1374:, or by inhalation, and carried out over the major part of the life span for rodents. In tests that check for carcinogens, maximum tolerated dosage is first determined, then a range of doses are given to around 50 animals throughout the notional lifespan of the animal of two years. After death the animals are examined for sign of tumours. Differences in metabolism between rat and human however means that human may not respond in exactly the same way to mutagen, and dosages that produce tumours on the animal test may also be unreasonably high for a human, i.e. the equivalent amount required to produce tumours in human may far exceed what a person might encounter in real life.
424:. They can affect the transcription and replication of the DNA, which in severe cases can lead to cell death. The mutagen produces mutations in the DNA, and deleterious mutation can result in aberrant, impaired or loss of function for a particular gene, and accumulation of mutations may lead to cancer. Mutagens may therefore be also carcinogens. However, some mutagens exert their mutagenic effect through their metabolites, and therefore whether such mutagens actually become carcinogenic may be dependent on the metabolic processes of an organism, and a compound shown to be mutagenic in one organism may not necessarily be carcinogenic in another.
36:
598:
93:
4737:
4580:
1279:– Males from a strain with yellow bodies are used in this test. The gene for the yellow body lies on the X-chromosome. The fruit flies are fed on a diet of test chemical, and progenies are separated by sex. The surviving males are crossed with the females of the same generation, and if no males with yellow bodies are detected in the second generation, it would indicate a lethal mutation on the X-chromosome has occurred.
983:
4757:
4604:
4747:
4592:
1067:, have also been shown to be effective antioxidants and may have anti-cancer properties. Epidemiological studies indicate that a diet rich in fruits and vegetables is associated with lower incidence of some cancers and longer life expectancy, however, the effectiveness of antioxidant supplements in cancer prevention in general is still the subject of some debate.
1355:, cells are examined for micronuclei, which are fragments or chromosomes left behind at anaphase, and is therefore a test for clastogenic agents that cause chromosome breakages. Other tests may check for various chromosomal aberrations such as chromatid and chromosomal gaps and deletions, translocations, and ploidy.
506:
processes and therefore may not necessarily be harmful. More recent approaches with sensitive analytical methods have shown that there may be non-linear or bilinear dose-responses for genotoxic effects, and that the activation of DNA repair pathways can prevent the occurrence of mutation arising from
400:
base in DNA (generating an abnormal nucleotide or nucleotide fragment), or a break in one or both strands in DNA. When duplex DNA containing a damaged base is replicated, an incorrect base may be inserted in the newly synthesized strand opposite the damaged base in the complementary template strand,
1377:
Mice with recessive mutations for a visible phenotype may also be used to check for mutagens. Females with recessive mutation crossed with wild-type males would yield the same phenotype as the wild-type, and any observable change to the phenotype would indicate that a mutation induced by the mutagen
914:
and their compounds may be mutagenic, but they may act, however, via a number of different mechanisms. Arsenic, chromium, iron, and nickel may be associated with the production of ROS, and some of these may also alter the fidelity of DNA replication. Nickel may also be linked to DNA hypermethylation
405:
in the next round of replication. Also a DNA double-strand break may be repaired by an inaccurate process leading to an altered base pair, a mutation. However, mutations and DNA damages differ in a fundamental way: mutations can, in principle, be replicated when DNA replicates, whereas DNA damages
515:
Mutagens may be of physical, chemical or biological origin. They may act directly on the DNA, causing direct damage to the DNA, and most often result in replication error. Some however may act on the replication mechanism and chromosomal partition. Many mutagens are not mutagenic by themselves, but
342:
that screens for mutagens and allows for preliminary identification of carcinogens. Early studies by Ames showed around 90% of known carcinogens can be identified in Ames test as mutagenic (later studies however gave lower figures), and ~80% of the mutagens identified through Ames test may also be
355:
for example may be mutagenic (and highly toxic), but it has not been shown to be carcinogenic. Meanwhile, compounds which are not directly mutagenic but stimulate cell growth which can reduce the effectiveness of DNA repair and indirectly increase the chance of mutations, and therefore that of
493:
In Ames test, where the varying concentrations of the chemical are used in the test, the dose response curve obtained is nearly always linear, suggesting that there may be no threshold for mutagenesis. Similar results are also obtained in studies with radiations, indicating that there may be
1171:
Many different systems for detecting mutagen have been developed. Animal systems may more accurately reflect the metabolism of human, however, they are expensive and time-consuming (may take around three years to complete), they are therefore not used as a first screen for mutagenicity or
1721:
Cautions against the immoderate use of snuff: founded on the known qualities of the tobacco plant: and the effects it must produce when this way taken into the body: and enforced by instances of persons who have perished miserably of diseases, occasioned, or rendered incurable by its
1117:
indicated that smoking caused 30% of cancers in the US. Diet is also thought to cause a significant number of cancer, and it has been estimated that around 32% of cancer deaths may be avoidable by modification to the diet. Mutagens identified in food include
406:
are not necessarily replicated. Thus DNA damaging agents often cause mutations as a secondary consequence, but not all DNA damages lead to mutation and not all mutations arise from a DNA damage. The term genotoxic means toxic (damaging) to DNA.
465:
of one or more nucleotides in DNA sequences. Although some of these mutations are lethal or cause serious disease, many have minor effects as they do not result in residue changes that have significant effect on the structure and function of the
1101:
An effective precautionary measure an individual can undertake to protect themselves is by limiting exposure to mutagens such as UV radiations and tobacco smoke. In
Australia, where people with pale skin are often exposed to strong sunlight,
1439:. However, due to their effect on other cells which are also rapidly dividing, they may have side effects such as hair loss and nausea. Research on better targeted therapies may reduce such side-effects. Ionizing radiations are used in
240:
as the cause of scrotal cancer. In 1915, Yamagawa and
Ichikawa showed that repeated application of coal tar to rabbit's ears produced malignant cancer. Subsequently, in the 1930s the carcinogen component in coal tar was identified as a
1338:
Rat primary hepatocytes may also be used to measure DNA repair following DNA damage. Mutagens may stimulate unscheduled DNA synthesis that results in more stained nuclear material in cells following exposure to mutagens.
1385:
where early embryonic deaths are monitored. Male mice are treated with chemicals under test, mated with females, and the females are then sacrificed before parturition and early fetal deaths are counted in the
717:
are an important group of mutagens found in tobacco, and may also be formed in smoked meats and fish via the interaction of amines in food with nitrites added as preservatives. Other alkylating agents include
1162:
For certain mutagens, such as dangerous chemicals and radioactive materials, as well as infectious agents known to cause cancer, government legislations and regulatory bodies are necessary for their control.
1130:
generated in meat when cooked at high temperature; PAHs in charred meat and smoked fish, as well as in oils, fats, bread, and cereal; and nitrosamines generated from nitrites used as food preservatives in
1074:, which is present as a micronutrient in vegetables, is a component of important antioxidant enzymes such as gluthathione peroxidase. Many phytonutrients may counter the effect of mutagens; for example,
2609:
Dunkel VC, Zeiger E, Brusick D, et al. (1985). "Reproducibility of microbial mutagenicity assays: II. Testing of carcinogens and noncarcinogens in
Salmonella typhimurium and Escherichia coli".
1455:, mutagens are often represented as substances that are capable of completely changing the form of the recipient or granting them superpowers. Powerful radiations are the agents of mutation for the
2756:
Salerno, Monica; Cascio, Orazio; Bertozzi, Giuseppe; Sessa, Francesco; Messina, Antonietta; Monda, Vincenzo; Cipolloni, Luigi; Biondi, Antonio; Daniele, Aurora; Pomara, Cristoforo (2018-04-10).
953:– Virus DNA may be inserted into the genome and disrupts genetic function. Infectious agents have been suggested to cause cancer as early as 1908 by Vilhelm Ellermann and Oluf Bang, and 1911 by
312:(UV) radiation on maize in 1936. The effect of sunlight had previously been noted in the nineteenth century where rural outdoor workers and sailors were found to be more prone to skin cancer.
713:. The compounds transfer methyl or ethyl group to bases or the backbone phosphate groups. Guanine when alkylated may be mispaired with thymine. Some may cause DNA crosslinking and breakages.
