic

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Wang Z, Wang Z, Lu WW, Zhen W, Yang D, Peng S (October 2017).

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ASTM E 2456 06 Standard Terminology Relating to Nanotechnology

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diffusion, result in a size distribution appearing lognormal.

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effects become noticeable for nanoscale objects. They include

497:, and key ingredients in many industrialized products such as 422:(400-700 nm), nanoparticles cannot be seen with ordinary 10516:

Lectures on All Phases of Nanoparticle Science and Technology

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Yu P, Yao Y, Wu J, Niu X, Rogach AL, Wang Z (December 2017).

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was investigating the safety of the following nanoparticles:

2091: 2002: 1939: 1904: 1740: 1587: 1440: 775:

and Japan within an ERATO Project, researchers used the term

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for delivery of biologically active substances, for example

643:

ultrafine particles, are often referred to as nanocrystals.

560:

showing a distinct resonance mode for each excitable axis.

9733: 9234: 8090: 7437: 6918: 4514: 4424:"The effect of heat and of solvents on thin films of metal" 4158: 3042: 3038: 3005: 3001: 2940: 2861: 2804: 2796: 2734: 2714: 2706: 2685: 2681: 2615: 2599: 2550: 2453: 2416: 2412: 2333:

Nanoscale particles are used in biomedical applications as

1794:

can be used for catalysis of many known organic reactions.

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International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering

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IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation

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Silvera Batista CA, Larson RG, Kotov NA (9 October 2015).

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in the micrometer range is a good example: widely used in

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In its 2012 proposed terminology for biologically related

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Compendium of Chemical Terminology: IUPAC Recommendations

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International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)

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cannot be employed. As a result, new techniques such as

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particles can be stabilized by functionalization with

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High transmission Tandem DMA for nanoparticle studies

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Physica E: Low-dimensional Systems and Nanostructures

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surface plasmon is located in front of a solar cell.

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lotions, being completely photostable though toxic.

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on certain faces by coating additives, the shape of

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ENPRA – Risk Assessment of Engineered NanoParticles

