Montgomery bus boycott

1158: 1255:", "MIA"), and they selected King (Nixon's choice) to lead the boycott. Nixon wanted King to lead the boycott because the young minister was new to Montgomery and the city fathers had not had time to intimidate him. At a subsequent, larger meeting of ministers, Nixon's agenda was threatened by the clergymen's reluctance to support the campaign. Nixon was indignant, pointing out that their poor congregations worked to put money into the collection plates so these ministers could live well, and when those congregations needed the clergy to stand up for them, those comfortable ministers refused to do so. Nixon threatened to reveal the ministers' cowardice to the black community, and King spoke up, denying he was afraid to support the boycott. King agreed to lead the MIA, and Nixon was elected its treasurer. 1300:

stop these arrests, they will continue. The next time it may be you, or your daughter, or mother. This woman's case will come up on Monday. We are, therefore, asking every Negro to stay off the buses Monday in protest of the arrest and trial. Don't ride the buses to work, to town, to school, or anywhere on Monday. You can afford to stay out of school for one day if you have no other way to go except by bus. You can also afford to stay out of town for one day. If you work, take a cab, or walk. But please, children and grown-ups, don't ride the bus at all on Monday. Please stay off all buses Monday.

1379:, some people used non-motorized means to get around, such as cycling, walking, or even riding mules or driving horse-drawn buggies. Some people also hitchhiked. During rush hours, sidewalks were often crowded. As the buses received few, if any, passengers, their officials asked the City Commission to allow stopping service to black communities. Across the nation, black churches raised money to support the boycott and collected new and slightly used shoes to replace the tattered footwear of Montgomery's black citizens, many of whom walked everywhere rather than ride the buses and submit to 994:, city-parish council passed Ordinance 222 after the city saw protesting from African Americans when the council raised the city's bus fares. The ordinance abolished race-based reserved seating requirements and allowed the admission of African Americans in the front sections of city buses if there were no white passengers present, but it still required African Americans to enter from the rear rather than the front of the buses. However, the ordinance was largely unenforced by the city bus drivers. The drivers later went on strike after city authorities refused to arrest Rev. 1127:

segregated basis. White people filled the middle seats from the front to back, and black people filled seats from the back to front until the bus was full. If other black people boarded the bus, they were required to stand. If another white person boarded the bus, then everyone in the black row nearest the front had to get up and stand so that a new row for white people could be created; it was illegal for white and black people to sit next to each other. When Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat for a white person, she was sitting in the first row of the middle section.

8512: 1786: 1192: 1399:

brothers, no matter what they do to us. We must make them know that we love them. Jesus still cries out in words that echo across the centuries: "Love your enemies; bless them that curse you; pray for them that despitefully use you". This is what we must live by. We must meet hate with love. Remember, if I am stopped, this movement will not stop, because God is with the movement. Go home with this glowing faith and this radiant assurance.

1774: 1264: 6479: 1425: 1243:

most importantly, was "above reproach". When Colvin was arrested in March 1955, Nixon thought he had found the perfect person, but the teenager turned out to be pregnant. Nixon later explained, "I had to be sure that I had somebody I could win with." Parks was a good candidate because of her employment and marital status, along with her good standing in the community.

1211:

by Blake. While all of the other black people in her row complied, Parks refused, and she was arrested for failing to obey the driver's seat assignments, as city ordinances did not explicitly mandate segregation but did give the bus driver authority to assign seats. Found guilty on December 5, Parks was fined $ 10 plus a court cost of $ 4

1362:

The boycott proved extremely effective, with enough riders lost to the city transit system to cause serious economic distress. Martin Luther King later wrote, " miracle had taken place." Instead of riding buses, boycotters organized a system of carpools, with car owners volunteering their vehicles or

1312:

was introduced but not asked to speak, despite a standing ovation and calls from the crowd for her to speak; she asked someone if she should say something, but they replied, "Why, you've said enough." A citywide boycott of public transit was proposed, with three demands: 1) courteous treatment by bus