97:
4090:
3580:
3679:
427:
Different mutagens act on DNA differently. Powerful mutagens may result in chromosomal instability, causing chromosomal breakages and rearrangement of the chromosomes such as
1347:
These systems check for large scale changes to the chromosomes and may be used with cell culture or in animal test. The chromosomes are stained and observed for any changes.
1403:
is another method for testing mutagens. Animals are first treated with suspected mutagen, the mouse DNA is then isolated and the phage segment recovered and used to infect
1966:
1070:
Other chemicals may reduce mutagenesis or prevent cancer via other mechanisms, although for some the precise mechanism for their protective property may not be certain.
3936:
3486:
Raquet, N; Schrenk, D (September 2009). "Relative photomutagenicity of furocoumarins and limettin in the hypoxanthine phosphoribosyl transferase assay in V79 cells".
2813:
Lya G. Hernández; Harry van Steeg; Mirjam
Luijten; Jan van Benthem (2009). "Mechanisms of non-genotoxic carcinogens and importance of a weight of evidence approach".
655:. As an example of the latter, 15-hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid, a natural product of cellular cyclooxygenases and lipoxygenases, breaks down to form 4-hydroxy-2(
628:
They directly damage DNA, but may or may not undergo metabolism to produce promutagens (metabolites that can have higher mutagenic potential than their substrates).
3710:
Dolara P, Bigagli E, Collins A (October 2012). "Antioxidant vitamins and mineral supplementation, life span expansion and cancer incidence: a critical commentary".
1200:
biosynthesis are used in this test. The test checks for mutants that can revert to wild-type. It is an easy, inexpensive and convenient initial screen for mutagens.
3897:
1871:
3429:
Nishikawa, Takuro; Miyahara, Emiko; Horiuchi, Masahisa; Izumo, Kimiko; Okamoto, Yasuhiro; Kawai, Yoshichika; Kawano, Yoshifumi; Takeuchi, Toru (January 2012).
1573:. In the "nuclear monster" films of the 1950s, nuclear radiation mutates humans and common insects often to enormous size and aggression; these films include
1351:
is a symmetrical exchange of chromosome material between sister chromatids and may be correlated to the mutagenic or carcinogenic potential of a chemical. In
973:
cause inflammation during which oxidative species are produced, causing DNA damage and reducing efficiency of DNA repair systems, thereby increasing mutation.
947:, a section of DNA that undergoes autonomous fragment relocation/multiplication. Its insertion into chromosomal DNA disrupts functional elements of the genes.
679:). A number of mutagens may also generate these ROS. These ROS may result in the production of many base adducts, as well as DNA strand breaks and crosslinks.
2867:
Allen JW, DeWeese GK, Gibson JB, et al. (January 1987). "Synaptonemal complex damage as a measure of chemical mutagen effects on mammalian germ cells".
2642:"Alternative strategies for carcinogenicity assessment: an efficient and simplified approach based on in vitro mutagenicity and cell transformation assays"
675:)-decanal; these bifunctional electophils are mutagenic in mammalian cells and may contribute to the development and/or progression of human cancers (see
2023:
1909:
Bereits kurz nach der
Entdeckung der Möglichkeit einer Auslösung von Mutationen durch ionisierende Strahlen (Nadson u. Filippov 1925, 1928; Muller 1927)
1143:, which is added to cured meat, however, reduces nitrosamine formation). Overly-browned starchy food such as bread, biscuits and potatoes can generate
315:
4718:
3431:"Benzene metabolite 1,2,4-benzenetriol induces halogenated DNA and tyrosines representing halogenative stress in the HL-60 human myeloid cell line"
606:
3251:"Production of brominating intermediates by myeloperoxidase. A transhalogenation pathway for generating mutagenic nucleobases during inflammation"
2718:
740:, originally used as a pesticide but may also be found in cooked meat, may cause cancer of the bladder, liver, ear, intestine, thyroid and breast.
1232:-deficient mutant is used for the reverse mutation, while galactose utility or resistance to 5-methyltryptophan may be used for forward mutation.
1319:
3563:
647:, and large number of these highly reactive species are generated by normal cellular processes, for example as a by-products of mitochondrial
4080:
3290:
Mamyrbaev, Arstan
Abdramanovich; Dzharkenov, Timur Agataevich; Imangazina, Zina Amangalievna; Satybaldieva, Umit Abulkhairovna (2015-04-16).
529:
4104:
Tareke E, Rydberg P, Karlsson P, Eriksson S, Törnqvist M (August 2002). "Analysis of acrylamide, a carcinogen formed in heated foodstuffs".
3591:
3013:
797:
They are not necessarily mutagenic by themselves, but they produce promutagens mutagenic compounds through metabolic processes in cells.
3755:"Vitamin/mineral supplementation and cancer, cardiovascular, and all-cause mortality in a German prospective cohort (EPIC-Heidelberg)"
3133:
3958:
Doll R, Peto R (June 1981). "The causes of cancer: quantitative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today".
474:, causing no visible effects at all, either because they occur in non-coding or non-functional sequences, or they do not change the
249:. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons are also present in soot, which was suggested to be a causative agent of cancer over 150 years earlier.
2696:
1370:. The chemicals under test are usually administered in the food and in the drinking water, but sometimes by dermal application, by
1419:
Many mutagens are highly toxic to proliferating cells, and they are often used to destroy cancer cells. Alkylating agents such as
252:
The association of exposure to radiation and cancer had been observed as early as 1902, six years after the discovery of X-ray by
4642:
4555:
1927:
1248:
strains deficient in DNA repair may be used to detect mutagens by their effect on the growth of these cells through DNA damage.
4043:
4240:
4215:
4190:
3691:
3205:
2855:
2740:
2167:
2049:
1902:
4273:
2983:
2325:
1704:
1151:
has also been linked to cancer; the possible mechanisms for its carcinogenicity include formation of the possible mutagen
3928:
2558:
334:
in fruit flies. A large number of chemical mutagens have since been identified, especially after the development of the
3905:
1863:
364:
among others. Other carcinogens may cause cancer through a variety of mechanisms without producing mutations, such as
4791:
4494:
3051:"Contributions of DNA repair and damage response pathways to the non-linear genotoxic responses of alkylating agents"
79:
57:
50:
4761:
4608:
1617:
1468:
389:
1209:– Similar to Ames test, but instead of reverse mutation, it checks for forward mutation that confer resistance to
2970:
Duesberg P, Rasnick D (October 2000). "Aneuploidy, the somatic mutation that makes cancer a species of its own".
1814:
1529:
700:
479:
242:
3805:"Sulforaphane destabilizes the androgen receptor in prostate cancer cells by inactivating histone deacetylase 6"
4565:
4469:
3035:
676:
3862:
Gullett NP, Ruhul Amin AR, Bayraktar S, et al. (June 2010). "Cancer prevention with natural compounds".
3353:
Journal of
Environmental Science and Health. Part C, Environmental Carcinogenesis & Ecotoxicology Reviews
2692:
1984:
1263:
is generally used. These systems can check for forward and reverse mutations, as well as recombinant events.
870:
852:, which can substitute for DNA bases during replication and cause transition mutations. Some examples are
4751:
4596:
4140:
1587:
736:
observed high incidence of bladder cancer among workers in German synthetic aromatic amine dye industry.
2850:
Bernstein, C.; Bernstein, H. (1991). Aging, Sex, and DNA Repair. pgs. 15-16. San Diego: Academic Press.
1696:"Nature and Nurture - Lessons from Chemical Carcinogenesis: Chemical Carcinogens — From Past to Present"
292:
also demonstrated the mutational effect of UV radiation in 1928. Muller went on to use x-rays to create
4635:
3522:
1785:
Yamagawa K, Ichikawa K (1915). "Experimentelle Studie über die
Pathogenese der Epithelialgeschwülste".
1394:
1314:
932:
157:. Not all mutations are caused by mutagens: so-called "spontaneous mutations" occur due to spontaneous
1812:
Cook JW, Hewett CL, Hieger I (1933). "The isolation of a cancer-producing hydrocarbon from coal tar".