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Lett 7356: 7350: 7349: 7346:10.1063/1.345798 7332:(2): 1113 1115. 7321: 7315: 7314: 7304: 7302:10.1063/1.322870 7287:(5): 2200 2219. 7272: 7263: 7262: 7214: 7208: 7207: 7190:(5): 1519–1542. 7179: 7173: 7172: 7163:(4): 1046–1051. 7152: 7146: 7145: 7128:(8): 2485–2491. 7117: 7111: 7110: 7078: 7072: 7071: 7061: 7051: 7019: 7013: 7012: 7002: 6970: 6961: 6960: 6916: 6910: 6909: 6873: 6867: 6866: 6856: 6816: 6810: 6809: 6781: 6775: 6774: 6757:(4): 2373–2433. 6751:Chemical Reviews 6746: 6737: 6736: 6734: 6702: 6691: 6690: 6680: 6651: 6642: 6641: 6631: 6621: 6589: 6583: 6582: 6572: 6532: 6523: 6522: 6520: 6488: 6479: 6478: 6442: 6436: 6435: 6399: 6388: 6387: 6370:(6): 2287–2298. 6355: 6346: 6345: 6297: 6291: 6290: 6258: 6249: 6248: 6216: 6210: 6209: 6173: 6167: 6166: 6126: 6117: 6116: 6106: 6074: 6057: 6056: 6023: 6017: 6016: 5988: 5982: 5981: 5970:10.1038/nmat2370 5950:Nature Materials 5945: 5939: 5938: 5928: 5918: 5886: 5880: 5879: 5853: 5847: 5846: 5826: 5820: 5819: 5809: 5777: 5771: 5770: 5752: 5746: 5745: 5713: 5707: 5706: 5697:(6): 2435-2440. 5686: 5680: 5679: 5669: 5637: 5631: 5630: 5620: 5597:J. Am. Chem. Soc 5591: 5585: 5580: 5574: 5573: 5547: 5538:(4): MR17–MR71. 5527: 5521: 5520: 5510: 5478: 5472: 5471: 5439: 5433: 5432: 5415:(5): 1930–1941. 5409:J. Am. Chem. Soc 5403: 5397: 5396: 5387:(5): 1956-1970. 5375: 5369: 5368: 5348: 5342: 5341: 5318:J. Am. Chem. Soc 5313: 5307: 5306: 5282: 5276: 5275: 5260:J. Am. Chem. Soc 5254: 5248: 5247: 5238:(6): 2435-2440. 5227: 5221: 5211:Ostwald ripening 5198: 5192: 5191: 5189: 5165: 5159: 5158: 5129: 5123: 5122: 5107:J. Am. Chem. Soc 5101: 5095: 5094: 5074: 5068: 5067: 5055: 5049: 5048: 5039:(6): 2435-2440. 5028: 5022: 5021: 4989: 4983: 4982: 4946: 4940: 4939: 4929: 4889: 4880: 4879: 4862:(5): 1139–1153. 4851: 4845: 4844: 4842: 4818: 4812: 4811: 4775: 4769: 4768: 4735:(5601): 2176–9. 4720: 4714: 4713: 4690:Appl. Phys. Lett 4685: 4679: 4678: 4650: 4644: 4643: 4615: 4609: 4608: 4572: 4563: 4562: 4554: 4541: 4540: 4512: 4503: 4502: 4492: 4475:(548): 301–310. 4460: 4454: 4453: 4451: 4419: 4413: 4412: 4410: 4378: 4372: 4371: 4354:Khan FA (2012). 4351: 4345: 4344: 4322: 4316: 4315: 4313: 4311: 4297: 4291: 4290: 4264: 4258: 4257: 4247: 4215: 4209: 4208: 4198: 4188: 4156: 4150: 4149: 4147: 4130:(6): 1849–1858. 4115: 4106: 4105: 4103: 4101: 4078: 4072: 4071: 4051: 4045: 4044: 4042: 4040: 4025: 4019: 4018: 4008: 3984: 3978: 3977: 3959: 3953: 3952: 3916: 3907: 3906: 3896: 3856: 3843: 3842: 3840: 3838: 3824: 3818: 3817: 3781: 3775: 3774: 3772: 3748: 3742: 3741: 3739: 3707: 3701: 3700: 3656: 3650: 3649: 3647: 3645: 3614: 3608: 3607: 3597: 3573: 3564: 3563: 3535: 3529: 3528: 3508: 3499: 3498: 3488: 3470: 3446: 3440: 3439: 3383: 3377: 3376: 3366: 3342: 3329: 3318: 3246:Photonic crystal 3241:Patchy particles 3103: 3098: 3097: 3089: 3084: 3083: 3075: 3070: 3069: 3031:titanium dioxide 2998:titanium dioxide 2965:nickel(II) oxide 2878:titanium dioxide 2809:titanium dioxide 2780:titanium dioxide 2711:titanium dioxide 2670:titanium dioxide 2596:titanium dioxide 2575:cerium(IV) oxide 2539:titanium dioxide 2506:cerium(IV) oxide 2458:titanium dioxide 2376: 2372: 2281:mineral elements 2225:optics polishing 2203:Titanium dioxide 2186:Carbon nanotubes 2088:Light-scattering 2015:dispersion state 1986:Characterization 1923:), and layered ( 1921:carbon nanotubes 1869:copper(II) oxide 1772:Ion implantation 1767:Ion implantation 1468:ion implantation 1456:gas condensation 1334:glass transition 1219:. This causes a 1117:Solvent affinity 1015:Ostwald ripening 1010:Ostwald ripening 988:Ostwald ripening 896:biodegradability 892:biocompatibility 877:anticancer drugs 808:crystal clusters 805: 688:particles. Many 686:atmospheric dust 627:Related concepts 362: 342: 341: 334: 324: 317: 310: 294: 293: 282: 281: 233:Titanium dioxide 72:Carbon nanotubes 66: 47: 46: 21: 11445: 11444: 11440: 11439: 11438: 11436: 11435: 11434: 11420: 11419: 11418: 11413: 11412: 11397:Clinical trials 11376: 11325: 11309: 11277: 11252:Gadoversetamide 11174: 11158: 11123:Water insoluble 11122: 11112: 11103:Tyropanoic acid 11098:Sodium iopodate 11083:Iobenzamic acid 11073:Ioglycamic acid 11051: 10982: 10976: 10957:Acetrizoic acid 10927:Diatrizoic acid 10917: 10908: 10893: 10883: 10853: 10848: 10836: 10824: 10792: 10764: 10741: 10737:Nanolithography 10724:Nanoelectronics 10718: 10685: 10640: 10603: 10594:Popular culture 10570: 10565: 10523:Wayback Machine 10506: 10499:by SEADM, 2014. 10462: 10444: 10442:Further reading 10439: 10438: 10391: 10387: 10350: 10346: 10293: 10289: 10252: 10248: 10207:(5): e0126934. 10193: 10189: 10150: 10146: 10099: 10095: 10060: 10056: 10046: 10044: 10039: 10038: 10034: 10026: 10022: 9969: 9965: 9925: 9919: 9915: 9883: 9877: 9873: 9863: 9861: 9853: 9852: 9848: 9801: 9797: 9768: 9764: 9732: 9728: 9699:(21): 2088–90. 9686: 9682: 9643: 9639: 9608: 9604: 9565: 9561: 9528: 9524: 9471: 9467: 9430: 9426: 9375: 9371: 9362: 9360: 9358: 9332: 9328: 9319: 9315: 9303: 9295: 9293: 9288: 9287: 9272: 9233: 9229: 9174: 9170: 9123: 9119: 9110: 9106: 9069: 9065: 9042: 9038: 8983: 8979: 8948: 8944: 8913: 8909: 8901: 8897: 8854: 8850: 8840: 8838: 8836: 8817: 8813: 8803: 8801: 8790: 8789: 8785: 8777: 8746: 8740: 8736: 8729: 8707: 8703: 8664: 8660: 8617: 8613: 8580: 8576: 8536: 8530: 8517: 8486: 8482: 8435: 8418: 8405:(10): 497–501. 