1210:

had been discussed as a tactic. On December 1, 1955, Parks was sitting in the foremost row in which black people could sit (in the middle section). When a white man boarded the bus, the bus driver told everyone in her row to move back. At that moment, Parks realized that she was again on a bus driven

1126:

Under the system of segregation used on Montgomery buses, the ten front seats were reserved for white people at all times. The ten back seats were supposed to be reserved for black people at all times. The middle section of the bus consisted of sixteen unreserved seats for white and black people on a

1464:

White backlash against the court victory was quick, brutal, and, in the short term, effective. Two days after the inauguration of desegregated seating, someone fired a shotgun through the front door of Martin Luther King's home. A day later, on Christmas Eve, white men attacked a black teenager as

1242:

to allow Montgomery's black citizens to challenge segregation on the city's public buses. With this goal, community leaders had been waiting for the right person to be arrested, a person who would anger the black community into action, who would agree to test the segregation laws in court, and who,

1010:

declared the ordinance unconstitutional under Louisiana state law. This led Rev. Jemison to organize what historians believe to be the first bus boycott of the civil rights movement. The boycott ended after eight days when an agreement was reached to only retain the first two front and back rows as

1398:

If you have weapons, take them home; if you do not have them, please do not seek to get them. We cannot solve this problem through retaliatory violence. We must meet violence with nonviolence. Remember the words of Jesus: "He who lives by the sword will perish by the sword". We must love our white

1407:

King was ordered to pay a $ 500 fine or serve 386 days in jail. He ended up spending two weeks in jail. The move backfired by bringing national attention to the protest. King commented on the arrest by saying: "I was proud of my crime. It was the crime of joining my people in a nonviolent protest

1344:

The MIA's demand for a fixed dividing line was to be supplemented by a requirement that all bus passengers receive courteous treatment by bus operators, be seated on a first-come, first-served basis, and that Black people be employed as bus drivers. The proposal was passed, and the boycott was to

1299:

case that a Negro woman has been arrested for the same thing. This has to be stopped. Negroes have rights too, for if Negroes did not ride the buses, they could not operate. Three-fourths of the riders are Negro, yet we are arrested, or have to stand over empty seats. If we do not do something to

1246:

Between Parks' arrest and trial, Nixon organized a meeting of local ministers at Martin Luther King Jr.'s church. Though Nixon could not attend the meeting because of his work schedule, he arranged that no election of a leader for the proposed boycott would take place until his return. When he

1491:

The city's elite moved to strengthen segregation in other areas, and in March 1957 passed an ordinance making it "unlawful for white and colored persons to play together, or, in company with each other ... in any game of cards, dice, dominoes, checkers, pool, billiards, softball, basketball,

2415:

Garrow (1986) p. 13. David Garrow wrote, "Mrs. Parks once told ... how she had been physically thrown off a bus some ten years earlier when, after paying her fare at the front of the bus, she had refused to get off and reenter by the back door -- a custom often inflicted on black

1499:

with the bombings, but all of the defendants were acquitted. About the same time, the Alabama Supreme Court ruled against Martin Luther King's appeal of his "illegal boycott" conviction. Rosa Parks left Montgomery due to death threats and employment blacklisting. According to

1316:

This demand was a compromise for the leaders of the boycott, who believed that the city of Montgomery would be more likely to accept it rather than a demand for full integration of the buses. In this respect, the MIA leaders followed the pattern of 1950s boycott campaigns in the

41: 1415:

helped to sustain the boycott by finding new ways of raising money and offering support to boycott participants. Many members of these organizations were women and their contributions to the effort have been described by some as essential to the success of the bus boycott.

1374:

drivers charged ten cents per ride, a fare equal to the cost to ride the bus, in support of the boycott. When word of this reached city officials on December 8, the order went out to fine any cab driver who charged a rider less than 45 cents. In addition to using private

1363:

themselves driving people to various destinations. Some white housewives also drove their black domestic servants to work. When the city pressured local insurance companies to stop insuring cars used in the carpools, the boycott leaders arranged policies at

1313:

operators, 2) passengers seated on a first-come, first-served basis, with black people seated in the back half and white people seated in the front half, and 3) black people would be employed as bus operators on routes predominately taken by black people.