4514:
1622:
1367:
495:
428:
372:
that reduces the ability to fight cancer cells or pathogens that can cause cancer, disruption of the
3542:
3235:
2387:"An improved bacterial test system for the detection and classification of mutagens and carcinogens"
2305:
4504:
4489:
4316:
4266:
1599:
1499:
1259:
1060:
801:
648:
516:
can form mutagenic metabolites through cellular processes, for example through the activity of the
44:
17:
3754:
1317:(CHO) cells or mouse lymphoma cells may be used to test for mutagenesis. Such systems include the
284:
mutants as well as observable changes to the chromosomes, visible due to the presence of enlarged
4352:
4306:
3098:
Kim D, Guengerich FP (2005). "Cytochrome P450 activation of arylamines and heterocyclic amines".
2067:
1511:
1008:
632:
277:
620:
Chemical mutagens either directly or indirectly damage DNA. On this basis, they are of 2 types:
392:
is an agent that causes a change in the structure of DNA that is not itself replicated when the
4796:
4509:
4453:
3537:
3349:"Environmental carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: photochemistry and phototoxicity"
2758:"Anabolic androgenic steroids and carcinogenicity focusing on Leydig cell: a literature review"
2559:"Statistical analysis of Salmonella test data and comparison to results of animal cancer tests"
2500:"Detection of carcinogens as mutagens in the Salmonella/microsome test: assay of 300 chemicals"
1842:"Historical Development of the Linear Nonthreshold Dose-Response Model as Applied to Radiation"
1505:
1192:
1091:
61:
3111:
3005:
4628:
4474:
4044:"Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons – Occurrence in foods, dietary exposure and health effects"
1569:
1523:
766:
salt that is a common reagent in organic synthesis and a component in many car airbag systems
737:
436:
269:
170:
147:
108:
100:
2812:
224:
made the first direct link of cancer to chemical substances by noting that excessive use of
212:(from which the word "cancer" is derived via Latin), meaning crab. In 1567, Swiss physician
4372:
3816:
2511:
2456:
2398:
2351:
2242:
2192:
1999:
1575:
1557:
1533:
1489:
1295:
928:
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combined with ultraviolet radiation causes DNA cross-linking and hence chromosome breakage.
458:
1411:, the plaque formed with DNA containing mutation are white, while those without are blue.
8:
4741:
4584:
4331:
4321:
4259:
4050:
2904:"Radiation-induced genomic instability and its implications for radiation carcinogenesis"
2065:
Altenburg E (1928). "The Limit of
Radiation Frequency Effective in Producing Mutations".
969:
924:
889:
may block transcription and replication, making them highly toxic to proliferating cells.
882:
462:
432:
285:
3820:
2681:
2515:
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2402:
2355:
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2196:
2003:
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3994:
3839:
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3785:
3735:
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2339:
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2135:
2110:
2091:
2083:
1958:
1762:
1737:
1667:
1642:
1148:
1127:
958:
750:
species, may be converted by metabolic processes into the active mutagen or carcinogen.
652:
570:
radiations with wavelength above 260 nm are absorbed strongly by bases, producing
541:
319:
304:
in fruit flies, but also have effects on the genetic makeup of humans. Similar work by
265:
221:
3197:
3188:
Lipp HP, Hartmann JT, Stanley A (2005). "45 - Cytostatic drugs". In
Aronson JK (ed.).
2534:
2499:
2421:
2386:
1928:"Muller's Nobel lecture on dose-response for ionizing radiation: ideology or science?"
502:
for mutagenesis. Some have proposed that low level of some mutagens may stimulate the
253:
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3411:
3386:
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3311:
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3029:
2987:
2925:
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2830:
2795:
2777:
2736:
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2622:
2581:
2577:
2539:
2480:
2426:
2367:
2321:
2309:
2270:
2208:
2163:
2140:
2045:
2015:
1950:
1898:
1767:
1672:
1440:
1408:
1244:
1087:
785:
732:
and amides have been associated with carcinogenesis since 1895 when German physician
644:
640:
577:
571:
369:
3739:
2095:
490:
and change the number of chromosomes in the cell. They are known as aneuploidogens.
4484:
4418:
4367:
4311:
4155:
4113:
4081:"Roast potatoes and toast that's a bit too brown may cause cancer, say authorities"
4054:
4014:
4006:
3967:
3871:
3834:
3824:
3789:
3769:
3719:
3648:
3640:
3547:
3495:
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3442:
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2979:
2915:
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2769:
2728:
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2614:
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2529:
2519:
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2416:
2406:
2359:
2301:
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2250:
2200:
2130:
2122:
2075:
2007:
1962:
1942:
1890:
1822:
1794:
1757:
1749:
1662:
1654:
1420:
1224:
1222:– Both forward and reverse mutation detection system have been modified for use in
1004:
874:
779:
710:
373:
365:
357:
2126:
498:
for mutagens. However, the no-threshold model is disputed with some arguing for a
220:
gas in modern times) caused a wasting disease in miners, and in England, in 1761,
4499:
4479:
4362:
3407:
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons: Chemistry, characterization and carcinogenesis
2363:
1894:
1787:
Mitteilungen aus der Medizinischen Fakultät der Kaiserlichen Universität zu Tokyo
1452:
1156:
1083:
729:
614:
517:
499:
471:
393:
361:
289:
268:
in 1925. The mutagenic property of mutagens was first demonstrated in 1927, when
257:
225:
166:
3629:"A Sarcoma of the Fowl Transmissible by an Agent Separable from the Tumor Cells"
3066:
2944:
2826:
2447:(May 1979). "Identifying environmental chemicals causing mutations and cancer".
2204:
4438:
4392:
4387:
4357:
4336:
3809:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2504:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2391:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2289:
2235:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2011:
1841:
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807:
723:
719:
610:
553:
525:
261:
246:
229:
3773:
3723:
3307:
2773:
2714:
2290:"A history of ultraviolet photobiology for humans, animals and microorganisms"
2183:
Stadler LJ (August 1928). "Mutations in Barley Induced by X-Rays and Radium".
1946:
1658:
1643:"Ancient Greek and Greco-Roman methods in modern surgical treatment of cancer"
1051:. Vitamin C may prevent some cancers by inhibiting the formation of mutagenic
597:
4775:
4550:
4448:
4301:
3971:
3551:
3454:
3372:
3315:
3215:
2781:
2589:
2231:"Genetic Effects of Ultra-Violet Radiation in Maize: I. Unfiltered Radiation"
2226:
1517:
1484:
1476:
1460:
1387:
1325:
1040:
857:
853:
823:
305:
233:
4159:
3829:
2658:
2641:
2524:
1885:
Böhme H (1961). "Angewandte Mikrobiologie". In Bünning E, Gäumann E (eds.).
778:, an industrial solvent and precursor in the production of drugs, plastics,
4713:
4651:
4443:
4167:
4125:
4085:
4010:
3883:
3848:
3781:
3731:
3662:
3559:
3507:
3472:
3390:
3333:
3276:
3267:
3250:
3174:
3165:
3148:
3119:
3084:
2991:
2929:
2920:
2903:
2834:
2799:
2667:
2468:
2371:
2342:, Robson JM, Carr JG (March 1947). "The Chemical Production of Mutations".
2313:
2274:
2255:
2212:
2019:
1954:
1771:
1676:
1494:
1436:
1428:
1371:
1301:
1210:
1152:
1114:
1110:
1075:
995:
923:, arsenic, nickel and cadmium may also affect DNA repair processes such as
886:
833:
759:
686:
447:
421:
377:
352:
323:
123:
92:
4028:
3979:
3364:
2888:
2626:
2618:
2585:
2543:
2430:
2411:
2144:
556:
cause DNA breakage and other damages. The most common lab sources include
4703:
4545:
4377:
3644:
3289:
2724:
2484:
1826:
1456:
1432:
1274:
1095:
1000:
991:
954:
849:
733:
714:
682:
567:
415:
396:. Examples of DNA damage include a chemical addition or disruption of a
327:
309:
205:
154:
3446:
2732:
1753:
1738:"Percivall Pott (1714-1788) and chimney sweepers' cancer of the scrotum"
703:(PAH), when activated to diol-epoxides can bind to DNA and form adducts.