8395: 8391: 8368: 8364: 8325: 8321: 8290: 8286: 8263: 8259: 8236: 8232: 8225: 8211: 8207: 8197: 8195: 8186: 8185: 8181: 8138: 8134: 8089: 8085: 8064:(35): 10832–3. 8054: 8050: 8011: 8007: 7962: 7958: 7921: 7917: 7862: 7858: 7813: 7809: 7764: 7760: 7713: 7709: 7678: 7674: 7667: 7651: 7647: 7637: 7635: 7633: 7617: 7613: 7590: 7586: 7579: 7565: 7561: 7538: 7534: 7489: 7485: 7436: 7432: 7387: 7380: 7357: 7353: 7322: 7318: 7273: 7266: 7215: 7211: 7180: 7176: 7153: 7149: 7118: 7114: 7079: 7075: 7020: 7016: 6971: 6964: 6917: 6913: 6874: 6870: 6817: 6813: 6782: 6778: 6747: 6740: 6703: 6694: 6652: 6645: 6590: 6586: 6533: 6526: 6489: 6482: 6443: 6439: 6410:(24): 6041–50. 6400: 6391: 6356: 6349: 6298: 6294: 6259: 6252: 6217: 6213: 6174: 6170: 6127: 6120: 6075: 6060: 6054: 6024: 6020: 5993:Acta Materialia 5989: 5985: 5946: 5942: 5887: 5883: 5868: 5854: 5850: 5827: 5823: 5778: 5774: 5767: 5753: 5749: 5714: 5710: 5687: 5683: 5638: 5634: 5592: 5588: 5581: 5577: 5528: 5524: 5479: 5475: 5440: 5436: 5404: 5400: 5376: 5372: 5349: 5345: 5314: 5310: 5283: 5279: 5255: 5251: 5228: 5224: 5199: 5195: 5166: 5162: 5130: 5126: 5102: 5098: 5075: 5071: 5056: 5052: 5029: 5025: 4990: 4986: 4947: 4943: 4890: 4883: 4852: 4848: 4827:Materials Today 4819: 4815: 4776: 4772: 4721: 4717: 4686: 4682: 4651: 4647: 4616: 4612: 4573: 4566: 4555: 4544: 4523:(10): 625 629. 4513: 4506: 4461: 4457: 4420: 4416: 4379: 4375: 4368: 4352: 4348: 4341: 4323: 4319: 4309: 4307: 4299: 4298: 4294: 4287: 4265: 4261: 4216: 4212: 4157: 4153: 4116: 4109: 4099: 4097: 4095: 4079: 4075: 4068: 4052: 4048: 4038: 4036: 4027: 4026: 4022: 3985: 3981: 3974: 3960: 3956: 3917: 3910: 3857: 3846: 3836: 3834: 3826: 3825: 3821: 3782: 3778: 3749: 3745: 3708: 3704: 3667:(7443): 74–77. 3657: 3653: 3643: 3641: 3639: 3615: 3611: 3574: 3567: 3536: 3532: 3509: 3502: 3447: 3443: 3384: 3380: 3343: 3332: 3319: 3315: 3310: 3305: 3286:Sol–gel process 3099: 3092: 3085: 3078: 3071: 3064: 3061: 3051:silicon dioxide 2937:silicon dioxide 2854:silicon dioxide 2829:aluminium oxide 2813:silicon dioxide 2772:silicon dioxide 2760:home appliance 2723:silicon dioxide 2678:manganese oxide 2649:silicon dioxide 2620:sodium silicate 2612:silicon dioxide 2555:aluminium oxide 2543:silicon dioxide 2514:aluminium oxide 2450:silicon dioxide 2401:silicon dioxide 2371: 2351: 2331: 2323: 2310: 2302: 2289: 2269: 2247: 2238: 2221:nano-scale iron 2197: 2154: 2140: 2104:electrophoresis 2040:, conventional 1994: 1988: 1915:), non-metals ( 1901:Silicon nitride 1865:aluminium oxide 1853: 1780: 1769: 1720:, washing, and 1690: 1648: 1628: 1584: 1548: 1504: 1484: 1437: 1421: 1419:Regular packing 1355: 1347: 1299:capillary force 1288:elastic modulus 1280:elastic modulus 1272:nanoindentation 1256:nanoindentation 1201: 1184: 1163: 1138: 1119: 1110: 1104: 1064: 1055: 1046: 1033: 1024: 1012: 1000: 977: 972: 931:Janus particles 869: 806:) exhibiting a 804: 800: 789: 765: 756:Michael Faraday 753: 698: 666: 661: 653:Brownian motion 637:single crystals 629: 621:ultrafiltration 606: 590: 571: 566: 440:ceramic candles 409:Brownian motion 367: 343: 339: 328: 288: 276: 173:Aluminium oxide 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 11443: 11433: 11432: 11415: 11414: 11411: 11410: 11409: 11408: 11405: 11394: 11388: 11382: 11381: 11378: 11377: 11375: 11374: 11369: 11363: 11358: 11352:Microparticles 11349: 11339: 11337: 11331: 11330: 11327: 11326: 11324: 11323: 11317: 11315: 11311: 11310: 11308: 11307: 11298: 11293: 11287: 11285: 11279: 11278: 11276: 11275: 11270: 11260: 11259: 11257:Gadoxetic acid 11254: 11249: 11244: 11242:Gadoteric acid 11239: 11234: 11229: 11224: 11219: 11214: 11209: 11207:Gadobenic acid 11197: 11195: 11186: 11180: 11179: 11176: 11175: 11173: 11172: 11170:Barium sulfate 11166: 11164: 11160: 11159: 11157: 11156: 11151: 11146: 11141: 11130:Ethiodized oil 11126: 11124: 11118: 11117: 11114: 11113: 11111: 11110: 11105: 11100: 11095: 11093:Iocetamic acid 11090: 11085: 11080: 11075: 11070: 11065: 11063:Iodoxamic acid 11059: 11057: 11053: 11052: 11050: 11049: 11044: 11039: 11034: 11029: 11024: 11019: 11014: 11009: 11004: 10999: 10994: 10988: 10986: 10978: 10977: 10975: 10974: 10969: 10964: 10959: 10954: 10949: 10944: 10942:Iotalamic acid 10939: 10934: 10932:Metrizoic acid 10929: 10923: 10921: 10910: 10901: 10895: 10894: 10886:Contrast media 10882: 10881: 10874: 10867: 10859: 10850: 10849: 10847: 10846: 10834: 10822: 10810: 10797: 10794: 10793: 10791: 10790: 10785: 10780: 10774: 10772: 10766: 10765: 10763: 10762: 10757: 10751: 10749: 10743: 10742: 10740: 10739: 10734: 10728: 10726: 10720: 10719: 10717: 10716: 10711: 10706: 10701: 10695: 10693: 10687: 10686: 10684: 10683: 10682: 10681: 10671: 10670: 10669: 10664: 10656: 10650: 10648: 10642: 10641: 10639: 10638: 10633: 10628: 10626:Nanotoxicology 10623: 10617: 10615: 10605: 10604: 10602: 10601: 10596: 10591: 10586: 10580: 10578: 10572: 10571: 10568:Nanotechnology 10564: 10563: 10556: 10549: 10541: 10535: 10534: 10525: 10513: 10510:Nanohedron.com 10505: 10504:External links 10502: 10501: 10500: 10494: 10488: 10478: 10466: 10460: 10443: 10440: 10437: 10436: 10385: 10364:(5): 321–325. 10344: 10307:(2): 157–163. 10287: 10246: 10187: 10144: 10109:(19): 8931–8. 10093: 10054: 10032: 10020: 9963: 9913: 9871: 9846: 9795: 9762: 9726: 9680: 9637: 9602: 9575:(11): 118102. 9559: 9522: 9465: 9424: 9369: 9356: 9326: 9313: 9270: 9227: 9168: 9139:(7): 737–742. 