1476:, "When the violence subsided and service was restored, many black Montgomerians enjoyed their newly recognized right only abstractly ... In practically every other setting, Montgomery remained overwhelmingly segregated ..." On January 23, a group of 1180:, who ordered her to board at the rear door and then drove off without her. Parks vowed never again to ride a bus driven by Blake. As a member of the NAACP, Parks was an investigator assigned to cases of sexual assault. In 1945, she was sent to 1067:, which circulated in much of the black community in the North. His killers were acquitted the following month. There was massive outrage at this verdict both domestically and internationally. In an interview on January 24, 1956, published in 1130:

Often when boarding the buses, black people were required to pay at the front, get off, and reenter the bus through a separate door at the back. Occasionally, bus drivers would drive away before black passengers were able to reboard.

931:. Although they did not succeed in obtaining justice in court for Taylor, the mobilization of the black community in Alabama set up social and political networks that enabled the success of the Montgomery bus boycott a decade later. 1451:

The bus boycott officially ended on December 20, 1956, after 382 days. The Montgomery bus boycott resounded far beyond the desegregation of public buses. It stimulated activism and participation from the South in the national

1465:

she exited a bus. Four days after that, two buses were fired upon by snipers. In one sniper incident, a pregnant woman was shot in both legs. On January 10, 1957, bombs destroyed five black churches and the home of Reverend

2891: 485: 1403:

King and 88 other boycott leaders and carpool drivers were indicted for conspiring to interfere with a business under a 1921 ordinance. Rather than wait to be arrested, they turned themselves in as an act of defiance.

1062:

was murdered by two white men, John W. Milam and Roy Bryant. The picture of his brutally beaten body in the open-casket funeral that his mother requested was widely publicized, specifically by the weekly newspaper

440: 888:

entered a train car reserved for white passengers in Lynn, Massachusetts; when the conductor ordered them to leave the car, they refused. Following the action, widespread organizing led Congress to approve the

2708: 960:. That victory, however, overturned state segregation laws only insofar as they applied to travel in interstate commerce, such as interstate bus travel, and Southern bus companies immediately circumvented the 590: 1033:

in Montgomery. On March 2, 1955, Colvin was handcuffed, arrested, and forcibly removed from a public bus when she refused to give up her seat to a white man. At the time, Colvin was an active member in the

809:

of the Montgomery Bus Line. As a result of this segregation, African Americans were not hired as drivers, were forced to ride in the back of the bus, and were frequently ordered to surrender their seats to

1394:, as were four black Baptist churches. Boycotters were often physically attacked. After the attack at King's house, he gave a speech to the 300 angry African Americans who had gathered outside. He said: 644: 7884: 7879: 688: 548: 699: 543: 7891: 2917: 1106:. The ICC prohibited individual carriers from imposing their own segregation rules on interstate travelers, declaring that to do so was a violation of the anti-discrimination provision of the 7632: 597: 554: 1348:

On Saturday, December 3, it was evident that the black community would support the boycott, and very few Black people rode the buses that day. On December 5, a mass meeting was held at the

434: 1157: 7896: 927:, and E. G. Jackson—organized a defense for Taylor in Montgomery. They mobilized nationwide support from labor unions, African-American organizations, and women's groups to form the 837:, that racial segregation in schools was unconstitutional. The reaction by the white population of the Deep South was "noisy and stubborn". Discontented white southerners joined the 2895: 1352:

to determine if the protest would continue. Given twenty minutes notice, King gave a speech asking for a bus boycott and attendees enthusiastically agreed. Starting December 7,

even though black passengers made up 75% of the bus system's riders. Many bus drivers treated their black passengers poorly beyond the law: African-Americans were assaulted,

469: 367: 1295:

Another woman has been arrested and thrown in jail because she refused to get up out of her seat on the bus for a white person to sit down. It is the second time since the

1058:

In August 1955, four months before Parks's refusal to give up a seat on the bus that led to the Montgomery bus boycott, a 14-year-old African American from Chicago named

972:

for disorderly conduct in May 1951 for allegedly refusing to leave the white passengers' section until the bus driver amended an incorrect charge on her transfer ticket.