360:, which stimulate growth of the prostate gland and increase the risk of
4680:
4540:
4282:
2476:
2444:
2087:
1719:
1593:
1229:
1159:
system which is known to produce mutagenic compounds from promutagens.
1144:
1132:
1123:
1036:
1024:
944:
878:
706:
636:
602:
561:
503:
487:
475:
451:
397:
339:
293:
213:
194:
182:
158:
143:
104:
4117:
3499:
3415:
3405:
2682:"Toxicology And Carcinogenesis Studies Of Sodium Azide in F344/N Rats"
1889:(in German). Vol. 23. Berlin: Springer Verlag. pp. 502–509.
383:
27:
Physical or chemical agent that increases the rate of genetic mutation
4698:
4670:
4428:
3608:
Ellermann V.; Bang O. (1908). "Experimentelle Leukämie bei Hühnern".
3024:. Calabrese says mistake led to adopting the LNT model in toxicology.
1798:
1563:
1545:
1424:
1305:
have been used in various test assays for mutagenecity of chemicals.
1197:
1181:
1140:
1119:
1064:
1056:
1052:
1032:
1028:
1020:
1016:
950:
581:
557:
549:
521:
454:
440:
335:
281:
216:
suggested that an unidentified substance in mined ore (identified as
202:
162:
146:, although not all necessarily are. All mutagens have characteristic
4233:
Principles of Toxicology – Environmental and Industrial Applications
3006:"Calabrese says mistake led to adopting the LNT model in toxicology"
756:
and some compounds that contain bromine in their chemical structure.
4423:
2079:
1551:
1480:
1289:
1103:
1079:
1071:
964:
907:
837:
819:
769:
743:
690:
585:
402:
331:
308:
also showed the mutational effect of X-rays on barley in 1928, and
297:
264:
and German Filippov were the first who created fungi mutants under
150:
with some chemicals becoming mutagenic through cellular processes.
135:
131:
115:
3674:
3672:
3292:"Mutagenic and carcinogenic actions of chromium and its compounds"
1011:
or potentially harmful chemicals. These may be found naturally in
4675:
3861:
1640:
1363:
1330:
982:
916:
903:
899:
812:
775:
753:
467:
2984:
10.1002/1097-0169(200010)47:2<81::AID-CM1>3.0.CO;2-#
1147:, a chemical shown to cause cancer in animal studies. Excessive
1106:
is the most common cancer diagnosed in people aged 15–44 years.
788:, a highly toxic and oxidizing substance used in electroplating.
138:
above the natural background level. As many mutations can cause
4620:
4382:
3678:
3669:
3610:
Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Parasitenkd. Infectionskr. Hyg. Abt. Orig
3048:
2943:
Durland, Justin; Ahmadian-Moghadam, Hamid (19 September 2022).
1048:
1044:
920:
911:
694:
545:
186:
139:
3803:
Gibbs A, Schwartzman J, Deng V, et al. (September 2009).
3428:
2039:
881:, are molecules that may insert between bases in DNA, causing
346:
318:
were not demonstrated to cause mutation until the 1940s, when
4708:
4690:
4402:
4397:
4251:
4103:
3249:
Henderson JP, Byun J, Williams MV, et al. (March 2001).
1581:
1136:
1043:
is the red-orange colored compounds found in vegetables like
1012:
763:
747:
483:
273:
217:
193:
were described more than 2,000 years before the discovery of
190:
4041:
3248:
3802:
3581:"Health Risk Assessment Guidance for Metals – Mutagenicity"
3147:
Lee SH, Williams MV, Dubois RN, et al. (August 2005).
3049:
Klapacz J, Pottenger LH, Engelward BP, et al. (2016).
2498:
McCann J, Choi E, Yamasaki E, et al. (December 1975).
2162:(7th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pearson Education, Inc.
1472:
1257:
Systems similar to Ames test have been developed in yeast.
574:, which can cause error in replication if left uncorrected.
301:
237:
2755:
1641:
Papavramidou N, Papavramidis T, Demetriou T (March 2010).
446:
Mutagens may also modify the DNA sequence; the changes in
351:
Mutagens are not necessarily carcinogens, and vice versa.
2866:
232:
wrote a paper on the high incidence of scrotal cancer in
198:
127:
122:
is a physical or chemical agent that permanently changes
3752:
2942:
2608:
2040:
Griffiths AJ, Wessler SR, Carroll SB, Doebley J (2012).
1313:
Mammalian cell lines such as Chinese hamster V79 cells,
420:
Mutagens can cause changes to the DNA and are therefore
3302:(3). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 159–167.
1126:
which may be present in contaminated peanuts and corn;
376:(e.g. in breast cancer), tissue-specific toxicity, and
3146:
3134:"Promutagen - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
2497:
1086:. Others that may be effective against cancer include
826:
activation for their mutagenic effect. These are the
792:
3753:
Li K, Kaaks R, Linseisen J, et al. (June 2012).
4230:
3709:
2556:
1487:. Mutagens are also featured in video games such as
1122:
from food contaminated with fungal growths, such as
623:
3607:
3187:
1864:""Russian Trail" in the Discovery of DNA Structure"
689:which can cause transition mutations by converting
384:
Difference between mutagens and DNA damaging agents
2338:
2111:"Seventy years ago: mutation becomes experimental"
1694:
3684:Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet
3520:
2901:
4773:
2902:Huang L, Snyder AR, Morgan WF (September 2003).
2846:
2844:
1811:
1784:
3705:
3703:
2969:
2557:McCann J, Gold LS, Horn L, et al. (1988).
986:Fruits and vegetables are rich in antioxidants.
450:sequences by mutations include substitution of
288:in fruit fly salivary glands. His collaborator
153:The process of DNA becoming modified is called
103:for chemicals that are sensitising, mutagenic,
3055:Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation Research
2815:Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation Research
2384:
2225:
2108:
1725:. London: Printed for Baldwin R and Jackson J.
4636:
4267:
4180:
3485:
3097:
2841:
2157:
2044:(10th ed.). W. H. Freeman. p. 255.
1735:
185:, substances that were shown to be linked to
3700:
3296:Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine
3192:. Vol. 28. Elsevier. pp. 538–551.
3100:Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology
2712:
2639:
818:Some chemical mutagens additionally require
300:. He also found that X-rays not only mutate
4138:
4042:Scientific Committee on Food (4 Dec 2002).
4035:
3686:. Washington, D.C: National Academy Press.
3403:
2306:10.1562/0031-8655(2002)0760561AHOUPF2.0.CO2
1870:. Vol. 3, no. N2. INFOLIO. 2004.
1399:using a mouse strain infected with a viral
1342:
1190:– This is the most commonly used test, and
1109:In 1981, human epidemiological analysis by
347:Difference between mutagens and carcinogens
142:in animals, such mutagens can therefore be
4643:
4629:
4274:
4260:
4231:Williams PL, James RC, Roberts SM (2000).
4106:Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
3929:"Skin-tone gene could predict cancer risk"
2385:Ames BN, Lee FD, Durston WE (March 1973).
2287:
1688:
1686:
4018:
3838:
3828:
3652:
3541:
3462:
3380:
3323:
3266:
3164:
3112:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.45.120403.100010
3074:
2919:
2789:
2657:
2604:
2602:
2533:
2523:
2420:
2410:
2264:
2254:
2134:
2064:
1925:
1761:
1666:
1427:, as well as intercalating agent such as
1414:
919:deacetylation, while some metals such as
181:The first mutagens to be identified were
80:Learn how and when to remove this message
4078:
3960:Journal of the National Cancer Institute
3957:
3926:
1082:has been shown to be protective against
981:
596:
91:
43:This article includes a list of general
4235:(2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
4210:(3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
4205:
3995:"Diet, nutrition, and avoidable cancer"
3992:
3523:"Metals, toxicity and oxidative stress"
3404:Cooke, M.; Dennis, A. J. (1986-01-01).
2219:
2182:
2109:Crow JF, Abrahamson S (December 1997).