9117: 9104: 9083:(3): 209–218. 9063: 9036: 8977: 8958:(1): 347–354. 8942: 8907: 8895: 8868:(8): 4868–81. 8848: 8834: 8811: 8783: 8751:Nanotechnology 8734: 8727: 8701: 8658: 8611: 8574: 8547:(7): 795–821. 8515: 8490:Nanotoxicology 8480: 8445:(5): 344–361. 8416: 8389: 8378:(6): 398–406. 8362: 8335:(4): 314 325. 8319: 8284: 8257: 8230: 8223: 8205: 8194:on 1 July 2011 8179: 8132: 8097:Nature Methods 8083: 8048: 8021:(16): 5064–5. 8005: 7956: 7935:(12): 985–94. 7915: 7856: 7827:(1): 2102451. 7807: 7778:(2): 472–483. 7758: 7707: 7672: 7665: 7645: 7631: 7611: 7584: 7577: 7559: 7532: 7483: 7430: 7378: 7351: 7316: 7264: 7229:(2): 188–199. 7209: 7184:Chem. Soc. Rev 7174: 7147: 7112: 7093:(9): 484–489. 7073: 7014: 6962: 6911: 6868: 6811: 6776: 6738: 6692: 6643: 6584: 6547:(7): 1413–22. 6541:Applied Optics 6524: 6480: 6437: 6404:Applied Optics 6389: 6347: 6292: 6273:(3): 129–143. 6250: 6211: 6168: 6118: 6058: 6052: 6018: 5983: 5940: 5901:(1): 198–205. 5881: 5866: 5848: 5821: 5772: 5765: 5747: 5708: 5681: 5632: 5586: 5575: 5532:Biointerphases 5522: 5473: 5434: 5398: 5370: 5343: 5308: 5297:(1): 139-150. 5277: 5249: 5222: 5193: 5160: 5124: 5096: 5069: 5050: 5023: 4984: 4941: 4904:(1): 350–361. 4881: 4846: 4833:(6): 220–227. 4813: 4770: 4715: 4680: 4661:(10): 9700–7. 4645: 4626:(10): 3615–9. 4610: 4577:Nanotechnology 4564: 4542: 4504: 4455: 4414: 4373: 4366: 4346: 4339: 4317: 4292: 4285: 4259: 4210: 4151: 4107: 4093: 4073: 4066: 4046: 4020: 3979: 3972: 3954: 3908: 3844: 3819: 3776: 3763:(7): 908–931. 3743: 3702: 3651: 3637: 3609: 3565: 3530: 3500: 3441: 3398:(29): 295701. 3392:Nanotechnology 3378: 3357:(2): 377–410. 3330: 3312: 3311: 3309: 3306: 3304: 3303: 3298: 3293: 3288: 3283: 3278: 3273: 3268: 3263: 3258: 3253: 3248: 3243: 3238: 3236:Nanotechnology 3233: 3228: 3223: 3218: 3213: 3211:Nanogeoscience 3208: 3203: 3198: 3193: 3188: 3182: 3177: 3172: 3167: 3162: 3157: 3152: 3147: 3142: 3137: 3135:Colloidal gold 3132: 3127: 3122: 3117: 3112: 3106: 3105: 3104: 3101:Biology portal 3090: 3076: 3073:Science portal 3060: 3057: 3054: 3053: 3035:copper sulfide 3020: 3017: 3013: 3012: 2991: 2988: 2984: 2983: 2922: 2919: 2915: 2914: 2904: 2901: 2897: 2896: 2843: 2840: 2836: 2835: 2801:hydroxyapatite 2790: 2787: 2783: 2782: 2761: 2758: 2754: 2753: 2700: 2697: 2693: 2692: 2663: 2660: 2656: 2655: 2638: 2635: 2631: 2630: 2589: 2586: 2582: 2581: 2536: 2533: 2529: 2528: 2443: 2440: 2436: 2435: 2394: 2391: 2387: 2386: 2385:Nanoparticles 2383: 2380: 2370: 2367: 2350: 2347: 2330: 2327: 2322: 2319: 2315:photocatalysis 2309: 2308:Photocatalysis 2306: 2301: 2298: 2288: 2285: 2272:growth factors 2267: 2246: 2243: 2237: 2234: 2233: 2232: 2217: 2206: 2200: 2195: 2189: 2162:cell membranes 2152:Nanotoxicology 2139: 2136: 2128:centrifugation 2124:Chromatography 2090:methods using 1990:Main article: 1987: 1984: 1885:metal carbides 1877:glass-ceramics 1861:oxide ceramics 1852: 1849: 1779: 1776: 1768: 1765: 1718:centrifugation 1689: 1686: 1647: 1644: 1627: 1624: 1600:thermal plasma 1583: 1580: 1570:. Traditional 1547: 1544: 1503: 1500: 1496:air classified 1490:, a planetary 1483: 1480: 1449:semiconductors 1436: 1433: 1420: 1417: 1354: 1351: 1346: 1343: 1327:yield strength 1264:scanning probe 1228:work hardening 1213:surface stress 1200: 1197: 1183: 1180: 1162: 1159: 1137: 1134: 1118: 1115: 1103: 1100: 1063: 1060: 1054: 1051: 1045: 1042: 1032: 1029: 1023: 1020: 1011: 1008: 999: 996: 976: 973: 971: 968: 868: 865: 846:crystal growth 802: 788: 785: 764: 761: 752: 749: 697: 694: 674:meteorological 672:, geological, 665: 662: 660: 657: 628: 625: 605: 602: 589: 586: 570: 567: 565: 562: 519:nanotechnology 444:nanofiltration 402:microparticles 369: 368: 346: 344: 337: 330: 329: 327: 326: 319: 312: 304: 301: 300: 299: 298: 286: 271: 270: 269: 268: 263: 258: 253: 245: 244: 238: 237: 236: 235: 230: 225: 220: 215: 210: 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 175: 170: 165: 157: 156: 149: 148: 147: 146: 141: 136: 131: 126: 118: 117: 111: 110: 109: 108: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 75: 74: 68: 67: 59: 58: 52: 51: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11442: 11431: 11430:Nanoparticles 11428: 11427: 11425: 11406: 11404: 11401: 11400: 11398: 11395: 11392: 11389: 11387: 11384: 11383: 11379: 11373: 11370: 11368: 11367:phospholipids 11364: 11362: 11359: 11357: 11353: 11350: 11348: 11347:human albumin 11344: 11341: 11340: 11338: 11336: 11332: 11322: 11319: 11318: 11316: 11312: 11306: 11305:nanoparticles 11302: 11299: 11297: 11294: 11292: 11289: 11288: 11286: 11284: 11280: 11274: 11271: 11269: 11265: 11262: 11261: 11258: 11255: 11253: 11250: 11248: 11245: 11243: 11240: 11238: 11235: 11233: 11230: 11228: 11225: 11223: 11220: 11218: 11215: 11213: 11210: 11208: 11204: 11203: 11199: 11198: 11196: 11194: 11190: 11187: 11185: 11181: 11171: 11168: 11167: 11165: 11163:Non-iodinated 11161: 11155: 11152: 11150: 11147: 11145: 11142: 11139: 11135: 11131: 11128: 11127: 11125: 11119: 11109: 11106: 11104: 11101: 11099: 11096: 11094: 11091: 11089: 11088:Iopanoic acid 11086: 11084: 11081: 11079: 11076: 11074: 11071: 11069: 11068:Iotroxic acid 11066: 11064: 11061: 11060: 11058: 11054: 11048: 11045: 11043: 11040: 11038: 11035: 11033: 11030: 11028: 11025: 11023: 11020: 11018: 11015: 11013: 11010: 11008: 11005: 11003: 11002:Ioxaglic acid 11000: 