666: 1188:. The protest that arose around the Taylor case was the first instance of a nationwide civil rights protest, and it laid the groundwork for the Montgomery bus boycott. 1683: 1231: 1173: 565: 2712: 6237: 4522: 1947:

Shultziner, Doron (2013). "The Social-Psychological Origins of the Montgomery Bus Boycott: Social Interaction and Humiliation in the Emergence of Social Movements".

1444:(1956) that Alabama's racial segregation laws for buses were unconstitutional. As the state appealed the decision, the boycott continued. The case moved on to the 429: 393: 6217: 3494: 2688: 2506: 8417: 8412: 7961: 6693: 6550: 6261: 3557: 1492:

baseball, football, golf, track, and at swimming pools, beaches, lakes or ponds or any other game or games or athletic contests, either indoors or outdoors."

8224: 8096: 6681: 6015: 583: 4185: 560: 446: 373: 1304:

The next morning there was a meeting led by the new Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) head, King, where a group of 16 to 18 people gathered at the

779:

took effect, and led to a United States Supreme Court decision that declared the Alabama and Montgomery laws that segregated buses were unconstitutional.

48:

on a Montgomery bus on December 21, 1956, the day Montgomery's public transportation system was legally integrated. Behind Parks is Nicholas C. Chriss, a

6309: 6157: 3989: 1673: 893:

which granted equal rights to Black citizens in public accommodations. In 1883 the Supreme Court overturned this victory, declaring it unconstitutional.

2768: 2341: 8627: 6791: 6464: 2483:

At the Dark End of the Street: Black Women, Rape, and Resistance- A New History of the Civil Rights Movement from Rosa Parks to the Rise of Black Power

1977:

At the dark end of the street: black women, rape, and resistance- a new history of the civil rights movement from Rosa Parks to the rise of black power

676: 2921: 2042:

At the Dark End of the Street: Black Women, Rape, and Resistance—A New History of the Civil Rights Movement from Rosa Parks to the Rise of Black Power

1341:

only four days before Parks's arrest. Parks was in the audience and later said that Emmett Till was on her mind when she refused to give up her seat.

7380: 6515: 3699: 2271: 1759:, the award-winning documentary on the Civil Rights movement, the Montgomery bus boycott is the focus of the second half of Episode #1, "Awakenings." 1030: 671: 3148:"Interview with Georgia Gilmore, conducted by Blackside, Inc. on February 17, 1986, for Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years (1954-1965)" 1390:, the membership of which doubled during the course of the boycott. The councils sometimes resorted to violence: King's and Abernathy's houses were 852:, from racial violence. The boycott also took place within a larger statewide and national movement for civil rights, including court cases such as 7874: 1345:

commence the following Monday. To publicize the impending boycott it was advertised at black churches throughout Montgomery the following Sunday.

8422: 7662: 4768: 4659: 4079: 2849: 2210: 875: 8597: 8491: 8466: 6314: 1411:

Also important during the bus boycott were grassroots activist groups that helped to catalyze both fund-raising and morale. Groups such as the

8476: 8471: 7403: 6851: 6222: 4560: 4479: 3969: 2735: 8582: 8192: 8028: 7737: 7727: 7385: 7375: 3986:– Includes cross-referenced text, historical documents and streaming audio, presented by the King Research Institute at Stanford University 1438:

Pressure increased across the country. The related civil suit was heard in federal district court and, on June 5, 1956, the court ruled in