1921:
1919:
1917:
1839:
1683:
864:
296:mutants that he used in his studies of
14:
4774:
4556:List of extremely hazardous substances
3149:"Cyclooxygenase-2-mediated DNA damage"
2599:
2328:from the original on 17 November 2011.
1985:"Artificial Transmutation of the Gene"
1982:
1846:University of New Hampshire Law Review
1742:British Journal of Industrial Medicine
1736:Brown JR, Thornton JL (January 1957).
1358:
4624:
4255:
4093:from the original on 23 January 2017.
3521:Valko M, Morris H, Cronin MT (2005).
2702:from the original on 23 October 2011.
2029:from the original on 30 October 2012.
1884:
1308:
356:cancer. One example of this would be
228:may cause nasal cancer. In 1775, Sir
4746:
4591:
3633:The Journal of Experimental Medicine
3626:
3569:from the original on 24 August 2015.
2443:
1914:
1874:from the original on 18 August 2017.
1717:
938:
592:
535:
134:and thus increases the frequency of
29:
4756:
4603:
3255:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
3153:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
2713:Hill, John; McCreary, John (2019).
1972:from the original on 2 August 2017.
1707:from the original on 19 March 2011.
793:Indirectly acting chemical mutagens
24:
3939:from the original on 24 April 2015
3346:
3016:from the original on 1 August 2017
2972:Cell Motility and the Cytoskeleton
1479:franchise the MUTAGEN "ooze" for
1324:for resistance to 8-azaguanine or
49:it lacks sufficient corresponding
25:
4808:
4495:Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko
3999:Environmental Health Perspectives
3435:Environmental Health Perspectives
2715:"22.6 Carcinogens and Teratogens"
885:during replication. Some such as
624:Directly acting chemical mutagens
4755:
4745:
4736:
4735:
4650:
4602:
4590:
4579:
4578:
4206:Hodgson E (2004). "Chapter 21".
4079:Siddique, Haroon (23 Jan 2017).
3876:10.1053/j.seminoncol.2010.06.014
2042:Introduction to Genetic Analysis
1692:
1618:DNA damage (naturally occurring)
1213:in a histidine revertant strain.
746:from plants, such as those from
701:Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
34:
4224:
4208:A Textbook of Modern Toxicology
4199:
4174:
4132:
4097:
4072:
3986:
3951:
3920:
3898:"Skin Cancer Facts and Figures"
3890:
3855:
3796:
3746:
3680:National Research Council, U.S.
3620:
3601:
3573:
3514:
3488:Chemical Research in Toxicology
3479:
3422:
3397:
3340:
3283:
3242:
3181:
3140:
3126:
3091:
3042:
2998:
2963:
2936:
2895:
2860:
2806:
2749:
2706:
2674:
2640:Benigni R, Bossa C (May 2011).
2633:
2613:. 7 Suppl 5 (suppl. 5): 1–248.
2550:
2491:
2437:
2378:
2332:
2294:Photochemistry and Photobiology
2288:Hockberger PE (December 2002).
2281:
2176:
2151:
2102:
2058:
2033:
1976:
1282:
1166:
1039:, and various other compounds.
1019:. Examples of antioxidants are
1007:compounds that may help remove
843:
276:can cause genetic mutations in
208:named tumors resembling a crab
4566:Occupational safety and health
4470:1858 Bradford sweets poisoning
4281:
2158:Campbell NA, Reece JB (2005).
1926:Calabrese EJ (December 2011).
1878:
1856:
1833:
1805:
1778:
1729:
1711:
1634:
1407:. Using similar method as the
1204:Resistance to 8-azaguanine in
677:15-Hydroxyicosatetraenoic acid
13:
1:
4181:Milunsky A, Annas GJ (1980).
3762:European Journal of Nutrition
3712:European Journal of Nutrition
3347:Yu, Hongtao (November 2002).
3198:10.1016/S0378-6080(05)80467-2
2229:, Sprague GF (October 1936).
1628:
1446:
1266:
977:
605:(at center) of the mutagenic
500:dose rate dependent threshold
380:(e.g. in colorectal cancer).
3993:Willett WC (November 1995).
3190:Side Effects of Drugs Annual
2881:10.1016/0165-7992(87)90076-5
2720:Chemistry for Changing Times
2578:10.1016/0165-1218(88)90017-1
2364:10.1126/science.105.2723.243
1895:10.1007/978-3-642-94810-7_40
1175:
176:
7:
4185:. Boston, MA: Springer US.
4139:Pöschl G, Seitz HK (2004).
3530:Current Medicinal Chemistry
3067:10.1016/j.mrrev.2015.11.001
2827:10.1016/j.mrrev.2009.07.002
2205:10.1126/science.68.1756.186
2127:10.1093/genetics/147.4.1491
1647:Annals of Surgical Oncology
1606:
1588:Attack of the 50 Foot Woman
1155:, and the induction of the
659:)-nonenal, 4-hydroperoxy-2(
528:. Such mutagens are called
439:. Such mutagens are called
10:
4813:
3034:: CS1 maint: postscript (
2012:10.1126/science.66.1699.84
1887:Bericht über das Jahr 1960
1381:Mice may also be used for
1179:
1003:are an important group of
989:
933:nucleotide excision repair
486:. Some mutagens can cause
413:
409:
4733:
4689:
4658:
4574:
4528:
4515:2022 Aqaba toxic gas leak
4462:
4411:
4345:
4289:
3774:10.1007/s00394-011-0224-1
3724:10.1007/s00394-012-0389-2
3308:10.1007/s12199-015-0458-2
2774:10.18632/oncotarget.24767
2611:Environmental Mutagenesis
1947:10.1007/s00204-011-0728-8
1659:10.1245/s10434-009-0886-6
1623:Linear no-threshold model
1349:Sister chromatid exchange
1055:compounds (nitrosamine).
893:
802:Polyaromatic hydrocarbons
584:in DNA which decays into
201:; in 500 B.C., the Greek
4792:Radiation health effects
4505:Consumption of Tide Pods
4490:Niigata Minamata disease
4317:Environmental toxicology
3552:10.2174/0929867053764635
1600:The Amazing Colossal Man
1343:Chromosome check systems
1260:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1252:
967:– some bacteria such as
510:
243:polyaromatic hydrocarbon
236:, and suggested chimney
4353:Acceptable daily intake
4307:Occupational toxicology
4183:Genetics and the Law II
3830:10.1073/pnas.0908908106
2945:"Genetics, Mutagenesis"
2525:10.1073/pnas.72.12.5135
1983:Muller HJ (July 1927).
1840:Kathren RL (Dec 2002).
1512:Resistance: Fall of Man
1333:-resistance (OUA) assay
633:Reactive oxygen species
507:a low dose of mutagen.
64:more precise citations.
4510:Visakhapatnam gas leak
4454:Whole bowel irrigation
4148:Alcohol and Alcoholism
4011:10.1289/ehp.95103s8165
3972:10.1093/jnci/66.6.1192
3590:. 2007. Archived from
3268:10.1074/jbc.M005379200
3166:10.1074/jbc.M504178200
2921:10.1038/sj.onc.1206697
2469:10.1126/science.373122
2256:10.1073/pnas.22.10.572
1935:Archives of Toxicology
1506:Metroid Prime: Trilogy
1415:In anti-cancer therapy
1383:dominant lethal assays
1193:Salmonella typhimurium
1092:cruciferous vegetables
1078:in vegetables such as
987:
617:
401:and this can become a
286:"polytene" chromosomes
111:
4475:2007 pet food recalls
4160:10.1093/alcalc/agh057
3627:Rous P (April 1911).
3365:10.1081/GNC-120016203
2659:10.1093/mutage/ger004
2619:10.1002/em.2860070902
2412:10.1073/pnas.70.3.782
1534:Command & Conquer
1315:Chinese hamster ovary
1277:Recessive Lethal Test
1196:strains deficient in
985:
898:Many metals, such as
738:2-Acetylaminofluorene
635:(ROS) – These may be
600:
470:. Many mutations are
256:and radioactivity by
148:mutational signatures
109:toxic to reproduction
95:
4373:Fixed-dose procedure
4141:"Alcohol and cancer"
3927:Callaway, E (2008).
3864:Seminars in Oncology
3645:10.1084/jem.13.4.397
2691:(technical report).