10998: 10995: 10993: 10990: 10989: 10987: 10985: 10981:Nephrotropic, 10979: 10973: 10970: 10968: 10965: 10963: 10962:Iocarmic acid 10960: 10958: 10955: 10953: 10952:Ioglicic acid 10950: 10948: 10945: 10943: 10940: 10938: 10935: 10933: 10930: 10928: 10925: 10924: 10922: 10920: 10916:Nephrotropic, 10914: 10911: 10909:Water soluble 10905: 10902: 10900: 10896: 10891: 10887: 10880: 10875: 10873: 10868: 10866: 10861: 10860: 10857: 10845: 10840: 10835: 10833: 10828: 10823: 10821: 10820: 10811: 10809: 10808: 10799: 10798: 10795: 10789: 10786: 10784: 10781: 10779: 10776: 10775: 10773: 10771: 10767: 10761: 10758: 10756: 10753: 10752: 10750: 10748: 10744: 10738: 10735: 10733: 10730: 10729: 10727: 10725: 10721: 10715: 10712: 10710: 10707: 10705: 10702: 10700: 10697: 10696: 10694: 10692: 10688: 10680: 10677: 10676: 10675: 10674:Nanoparticles 10672: 10668: 10665: 10663: 10660: 10659: 10657: 10655: 10652: 10651: 10649: 10647: 10646:Nanomaterials 10643: 10637: 10634: 10632: 10629: 10627: 10624: 10622: 10619: 10618: 10616: 10614: 10610: 10606: 10600: 10597: 10595: 10592: 10590: 10589:Organizations 10587: 10585: 10582: 10581: 10579: 10577: 10573: 10569: 10562: 10557: 10555: 10550: 10548: 10543: 10542: 10539: 10533: 10529: 10526: 10524: 10520: 10517: 10514: 10511: 10508: 10507: 10498: 10495: 10492: 10489: 10486: 10482: 10479: 10476: 10475: 10470: 10467: 10463: 10457: 10453: 10452: 10446: 10445: 10432: 10428: 10423: 10418: 10413: 10408: 10404: 10400: 10396: 10389: 10381: 10377: 10372: 10367: 10363: 10359: 10355: 10348: 10340: 10336: 10331: 10326: 10322: 10318: 10314: 10310: 10306: 10302: 10298: 10291: 10283: 10279: 10274: 10269: 10266:(5): 625–35. 10265: 10261: 10257: 10250: 10242: 10238: 10233: 10228: 10223: 10218: 10214: 10210: 10206: 10202: 10198: 10191: 10183: 10179: 10175: 10171: 10167: 10163: 10159: 10155: 10148: 10140: 10136: 10132: 10128: 10124: 10120: 10116: 10112: 10108: 10104: 10097: 10089: 10085: 10081: 10077: 10073: 10069: 10065: 10058: 10042: 10036: 10030: 10024: 10016: 10012: 10007: 10002: 9998: 9994: 9990: 9986: 9982: 9978: 9974: 9967: 9959: 9955: 9951: 9947: 9943: 9939: 9935: 9931: 9924: 9917: 9909: 9905: 9901: 9897: 9893: 9889: 9882: 9875: 9860: 9856: 9850: 9842: 9838: 9833: 9828: 9823: 9818: 9814: 9810: 9806: 9799: 9790: 9785: 9781: 9777: 9773: 9766: 9757: 9753: 9749: 9745: 9741: 9737: 9730: 9722: 9718: 9714: 9710: 9706: 9702: 9698: 9694: 9690: 9689:Duarte, F. J. 9684: 9676: 9672: 9668: 9664: 9660: 9656: 9652: 9648: 9641: 9633: 9629: 9625: 9621: 9617: 9613: 9606: 9598: 9594: 9590: 9586: 9582: 9578: 9574: 9570: 9563: 9555: 9551: 9547: 9543: 9539: 9535: 9534: 9526: 9518: 9514: 9509: 9504: 9500: 9496: 9492: 9488: 9484: 9480: 9476: 9469: 9461: 9457: 9452: 9447: 9443: 9439: 9435: 9428: 9420: 9416: 9412: 9408: 9404: 9400: 9396: 9392: 9389:(2): 022006. 9388: 9384: 9380: 9373: 9359: 9353: 9349: 9345: 9341: 9337: 9330: 9323: 9317: 9310: 9309:public domain 9291: 9285: 9283: 9281: 9279: 9277: 9275: 9266: 9262: 9258: 9254: 9250: 9246: 9242: 9238: 9231: 9223: 9219: 9214: 9209: 9204: 9199: 9195: 9191: 9187: 9183: 9179: 9172: 9164: 9160: 9155: 9150: 9146: 9142: 9138: 9134: 9133: 9128: 9121: 9114: 9108: 9100: 9096: 9091: 9086: 9082: 9078: 9074: 9067: 9059: 9055: 9052:(5): 822–45. 9051: 9047: 9040: 9032: 9028: 9023: 9018: 9013: 9008: 9004: 9000: 8996: 8992: 8988: 8981: 8973: 8969: 8965: 8961: 8957: 8953: 8946: 8938: 8934: 8930: 8926: 8922: 8918: 8911: 8904: 8899: 8891: 8887: 8883: 8879: 8875: 8871: 8867: 8863: 8859: 8852: 8837: 8831: 8827: 8826: 8821: 8815: 8799: 8798: 8793: 8787: 8776: 8772: 8768: 8764: 8760: 8757:(3): R9–R13. 8756: 8752: 8745: 8738: 8730: 8724: 8720: 8716: 8712: 8705: 8697: 8693: 8689: 8685: 8681: 8677: 8673: 8669: 8662: 8654: 8650: 8646: 8642: 8638: 8634: 8630: 8626: 8622: 8615: 8606: 8601: 8597: 8593: 8589: 8585: 8578: 8570: 8566: 8562: 8558: 8554: 8550: 8546: 8542: 8535: 8528: 8526: 8524: 8522: 8520: 8511: 8507: 8503: 8499: 8495: 8491: 8484: 8476: 8472: 8468: 8464: 8460: 8456: 8452: 8448: 8444: 8440: 8439:Ecotoxicology 8433: 8431: 8429: 8427: 8425: 8423: 8421: 8412: 8408: 8404: 8400: 8393: 8385: 8381: 8377: 8373: 8366: 8358: 8354: 8350: 8346: 8342: 8338: 8334: 8330: 8329:J. Mater. Sci 8323: 8315: 8311: 8307: 8303: 8299: 8295: 8288: 8280: 8276: 8272: 8268: 8261: 8253: 8249: 8246:(10): C 190. 8245: 8241: 8234: 8226: 8220: 8216: 8209: 8193: 8189: 8183: 8175: 8171: 8167: 8163: 8159: 8155: 8151: 8147: 8143: 8136: 8128: 8124: 8119: 8114: 8110: 8106: 8102: 8098: 8094: 8087: 8079: 8075: 8071: 8067: 8063: 8059: 8052: 8044: 8040: 8036: 8032: 8028: 8024: 8020: 8016: 8009: 8001: 7997: 7992: 7987: 7983: 7979: 7976:(4): 731–42. 7975: 7971: 7967: 7960: 7952: 7948: 7943: 7938: 7934: 7930: 7926: 7919: 7911: 7907: 7902: 7897: 7892: 7887: 7883: 7879: 7875: 7871: 7867: 7860: 7852: 7848: 7843: 7838: 7834: 7830: 7826: 7822: 7818: 7811: 7803: 7799: 7794: 7789: 7785: 7781: 7777: 7773: 7769: 7762: 7754: 7750: 7746: 7742: 7738: 7734: 7730: 7726: 7722: 7718: 7711: 7703: 7699: 7695: 7691: 7687: 7683: 7676: 7668: 7662: 7658: 7657: 7649: 7634: 7628: 7624: 7623: 7615: 7607: 7603: 7599: 7595: 7588: 7580: 7574: 7570: 7563: 7555: 7551: 7547: 7543: 7536: 7528: 7524: 7519: 7514: 7510: 7506: 7503:: 1868–1880. 