788: 352: 8234: 8006: 6192: 6187: 5975: 5957: 4689: 4598: 2337: 1734: 1507: 2554: 8454: 7398: 7393: 4738: 4440: 3201: 2075: 452: 398: 8113: 7617: 6726: 6294: 4845: 4547: 3147: 3069: 1646: 4024: 8461: 8091: 7612: 6834: 6666: 6329: 6284: 5952: 4835: 4763: 4489: 4369: 3952: 1200: 338: 152: 8567: 8427: 8387: 8229: 8133: 8062: 7667: 6243: 4631: 4231: 3623:

Pitsula, James M. (Spring 2003). "Reviewed Work: No Plaster Saint: The Life of Mildred Osterhout Fahrni by Nancy Knickerbocker".

2085: 95: 3047: 8617: 8486: 8481: 8449: 8219: 8123: 8086: 8033: 7867: 4609: 2398: 824: 8572: 8444: 8402: 8214: 6762: 6628: 6623: 6508: 5980: 4100: 3182: 3130: 2769:"African Americans boycott buses for integration in Montgomery, Alabama, U.S., 1955-1956 | Global Nonviolent Action Database" 2490: 2465: 2050: 1985: 1923: 1896: 796: 792: 8392: 8377: 8241: 8150: 8145: 8079: 6540: 6366: 4830: 4778: 4724: 4126: 1330: 956:

in 1946, which resulted in a victory in the Supreme Court on the grounds that segregated interstate bus lines violated the

3515: 2655: 773:

woman, was arrested for her refusal to surrender her seat to a white person—to December 20, 1956, when the federal ruling

8367: 8204: 8174: 7956: 7535: 6747: 6344: 4773: 4709: 4072: 1235: 518: 3401: 1214:(combined total equivalent to $ 159 in 2023), and she appealed. This movement also sparked riots leading up to the 8562: 8552: 8357: 8251: 8167: 8011: 7792: 7592: 6743: 6721: 4783: 4758: 4743: 4472: 4140: 3919: 3902: 2359: 2235: 2136: 1678: 1252: 495: 180: 3978: 8504: 6894: 6545: 6289: 6162: 4636: 4413: 3939: 3888: 3866: 3852: 3836: 3822: 3805: 3791: 3331: 3007: 2954: 2874: 2745: 2513: 1865: 1840: 3099: 848:, the boycott occurred at the end of many black communities' struggles in the South to protect black women, such as 8432: 8397: 8382: 8140: 7742: 6986: 6956: 6772: 6501: 6324: 6066: 4537: 4424: 3798:

Eyes on The Prize Civil Rights Reader: documents, speeches, and first hand accounts from the black freedom struggle

2188: 1272: 1025:

Black activists had begun to build a case to challenge state bus segregation laws around the arrest of 15-year-old

1226:

Some action against segregation had been in the works for some time before Parks' arrest, under the leadership of

1161:

Rosa Parks being fingerprinted by Deputy Sheriff D.H. Lackey after her arrest for boycotting public transportation

8577: 8537: 8439: 8362: 8157: 8001: 7732: 7597: 7302: 6941: 6351: 6339: 4815: 4753: 2128: 1432: 928: 2634: 1510:

contains, among other things, a sculpture "dedicated to the women who sustained the Montgomery Bus Boycott", by

8209: 8103: 8018: 7622: 4065: 4015: 2442: 2312: 2080: 1089: 571: 3231: 8246: 8179: 8162: 8108: 8057: 7996: 7901: 7862: 7802: 7602: 6991: 6971: 6778: 6757: 6361: 6304: 6103: 4445: 4418: 4236: 4039:

Online collection of original boycott documents and articles by participants – Civil Rights Movement Archive.