1827:10.1039/JR9330000395
1366:are usually used in
1296:Arabidopsis thaliana
871:Intercalating agents
865:Intercalating agents
685:agents, for example
478:sequence due to the
4332:In vitro toxicology
4322:Forensic toxicology
4051:European Commission
4005:(Suppl 8): 165–70.
3821:2009PNAS..10616663G
3447:10.1289/ehp.1103437
2768:(27): 19415–19426.
2733:10.1021/ed050pa44.2
2595:on 30 October 2012.
2516:1975PNAS...72.5135M
2461:1979Sci...204..587A
2403:1973PNAS...70..782A
2356:1947Sci...105..243A
2247:1936PNAS...22..572S
2197:1928Sci....68..186S
2004:1927Sci....66...84M
1754:10.1136/oem.14.1.68
1483:the mutagen is the
1359:Animal test systems
1149:alcohol consumption
1128:heterocyclic amines
970:Helicobacter pylori
957:who discovered the
925:DNA mismatch repair
883:frameshift mutation
663:)-nonenal, 4-oxo-2(
542:Ionizing radiations
4536:Biological warfare
4520:List of poisonings
4327:Medical toxicology
4297:Aquatic toxicology
1868:SCIENCE First Hand
1309:Cell culture assay
988:
959:Rous sarcoma virus
653:lipid peroxidation
649:electron transport
618:
390:DNA damaging agent
320:Charlotte Auerbach
266:ionizing radiation
112:
4769:
4768:
4725:Microtox bioassay
4618:
4617:
4434:Chelation therapy
4242:978-0-471-29321-7
4217:978-0-471-26508-5
4192:978-1-4613-3080-6
4118:10.1021/jf020302f
4112:(17): 4998–5006.
3908:on 10 August 2012
3693:978-0-309-05391-4
3597:on 12 April 2012.
3500:10.1021/tx9002287
3207:978-0-444-51571-1
2869:Mutation Research
2856:978-0-12-092860-6
2742:978-0-13-498863-4
2566:Mutation Research
2169:978-0-8053-7146-8
2051:978-1-4292-7634-4
1904:978-3-642-94811-4
1441:radiation therapy
1409:blue-white screen
1353:micronucleus Test
1245:Bacillus subtilis
1172:carcinogenicity.
1088:indole-3-carbinol
939:Biological agents
786:Chromium trioxide
645:hydrogen peroxide
641:hydroxyl radicals
593:Chemical mutagens
578:Radioactive decay
572:pyrimidine dimers
536:Physical mutagens
520:system and other
496:no safe threshold
394:DNA is replicated
370:immunosuppression
358:anabolic steroids
316:Chemical mutagens
90:
89:
82:
16:(Redirected from
4804:
4759:
4758:
4749:
4748:
4739:
4738:
4645:
4638:
4631:
4622:
4621:
4606:
4605:
4594:
4593:
4582:
4581:
4485:Minamata disease
4419:Activated carbon
4368:Biomagnification
4312:Entomotoxicology
4276:
4269:
4262:
4253:
4252:
4247:
4246:
4228:
4222:
4221:
4203:
4197:
4196:
4178:
4172:
4171:
4145:
4136:
4130:
4129:
4101:
4095:
4094:
4076:
4070:
4069:
4067:
4065:
4059:
4053:. Archived from
4048:
4039:
4033:
4032:
4022:
3990:
3984:
3983:
3955:
3949:
3948:
3946:
3944:
3924:
3918:
3917:
3915:
3913:
3904:. Archived from
3894:
3888:
3887:
3859:
3853:
3852:
3842:
3832:
3800:
3794:
3793:
3759:
3750:
3744:
3743:
3707:
3698:
3697:
3676:
3667:
3666:
3656:
3624:
3618:
3617:
3605:
3599:
3598:
3596:
3585:
3577:
3571:
3570:
3568:
3545:
3536:(10): 1161–208.
3527:
3518:
3512:
3511:
3483:
3477:
3476:
3466:
3426:
3420:
3419:
3401:
3395:
3394:
3384:
3344:
3338:
3337:
3327:
3287:
3281:
3280:
3270:
3246:
3240:
3239:
3233:
3229:
3227:
3219:
3185:
3179:
3178:
3168:
3159:(31): 28337–46.
3144:
3138:
3137:
3130:
3124:
3123:
3095:
3089:
3088:
3078:
3046:
3040:
3039:
3033:
3025:
3023:
3021:
3002:
2996:
2995:
2967:
2961:
2960:
2958:
2956:
2940:
2934:
2933:
2923:
2899:
2893:
2892:
2864:
2858:
2848:
2839:
2838:
2810:
2804:
2803:
2793:
2753:
2747:
2746:
2710:
2704:
2703:
2701:
2686:
2678:
2672:
2671:
2661:
2637:
2631:
2630:
2606:
2597:
2596:
2594:
2588:. Archived from
2563:
2554:
2548:
2547:
2537:
2527:
2495:
2489:
2488:
2455:(4393): 587–93.
2441:
2435:
2434:
2424:
2414:
2382:
2376:
2375:
2336:
2330:
2329:
2285:
2279:
2278:
2268:
2258:
2223:
2217:
2216:
2180:
2174:
2173:
2155:
2149:
2148:
2138:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2074:(683): 540–545.
2062:
2056:
2055:
2037:
2031:
2030:
2028:
1989:
1980:
1974:
1973:
1971:
1932:
1923:
1912:
1911:
1882:
1876:
1875:
1860:
1854:
1853:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1809:
1803:
1802:
1799:10.11501/1675887
1782:
1776:
1775:
1765:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1715:
1709:
1708:
1701:www.medscape.com
1698:
1690:
1681:
1680:
1670:
1638:
1421:cyclophosphamide
1395:Transgenic mouse
1218:Escherichia coli
1005:anticarcinogenic
875:ethidium bromide
832:, which include
831:
830:
780:synthetic rubber
711:ethylnitrosourea
472:silent mutations
374:endocrine system
366:tumour promotion
338:in the 1970s by
272:discovered that
124:genetic material
85:
78:
74:
71:
65:
60:this article by
51:inline citations
38:
37:
30:
21:
4812:
4811:
4807:
4806:
4805:
4803:
4802:
4801:
4772:
4771:
4770:
4765:
4729:
4721: (TZ test)
4685:
4654:
4649:
4619:
4614:
4570:
4524:
4500:Seveso disaster
4480:Bhopal disaster
4458:
4407:
4363:Bioaccumulation
4341:
4285:
4280:
4250:
4243:
4229:
4225:
4218:
4204:
4200:
4193:
4179:
4175:
4143:
4137:
4133:
4102:
4098:
4077:
4073:
4063:
4061:
4057:
4046:
4040:
4036:
3991:
3987:
3966:(6): 1191–308.
3956:
3952:
3942:
3940:
3925:
3921:
3911:
3909:
3896:
3895:
3891:
3860:
3856:
3815:(39): 16663–8.
3801:
3797:
3757:
3751:
3747:
3708:
3701:
3694:
3677:
3670:
3625:
3621:
3606:
3602:
3594:
3583:
3579:
3578:
3574:
3566:
3543:10.1.1.498.2796
3525:
3519:
3515:
3484:
3480:
3427:
3423:
3402:
3398:
3345:
3341:
3288:
3284:
3261:(11): 7867–75.
3247:
3243:
3231:
3230:
3221:
3220:
3208:
3186:
3182:
3145:
3141:
3132:
3131:
3127:
3096:
3092:
3047:
3043:
3027:
3026:
3019:
3017:
3004:
3003:
2999:
2968:
2964:
2954:
2952:
2941:
2937:
2914:(37): 5848–54.
2900:
2896:
2865:
2861:
2849:
2842:
2821:(2–3): 94–109.
2811:
2807:
2754:
2750:
2743:
2723:(15 ed.).
2711:
2707:
2699:
2684:
2680:
2679:
2675:
2638:
2634:
2607:
2600:
2592:
2572:(1–4): 183–95.
2561:
2555:
2551:
2496:
2492:
2442:
2438:
2383:
2379:
2350:(2723): 243–7.