7502: 7498: 7494: 7487: 7479: 7475: 7470: 7465: 7461: 7457: 7453: 7449: 7445: 7441: 7434: 7426: 7422: 7417: 7412: 7408: 7404: 7400: 7396: 7392: 7385: 7383: 7374: 7370: 7366: 7362: 7355: 7347: 7343: 7339: 7335: 7331: 7327: 7320: 7312: 7308: 7303: 7298: 7294: 7290: 7286: 7282: 7278: 7271: 7269: 7260: 7256: 7252: 7248: 7244: 7240: 7236: 7232: 7228: 7224: 7220: 7213: 7205: 7201: 7197: 7193: 7189: 7185: 7178: 7170: 7166: 7162: 7158: 7151: 7143: 7139: 7135: 7131: 7127: 7123: 7116: 7108: 7104: 7100: 7096: 7092: 7088: 7084: 7077: 7069: 7065: 7060: 7055: 7050: 7045: 7041: 7037: 7033: 7029: 7025: 7018: 7010: 7006: 7001: 6996: 6992: 6988: 6984: 6980: 6976: 6969: 6967: 6958: 6954: 6950: 6946: 6942: 6938: 6934: 6930: 6926: 6922: 6915: 6907: 6903: 6899: 6895: 6891: 6887: 6883: 6879: 6872: 6864: 6860: 6855: 6850: 6846: 6842: 6838: 6834: 6830: 6826: 6822: 6815: 6807: 6803: 6799: 6795: 6791: 6787: 6780: 6772: 6768: 6764: 6760: 6756: 6752: 6745: 6743: 6733: 6728: 6724: 6720: 6716: 6712: 6708: 6701: 6699: 6697: 6688: 6684: 6679: 6674: 6670: 6666: 6662: 6658: 6650: 6648: 6639: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6620: 6615: 6611: 6607: 6603: 6599: 6595: 6588: 6580: 6576: 6571: 6566: 6562: 6558: 6554: 6550: 6546: 6542: 6538: 6531: 6529: 6519: 6514: 6510: 6506: 6502: 6498: 6494: 6487: 6485: 6476: 6472: 6468: 6464: 6460: 6456: 6452: 6448: 6441: 6433: 6429: 6425: 6421: 6417: 6413: 6409: 6405: 6398: 6396: 6394: 6385: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6369: 6365: 6361: 6354: 6352: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6315: 6311: 6307: 6303: 6296: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6272: 6268: 6264: 6257: 6255: 6246: 6242: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6215: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6195: 6191: 6187: 6183: 6179: 6172: 6164: 6160: 6156: 6152: 6148: 6144: 6140: 6136: 6132: 6125: 6123: 6114: 6110: 6105: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6089:(1): 013001. 6088: 6084: 6080: 6073: 6071: 6069: 6067: 6065: 6063: 6055: 6049: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6029: 6022: 6014: 6010: 6006: 6002: 5998: 5994: 5987: 5979: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5959: 5956:(2): 95–100. 5955: 5951: 5944: 5936: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5908: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5892: 5885: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5867:0-07-028594-2 5863: 5859: 5852: 5844: 5840: 5836: 5832: 5825: 5817: 5813: 5808: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5792:: 2265–2276. 5791: 5787: 5783: 5776: 5768: 5762: 5759:. Wiley-VCH. 5758: 5751: 5743: 5739: 5735: 5731: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5712: 5704: 5700: 5696: 5692: 5685: 5677: 5673: 5668: 5663: 5659: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5636: 5628: 5624: 5619: 5614: 5610: 5606: 5602: 5598: 5590: 5584: 5579: 5571: 5567: 5563: 5559: 5555: 5551: 5546: 5541: 5537: 5533: 5526: 5518: 5514: 5509: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5484: 5477: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5449: 5445: 5438: 5430: 5426: 5422: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5402: 5394: 5390: 5386: 5382: 5374: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5354: 5347: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5312: 5304: 5300: 5296: 5292: 5288: 5281: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5253: 5245: 5241: 5237: 5233: 5226: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5208: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5188: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5164: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5136: 5128: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5108: 5100: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5073: 5065: 5061: 5054: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5027: 5019: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4988: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4945: 4937: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4888: 4886: 4877: 4873: 4869: 4865: 4861: 4857: 4850: 4841: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4817: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4774: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4719: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4684: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4649: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4614: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4578: 4571: 4569: 4560: 4553: 4551: 4549: 4547: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4511: 4509: 4500: 4496: 4491: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4459: 4450: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4418: 4409: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4377: 4369: 4363: 4359: 4358: 4350: 4342: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4321: 4306: 4302: 4296: 4288: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4263: 4255: 4251: 4246: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4214: 4206: 4202: 4197: 4192: 4187: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4155: 4146: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4114: 4112: 4096: 4090: 4086: 4085: 4077: 4069: 4063: 4059: 4058: 4050: 4034: 4030: 4024: 4016: 4012: 4007: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3983: 3975: 3969: 3965: 3958: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3915: 3913: 3904: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3855: 3853: 3851: 3849: 3833: 3829: 3823: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3780: 3771: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3747: 3738: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3722:(1): 013001. 