3960: 3281: 2345: 1481: 999: 649: 2579: 2009: 8602: 8069: 8045: 8040: 8023: 7991: 7934: 7047: 6996: 6829: 6483: 6449: 6356: 6212: 6197: 5821: 5341: 4865: 4666: 4573: 4462: 1688: 1663: 1338: 1284: 615: 480: 331: 174: 2289: 1472:

The City suspended bus service for several weeks on account of the violence. According to legal historian

8334: 8326: 8269: 8184: 7672: 7577: 7433: 7415: 7317: 6976: 6946: 6671: 6591: 6570: 6256: 5990: 5751: 4748: 4714: 4694: 4578: 4457: 4164: 3983: 3916:

Dividing Lines: Municipal Politics and the Struggle for Civil Rights in Montgomery, Birmingham, and Selma

2824: 2103: 2073: 1888: 1504:, "by 1963, most Negroes in Montgomery had returned to the old custom of riding in the back of the bus." 1445: 833: 610: 577: 500: 3477:

Dividing Lines:Municipal Politics and the Struggle for Civil Rights in Montgomery, Birmingham, and Selma

3388:

Dividing Lines:Municipal Politics and the Struggle for Civil Rights in Montgomery, Birmingham, and Selma

8612: 8607: 8557: 8352: 8289: 8279: 7829: 7587: 7547: 6904: 6598: 6334: 6202: 6172: 5156: 4911: 4800: 4730: 4201: 3603: 3023: 2184: 1764: 1702: 1349: 1102: 1083: 411: 49: 2608: 1176:. Twelve years before her history-making arrest, Parks was stopped from boarding a city bus by driver 8261: 8074: 7906: 7467: 6966: 6804: 6611: 6000: 5831: 5801: 5736: 5221: 4860: 4840: 4810: 4719: 4653: 4626: 4592: 4335: 4116: 2276: 1715: 722: 8592: 8587: 7951: 7515: 7428: 7072: 6861: 6676: 6616: 6606: 6532: 5901: 5861: 5386: 5291: 4699: 4648: 4641: 4614: 4554: 4435: 4345: 4269: 3631:. Vancouver, Canada: Canadian Committee on Labour History and Athabasca University Press: 282–284. 1668: 1143:

donated almost $ 5,000 (equivalent to $ 57,000 in 2023) to the boycott's organizing committee.

890: 712: 404: 387: 3966: 2944: 8284: 7834: 7488: 7457: 7237: 7177: 7042: 6785: 6251: 5666: 5436: 5101: 5081: 4996: 4951: 4527: 4484: 4467: 4305: 4274: 4226: 4147: 3841:

Graetz,Robert S., “A White Preacher’s Memoir-The Montgomery Bus Boycott” 1998, ISBN 1-57966-015-0

3664: 2153: 1428: 1251:

and Rev. E.N. French to name the association to lead the boycott to the city (they selected the "

1135:

owned the Montgomery Bus Line at the time of the Montgomery bus boycott. Under the leadership of

1107: 981: 859: 490: 324: 146: 105: 2256: 8547: 8542: 8199: 7929: 7167: 6961: 6951: 6889: 6699: 5706: 5441: 5426: 5421: 5296: 5151: 4991: 4936: 4506: 4356: 4279: 4250: 2425: 1601: 1291:, printed and circulated a flyer throughout Montgomery's black community that read as follows: 987: 924: 682: 243: 203: 140: 3907:

Thornton III, J. Mills. "Challenge and Response in the Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1955–1956."

3542: 3500: 2455: 2122: 2107: 1857: 1830: 1044:, which ended the Montgomery bus boycott when the Supreme Court ruled on it in December 1956. 8274: 7787: 7652: 7607: 7423: 7142: 7107: 6926: 6909: 6716: 6633: 6299: 5836: 5651: 5281: 5186: 5166: 5136: 4825: 4820: 4567: 4532: 4430: 4394: 4088: 3829:

The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It: The Memoir of Jo Ann Gibson Robinson

3693: 2999: 2993: 2252: 2225: 1387: 1093: 845: 838: 762: 654: 511: 463: 348: 99: 32: 3310:

Once We Walked: A Calendar Commemorating the 382 Days of the Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955-56

3209: 2864: 2737:

Civil Rights History from the Ground Up: Local Struggles, a National Movement - Google Books

8516: 7924: 7687: 7498: 7450: 7322: 7212: 7117: 6884: 6874: 6846: 6711: 6565: 6319: 6207: 6005: 5886: 5791: 5601: 5231: 4389: 4121: 3815:

Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference.