2337:
2333:
2286:
2282:
2224:
2220:
2191:(1756): 186–7.
2181:
2177:
2170:
2156:
2152:
2107:
2103:
2063:
2059:
2052:
2038:
2034:
2026:
1987:
1981:
1977:
1969:
1930:
1924:
1915:
1905:
1883:
1879:
1862:
1861:
1857:
1838:
1834:
1810:
1806:
1783:
1779:
1734:
1730:
1718:Hill J (1761).
1716:
1712:
1691:
1684:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1609:
1475:, while in the
1453:science fiction
1449:
1435:may be used in
1417:
1361:
1345:
1311:
1287:Plants such as
1285:
1271:
1255:
1184:
1178:
1169:
1157:cytochrome P450
1098:from red wine.
1084:prostate cancer
998:
990:Main articles:
980:
941:
896:
867:
846:
828:
827:
808:Aromatic amines
795:
730:Aromatic amines
709:agents such as
667:)-nonenal, and
626:
595:
554:alpha particles
538:
518:cytochrome P450
513:
418:
412:
386:
362:prostate cancer
349:
290:Edgar Altenburg
258:Henri Becquerel
254:Wilhelm Röntgen
179:
167:DNA replication
86:
75:
69:
66:
56:Please help to
55:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4810:
4800:
4799:
4794:
4789:
4784:
4767:
4766:
4734:
4731:
4730:
4728:
4727:
4722:
4719:Viability test
4716:
4711:
4706:
4701:
4695:
4693:
4687:
4686:
4684:
4683:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4662:
4660:
4656:
4655:
4648:
4647:
4640:
4633:
4625:
4616:
4615:
4613:
4612:
4600:
4588:
4575:
4572:
4571:
4569:
4568:
4563:
4558:
4553:
4548:
4543:
4538:
4532:
4530:
4529:Related topics
4526:
4525:
4523:
4522:
4517:
4512:
4507:
4502:
4497:
4492:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4466:
4464:
4460:
4459:
4457:
4456:
4451:
4446:
4441:
4439:Gastric lavage
4436:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4415:
4413:
4409:
4408:
4406:
4405:
4400:
4395:
4393:Toxicity class
4390:
4388:Toxic capacity
4385:
4380:
4375:
4370:
4365:
4360:
4358:Acute toxicity
4355:
4349:
4347:
4343:
4342:
4340:
4339:
4337:Toxicogenomics
4334:
4329:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4309:
4304:
4299:
4293:
4291:
4287:
4286:
4279:
4278:
4271:
4264:
4256:
4249:
4248:
4241:
4223:
4216:
4198:
4191:
4173:
4131:
4096:
4071:
4060:on 19 May 2011
4034:
3985:
3950:
3919:
3902:Cancer Council
3889:
3854:
3795:
3745:
3699:
3692:
3668:
3639:(4): 397–411.
3619:
3600:
3572:
3513:
3494:(9): 1639–47.
3478:
3421:
3396:
3359:(2): 149–183.
3339:
3282:
3241:
3232:|journal=
3206:
3180:
3139:
3125:
3090:
3041:
2997:
2962:
2935:
2894:
2859:
2840:
2805:
2748:
2741:
2705:
2673:
2632:
2598:
2549:
2510:(12): 5135–9.
2490:
2436:
2377:
2331:
2280:
2218:
2175:
2168:
2150:
2101:
2080:10.1086/280230
2057:
2050:
2032:
1998:(1699): 84–7.
1975:
1941:(12): 1495–8.
1913:
1903:
1877:
1855:
1832:
1804:
1777:
1728:
1710:
1682:
1632:
1630:
1627:
1626:
1625:
1620:
1615:
1613:Carcinogenesis
1608:
1605:
1540:Gears of War 3
1465:Fantastic Four
1448:
1445:
1416:
1413:
1401:shuttle vector
1378:has occurred.
1360:
1357:
1344:
1341:
1310:
1307:
1284:
1281:
1270:
1265:
1254:
1251:
1250:
1249:
1233:
1214:
1206:S. typhimurium
1201:
1180:Main article:
1177:
1174:
1168:
1165:
979:
976:
975:
974:
962:
948:
940:
937:
895:
892:
891:
890:
866:
863:
862:
861:
845:
842:
816:
815:
810:
805:
794:
791:
790:
789:
783:
773:
767:
757:
751:
741:
727:
724:vinyl chloride
704:
698:
680:
625:
622:
594:
591:
590:
589:
575:
565:
537:
534:
526:cyclooxygenase
512:
509:
414:Main article:
411:
408:
385:
382:
348:
345:
270:Hermann Muller
262:Georgii Nadson
234:chimney sweeps
230:Percivall Pott
178:
175:
88:
87:
42:
40:
33:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4809:
4798:
4797:Radioactivity
4795:
4793:
4790:
4788:
4785:
4783:
4780:
4779:
4777:
4764:
4763:
4754:
4753:
4744:
4743:
4732:
4726:
4723:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4696:
4694:
4692:
4688:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4663:
4661:
4657:
4653:
4646:
4641:
4639:
4634:
4632:
4627:
4626:
4623:
4611:
4610:
4601:
4599:
4598:
4589:
4587:
4586:
4577:
4576:
4573:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4552:
4551:Hazard symbol
4549:
4547:
4544:
4542:
4539:
4537:
4534:
4533:
4531:
4527:
4521:
4518:
4516:
4513:
4511:
4508:
4506:
4503:
4501:
4498:
4496:
4493:
4491:
4488:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4467:
4465:
4461:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4449:Hemoperfusion
4447:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4416:
4414:
4410:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4364:
4361:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4350:
4348:
4344:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4302:Ecotoxicology
4300:
4298:
4295:
4294:
4292:
4288:
4284:
4277:
4272:
4270:
4265:
4263:
4258:
4257:
4254:
4244:
4238:
4234:
4227:
4219:
4213:
4209:
4202:
4194:
4188:
4184:
4177:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4154:(3): 155–65.
4153:
4149:
4142:
4135:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4100:
4092:
4088:
4087:
4082:
4075:
4056:
4052:
4045:
4038:
4030:
4026:
4021:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3989:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3954:
3938:
3934:
3933:New Scientist
3930:
3923:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3893:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3870:(3): 258–81.
3869:
3865:
3858:
3850:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3799:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3768:(4): 407–13.
3767:
3763:
3756:
3749:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3718:(7): 769–81.
3717:
3713:
3706:
3704:
3695:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3675:
3673:
3664:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3623:
3615:
3611:
3604:
3593:
3589:
3582:
3576:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3524:
3517:
3509:
3505:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3482:
3474:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3425:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3408:
3400:
3392:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3343:
3335:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3286:
3278:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3245:
3237:
3225:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3184:
3176:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3143:
3135:
3129:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3094:
3086:
3082:
3077:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3045:
3037:
3031:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3001:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2978:(2): 81–107.
2977:
2973:
2966:
2950:
2946:
2939:
2931:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2898:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2863:
2857:
2853:
2847:
2845:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2809:
2801:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2752:
2744:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2721:
2716:
2709:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2683:
2677:
2669:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2652:(3): 455–60.
2651:
2647:
2643:
2636:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2605:
2603:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2560:
2553:
2545:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2494:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2440:
2432:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2381:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2335:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2300:(6): 561–79.
2299:
2295:
2291:
2284:
2276:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2241:(10): 572–8.
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2222:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2179:
2171:
2165:
2161:
2154:
2146:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2121:(4): 1491–6.
2120:
2116:
2112:
2105:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2061:
2053:
2047:
2043:
2036:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1986:
1979:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1929:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1910:
1906:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1881:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1859:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1836:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1817:
1816:
1815:J. Chem. Soc.