3721: 3717: 3713: 3706: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3655: 3640: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3621: 3613: 3605: 3601: 3596: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3572: 3570: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3534: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3507: 3505: 3496: 3492: 3487: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3469: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3455:Nanomaterials 3452: 3445: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3382: 3374: 3370: 3365: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3341: 3339: 3337: 3335: 3327: 3323: 3317: 3313: 3302: 3299: 3297: 3294: 3292: 3289: 3287: 3284: 3282: 3279: 3277: 3274: 3272: 3269: 3267: 3264: 3262: 3259: 3257: 3254: 3252: 3249: 3247: 3244: 3242: 3239: 3237: 3234: 3232: 3229: 3227: 3224: 3222: 3219: 3217: 3216:Nanomaterials 3214: 3212: 3209: 3207: 3204: 3202: 3199: 3197: 3194: 3192: 3189: 3186: 3183: 3181: 3178: 3176: 3173: 3171: 3168: 3166: 3163: 3161: 3158: 3156: 3153: 3151: 3148: 3146: 3143: 3141: 3138: 3136: 3133: 3131: 3128: 3126: 3123: 3121: 3118: 3116: 3113: 3111: 3108: 3107: 3102: 3096: 3091: 3088: 3082: 3077: 3074: 3068: 3063: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3021: 3018: 3015: 3014: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2992: 2989: 2986: 2985: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2923: 2920: 2917: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2905: 2902: 2899: 2898: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2870:boron nitride 2867: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2844: 2841: 2838: 2837: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2791: 2788: 2785: 2784: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2762: 2759: 2756: 2755: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2701: 2698: 2695: 2694: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2664: 2661: 2658: 2657: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2639: 2636: 2633: 2632: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2590: 2587: 2584: 2583: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2537: 2535:construction 2534: 2531: 2530: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2478:boron nitride 2475: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2444: 2441: 2438: 2437: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2395: 2392: 2389: 2388: 2384: 2381: 2378: 2377: 2366: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2346: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2335:drug carriers 2326: 2318: 2316: 2305: 2297: 2294: 2284: 2282: 2278: 2273: 2264: 2261:(PMMA) laser 2260: 2256: 2251: 2242: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2216:environments. 2214: 2210: 2207: 2204: 2201: 2193: 2190: 2187: 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From the 3316: 3221:Nanomedicine 3145:Eigencolloid 2662:environment 2637:electronics 2470:cobalt oxide 2393:agriculture 2352: 2332: 2324: 2311: 2303: 2290: 2252: 2248: 2245:Applications 2239: 2219:Iron: While 2192:Cerium oxide 2175: 2171:cytotoxicity 2155: 2148:Particulates 2060:Spectroscopy 2058: 2019: 1995: 1980:Monodisperse 1976: 1967: 1959: 1933: 1854: 1846: 1843: 1835:streptavidin 1819: 1807: 1796: 1787: 1781: 1770: 1761: 1730: 1726:spin-coating 1707: 1691: 1665: 1642:structures. 1634:condensation 1629: 1620: 1608:electric arc 1585: 1564:hydrocarbons 1549: 1505: 1485: 1453: 1438: 1422: 1413: 1409: 1390: 1382:Quantum dots 1356: 1348: 1339:dislocations 1331: 1318: 1311: 1309: 1292: 1249: 1209:dislocations 1203:The reduced 1202: 1185: 1164: 1151: 1120: 1111: 1073: 1056: 1047: 1038: 1034: 1025: 1013: 1001: 985: 978: 951: 920: 916:nanostarches 885: 870: 858: 839: 835:nanowhiskers 816: 812:desert roses 766: 763:20th century 754: 751:19th century 721:Lycurgus cup 699: 670:cosmological 667: 645: 630: 613:transparency 610: 607: 604:Common usage 591: 583: 572: 538: 530:dislocations 523: 468: 448: 446:techniques. 417: 406: 399: 378: 375:nanoparticle 374: 372: 363: 348: 188:Cobalt oxide 168:Quantum dots 153: 101:Applications 29: 11393:from market 11247:Gadoteridol 11217:Gadodiamide 11154:Iofendylate 11140:, lipiodol) 11138:fatty acids 11136:of iodised 10992:Metrizamide 10984:low osmolar 10041:"Sunscreen" 9894:: 123–141. 9815:(5): 1150. 9653:: 239–245. 9618:: 413–420. 8917:Soft Matter 7401:: 466–475. 6831:(1): 7696. 6503:(10): e34. 6453:: 827–835. 6447:Nano Energy 5999:: 433–441. 5493:: 164–173. 5381:Chem. Mater 5353:Chem. Mater 5291:Chem. Mater 5180:: 186-235. 5135:Chem. Mater 4393:: 145 181. 4310:12 December 3326:EPA Website 3281:Silver Nano 3261:Quantum dot 2442:automotive 2321:Road paving 2209:Nano Silver 1803:gallic acid 1710:evaporation 1698:precipitate 1524:anisotropic 1445:dielectrics 1380:materials. 1368:particles, 1274:to measure 1146:quantum dot 1122:Suspensions 945:and act as 937:. They can 929:are termed 927:hydrophobic 923:hydrophilic 888:biopolymers 831:nanoflowers 733:Mesopotamia 731:pottery of 706:glassmakers 633:Nanopowders 564:Definitions 11335:Ultrasound 11321:Perflubron 11301:Iron oxide 11296:Ferristene 11291:Ferumoxsil 11227:Gadolinium 11212:Gadobutrol 11121:Iodinated, 11078:Adipiodone 11042:Iobitridol 10907:Iodinated, 10667:Non-carbon 10658:Nanotubes 10654:Fullerenes 10636:Regulation 10064:Pinnell SR 10047:6 December 9864:6 December 9438:Complexity 9296:6 February 8841:6 December 8631:: 109700. 7638:6 December 7367:: 152502. 6927:: 601–22. 6792:: 213042. 6604:(1): 225. 5174:Mater. Adv 5066:: 236-242. 4696:(2): 287. 4100:6 December 4039:18 January 3308:References 2850:zinc oxide 2842:petroleum 2768:zinc oxide 2719:zinc oxide 2624:kojic acid 2608:zinc oxide 2588:cosmetics 2474:zinc oxide 2433:molybdenum 2429:zinc oxide 2421:phosphorus 2359:Zinc oxide 2349:Sunscreens 2329:Biomedical 2263:gain media 2236:Regulation 2199:additives. 2142:See also: 2132:filtration 2068:wavelength 2022:Microscopy 1940:attractive 1863:, such as 1749:hydrolysis 1722:filtration 1672:gamma rays 1556:combustion 1536:hydrolysed 1482:Mechanical 1435:Production 1106:See also: 1096:micrometer 1044:Properties 998:Nucleation 980:Nucleation 960:acrylamide 943:interfaces 912:nanochitin 908:nanolignin 867:Variations 823:nanochains 729:lusterware 646:The terms 551:(Ag), and 541:anisotropy 387:nanometres 208:Iron oxide 115:Fullerenes 11403:Phase III 11391:Withdrawn 11356:galactose 11032:Iodixanol 11012:Iopromide 11007:Iopamidol 10967:Methiodal 10139:205976044 10103:Nanoscale 9958:125299766 9809:Molecules 9693:Opt. Lett 9675:125645480 9597:125102995 9485:: 15044. 9419:248688540 9411:2516-1091 9265:204266885 8905:europa.eu 8890:210119752 8862:Nanoscale 8804:23 August 8653:225410221 8510:137174566 8357:137539240 8294:Phil. Mag 8166:0001-4842 7688:: 26–36. 7600:: 33–72. 7440:Nanoscale 7259:250860605 7251:1009-0630 6806:203938224 6687:103192810 6663:: 65–81. 6342:137390443 6334:1478-6435 6287:1521-4117 6245:0002-7863 6206:0169-4332 6155:0743-7463 6113:0022-3727 5895:Materials 5545:0801.3280 5517:181326215 5448:Chem. Rev 5155:202880673 4998:Chem. Rev 4951:Nanoscale 4808:136913833 4605:250854158 4171:: 10765. 3885:2000-5121 3837:22 August 3477:2079-4991 3420:0957-4484 3206:Nanofluid 3155:Fullerene 2929:palladium 2903:printing 2789:medicine 2747:palladium 2743:manganese 2653:palladium 2498:palladium 2405:potassium 2363:sunscreen 2158:catalytic 2050:artifacts 1971:lognormal 1962:sintering 1757:chlorides 1753:alkoxides 1751:of metal 1745:hydroxide 1694:solutions 1631:Inert-gas 1572:pyrolysis 1560:pyrolysis 1546:Pyrolysis 1532:enzymatic 1528:oxidation 1508:cellulose 1492:ball mill 1488:ball mill 1472:pyrolysis 1460:attrition 1266:methods. 1176:catalysis 1172:sintering 1092:viscosity 1084:stiffness 957:isopropyl 947:pickering 935:emulsions 904:wood pulp 769:Granqvist 617:turbidity 557:resonance 491:molecular 471:chemistry 397:instead. 385:1 to 100 178:Cellulose 134:Chemistry 86:Chemistry 81:Synthesis 11424:Category 11037:Iomeprol 11027:Iopentol 11022:Ioversol 11017:Iotrolan 10937:Iodamide 10807:Category 10576:Overview 10519:Archived 10431:15119954 10405:(1): 3. 10380:25924642 10339:26191382 10282:26354379 10241:25966284 10201:PLOS ONE 10182:23744621 10174:25935990 10131:25916659 10015:32641741 9841:29751626 9756:28818304 9721:14587824 9517:26463476 9479:Sci. Rep 9257:35021406 9222:36132776 9163:25756964 9099:18360561 9058:19554862 9031:20652105 8972:20709196 8882:31916561 8822:(2001). 8696:24001137 8688:25306903 8569:23910918 8561:18569000 8475:25291395 8467:18483764 8174:23607711 8127:18425138 8078:15339154 8043:24702517 8035:15099078 8000:17517965 7951:15611617 7910:12235356 7851:34773391 7802:20025223 7753:26062996 7527:30013881 7478:25180699 7425:24778973 7311:53659172 7204:24316693 7142:17630692 7107:89082048 7068:35528557 7009:38445363 6957:14113689 6949:11031294 6863:28794487 6771:22204603 6638:21711750 6579:23458793 6475:98282021 6432:24085009 6163:15301482 6135:Langmuir 5978:19151703 5935:28809302 5876:41932585 5816:30202695 5742:25003956 5722:Chem Rev 5676:21132117 5627:27960352 5570:35457219 5562:20419892 5468:25003956 5429:24444431 5338:15926847 5018:25003956 4979:91189669 4971:30938749 4936:18076201 4876:20405913 4800:12481122 4765:16639413 4757:12481134 4675:26394039 4655:ACS Nano 4640:18330181 4254:22678029 4205:26030133 4015:97620232 3949:27241479 3903:22110867 3871:: 5883. 3814:40776948 3689:23535594 3604:26450215 3495:37947733 3486:10648425 3436:45625439 3428:26135968 3373:98107080 3175:Liposome 3059:See also 3019:textile 2945:graphite 2925:titanium 2882:tungsten 2739:platinum 2690:selenium 2645:aluminum 2510:carnauba 2502:platinum 2486:tungsten 2080:infrared 1951:porosity 1917:graphite 1893:nitrides 1873:polymers 1857:ceramics 1839:peptides 1831:aptamers 1815:thiomers 1805:groups. 1799:graphene 1703:aerogels 1596:nitrides 1592:carbides 1378:magnetic 1307:sensor. 1295:friction 1284:adhesion 1276:hardness 1154:coatings 1136:Coatings 964:proteins 953:Hydrogel 881:vaccines 873:liposome 861:isotropy 854:micelles 850:emulsion 819:nanorods 725:dichroic 702:artisans 575:polymers 553:platinum 515:magnetic 511:ceramics 503:plastics 463:platinum 391:diameter 389:(nm) in 256:Nanofoam 223:Platinum 106:Timeline 11144:Iopydol 11047:Ioxilan 10997:Iohexol 10972:Diodone 10819:Commons 10599:Outline 10584:History 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