1808:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1781:
1773:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1732:
1724:
1723:
1714:
1706:
1702:
1697:
1689:
1687:
1678:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1637:
1633:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1611:
1610:
1604:
1602:
1601:
1596:
1595:
1590:
1589:
1584:
1583:
1578:
1577:
1572:
1571:
1566:
1565:
1560:
1559:
1554:
1553:
1548:
1547:
1542:
1541:
1536:
1535:
1531:
1530:Freedom Force
1526:
1525:
1520:
1519:
1518:Resident Evil
1514:
1513:
1508:
1507:
1502:
1501:
1496:
1493:
1491:
1486:
1485:Terrigen Mist
1482:
1478:
1477:Ninja Turtles
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1461:Marvel Comics
1458:
1454:
1444:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1412:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1396:
1391:
1389:
1388:uterine horns
1384:
1379:
1375:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1356:
1354:
1350:
1340:
1336:
1334:
1332:
1327:
1326:6-thioguanine
1323:
1321:
1316:
1306:
1304:
1303:
1298:
1297:
1292:
1291:
1280:
1278:
1276:
1269:
1264:
1262:
1261:
1247:
1246:
1241:
1237:
1234:
1231:
1227:
1226:
1221:
1219:
1215:
1212:
1208:
1207:
1202:
1199:
1195:
1194:
1189:
1186:
1185:
1183:
1173:
1164:
1160:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1116:
1112:
1107:
1105:
1099:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1068:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
997:
993:
984:
972:
971:
966:
963:
960:
956:
952:
949:
946:
943:
942:
936:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
913:
909:
905:
901:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
869:
868:
859:
858:2-aminopurine
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1437:chemotherapy
1429:daunorubicin
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1167:Test systems
1161:
1153:acetaldehyde
1115:Richard Peto
1111:Richard Doll
1108:
1100:
1076:sulforaphane
1069:
1027:precursors,
1001:Antioxidants
999:
996:Antioxidants
968:
897:
887:daunorubicin
844:Base analogs
817:
796:
760:Sodium azide
715:Nitrosamines
687:nitrous acid
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
627:
619:
514:
492:
448:nucleic acid
445:
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387:
378:inflammation
353:Sodium azide
350:
324:J. M. Robson
314:
280:, producing
251:
209:
180:
152:
119:
113:
105:carcinogenic
76:
67:
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4762:WikiProject
4704:Comet assay
4609:WikiProject
4546:Food safety
4378:Lethal dose
2955:18 November
2646:Mutagenesis
1821:: 395–405.
1793:: 295–344.
1500:The Witcher
1457:superheroes
1433:doxorubicin
1368:animal test
1096:resveratrol
1037:polyphenols
992:Antimutagen
955:Peyton Rous
951:Oncoviruses
945:Transposons
850:Base analog
734:Ludwig Rehn
720:mustard gas
683:Deaminating
611:benzopyrene
568:Ultraviolet
530:promutagens
416:Mutagenesis
328:mustard gas
326:found that
310:ultraviolet
278:fruit flies
247:benzopyrene
206:Hippocrates
195:chromosomes
183:carcinogens
155:mutagenesis
144:carcinogens
62:introducing
4776:Categories
4709:algal test
4681:Carcinogen
4541:Carcinogen
4412:Treatments
4283:Toxicology
3616:: 595–609.
2951:. 2023 Jan
2949:StatPearls
2762:Oncotarget
2340:Auerbach C
2227:Stadler LJ
1629:References
1594:Tarantula!
1447:In fiction
1275:Sex-Linked
1268:Drosophila
1236:DNA repair
1230:Tryptophan
1145:acrylamide
1133:cured meat
1124:aflatoxins
1120:mycotoxins
1059:, such as
1057:Flavonoids
1041:β-Carotene
1025:carotenoid
1017:vegetables
978:Protection
879:proflavine
873:, such as
707:Alkylating
637:superoxide
607:metabolite
603:DNA adduct
580:, such as
562:cesium-137
550:gamma rays
522:oxygenases
504:DNA repair
488:aneuploidy
480:redundancy
476:amino-acid
459:insertions
455:base-pairs
452:nucleotide
441:clastogens
398:nucleotide
340:Bruce Ames
330:can cause
294:Drosophila
282:phenotypic
214:Paracelsus
159:hydrolysis
126:, usually
70:April 2023
45:references
4699:Ames test
4671:Clastogen
4463:Incidents
4429:Cathartic
3538:CiteSeerX
3455:1552-9924
3373:1059-0501
3316:1342-078X
3234:ignored (
3224:cite book
3216:0378-6080
3106:: 27–49.
3061:: 77–91.
2782:1949-2553
2322:222100404
1693:Luch, A.
1564:Underrail
1546:StarCraft
1469:Daredevil
1425:cisplatin
1198:histidine
1188:Ames test
1182:Ames test
1176:Bacterial
1141:ascorbate
1065:green tea
1053:N-nitroso
1033:vitamin E
1029:vitamin C
1021:vitamin A
782:and dyes.
558:cobalt-60
463:deletions
437:inversion
422:genotoxic
336:Ames test
332:mutations
222:John Hill
203:physician
177:Discovery
136:mutations
101:pictogram
4787:Mutation
4782:Mutagens
4742:Category
4585:Category
4424:Antidote
4346:Concepts
4168:15082451
4126:12166997
4091:Archived
3937:Archived
3884:20709209
3849:19805354
3782:21779961
3740:36973911
3732:22684632
3682:(1996).
3663:19867421
3564:Archived
3560:15892631
3508:19725558
3473:21859636
3391:12515673
3334:25877777
3277:11096071
3175:15964853
3120:15822170
3085:27036068
3030:cite web
3014:Archived
3012:. 2017.
3010:phys.org
2992:11013390
2930:12947391
2908:Oncogene
2835:19631282
2800:29721213
2697:Archived
2695:. 1991.
2668:21398403
2372:17769478
2326:Archived
2314:12511035
2275:16588111
2213:17774921
2115:Genetics
2096:83653780
2068:Am. Nat.
2024:Archived
2020:17802387
1967:Archived
1955:21717110
1872:Archived
1772:13396156
1705:Archived
1677:20049643
1607:See also
1576:Godzilla
1570:Maneater
1552:BioShock
1524:Infamous
1481:Inhumans
1290:Zea mays
1135:such as
1104:melanoma
1080:broccoli
1072:Selenium
1049:tomatoes
1023:and its
965:Bacteria
908:chromium
838:limettin
770:Psoralen
744:Alkaloid
691:cytosine
586:nitrogen
544:such as
524:such as
468:proteins
433:deletion
403:mutation
298:genetics
210:karkinos
132:organism
130:, in an
116:genetics
18:Mutagens
4752:Commons
4676:Aneugen
4666:Mutagen
4597:Commons
4561:Mutagen
4029:8741778
4020:1518978
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3817:Bibcode
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2889:3099192
2791:5922407
2725:Pearson
2689:nih.gov
2627:3905369
2586:3285186
2544:1061098
2512:Bibcode
2477:1748159
2457:Bibcode
2449:Science
2445:Ames BN
2431:4577135
2399:Bibcode
2352:Bibcode
2344:Science
2266:1076819
2243:Bibcode
2193:Bibcode
2185:Science
2160:Biology
2145:9409815
2136:1208325
2088:2457052
2000:Bibcode
1992:Science
1963:4708210
1763:1037746
1668:2820670
1558:Fallout
1490:Cyberia
1405:E. coli
1364:Rodents
1331:ouabain
1240:E. coli
1225:E. coli
1220:systems
1045:carrots
917:histone
904:cadmium
900:arsenic
813:Benzene
776:Benzene
754:Bromine
410:Effects
245:(PAH),
120:mutagen
58:improve
4691:Assays
4383:Poison
4290:Fields
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1372:gavage
1328:, and
1013:fruits
927:, and
921:cobalt
912:nickel
894:Metals
804:(PAHs)
695:uracil
546:X-rays
484:codons
435:, and
274:x-rays
191:Tumors
187:cancer
163:errors
140:cancer
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4659:Agent
4403:Venom
4398:Toxin
4144:(PDF)
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3736:S2CID
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2473:JSTOR
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2092:S2CID
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2027:(PDF)
1988:(PDF)
1970:(PDF)
1959:S2CID
1931:(PDF)
1582:Them!
1397:assay
1322:assay
1253:Yeast
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1090:from
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651:, or
613:from
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3945:2019
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3880:PMID
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3778:PMID
3728:PMID
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3504:PMID
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3036:link
3022:2019
2988:PMID
2957:2023
2926:PMID
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