2537: 1790: 1588: 1364: 1359:

noted the "agitation among negroes" and tried to find "derogatory information" about King.

458: 258: 3077: 1195:

A diagram showing where Rosa Parks sat in the unreserved section at the time of her arrest

1088:

In November 1955, three weeks before Parks's defiance of Jim Crow laws in Montgomery, the

8: 8299: 7657: 7572: 7052: 6841: 6731: 6661: 6082: 6043: 5591: 5551: 5501: 5411: 5371: 5346: 5301: 5106: 5061: 4906: 4886: 4855: 4850: 4793: 4704: 4499: 4452: 4402: 4363: 3286: 2693: 1708: 1515: 1268: 1140: 1132: 1035: 969: 754: 717: 475: 195: 81: 8304: 2970: 1960: 8372: 8309: 8052: 7510: 7277: 7257: 7162: 7087: 6914: 6819: 6809: 6797: 6688: 6585: 6560: 6399: 6167: 6151: 6144: 6123: 6115: 6109: 6072: 5906: 5816: 5796: 5721: 5701: 5691: 5671: 5586: 5471: 5416: 5361: 5266: 5046: 4961: 4620: 4604: 4584: 4350: 4315: 4242: 3742: 3734: 3681: 3640: 3608: 3457: 3437: 3368: 3360: 3171: 2206: 1726: 1596: 1207: 1181: 943: 912: 881: 854: 806: 750: 3660:"Social Movements and Social-Change Litigation: Synergy in the Montgomery Bus Protest" 3558:"What's inside Montgomery's national peace and slave memorial museum opening April 26" 2089: 8622: 7819: 7540: 7202: 7172: 6767: 6524: 6267: 6182: 6177: 6137: 6010: 5781: 5766: 5731: 5511: 5431: 5376: 5161: 4325: 4320: 4192: 4178: 4171: 4132: 4042: 3935: 3898: 3884: 3862: 3848: 3832: 3818: 3801: 3787: 3746: 3715:"The Role of Law in the Civil Rights Movement: The Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955-1957" 3535: 3327: 3178: 3126: 3003: 2950: 2870: 2843: 2741: 2663: 2486: 2461: 2318: 2308: 2231: 2132: 2056: 2046: 1991: 1981: 1929: 1919: 1892: 1861: 1836: 1755: 1745: 1720: 1501: 1276: 505: 4057: 3372: 1325:

for refusing to provide restrooms for Black people. The organizer of that campaign,

7975: 7946: 7941: 7839: 7807: 7780: 7505: 7122: 7092: 7082: 7077: 6644: 6444: 6429: 6419: 6389: 6130: 6077: 5926: 5911: 5876: 5741: 5686: 5676: 5571: 5446: 5381: 5256: 5171: 5131: 5121: 5111: 5096: 5091: 5066: 4956: 4340: 4255: 4218: 3726: 3673: 3632: 3562: 3449: 3352: 3150:. Washington University Libraries, Film and Media Archive, Henry Hampton Collection 3100:"The Life and Words of Martin Luther King, Jr. (Part 1 of 2) | Scholastic.com" 2384: 2285: 1956: 1563: 1440: 1296: 1040: 1026: 1020: 968:. Further incidents continued to take place in Montgomery, including the arrest of 863: 775: 770: 727: 693: 537: 380: 316: 132: 110: 4027:, Montgomery County Sheriff's Office, Alabama Department of Archives & History 3963:, includes oral history interviews and materials concerning Montgomery Bus Boycott 3438:"Martin Luther King's Constitution: A Legal History of the Montgomery Bus Boycott" 815: 7970: 7797: 7707: 7702: 7633:

Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)

7483: 7438: 7292: 7282: 7262: 7247: 7147: 7022: 7012: 6651: 6439: 6424: 6409: 6227: 5856: 5846: 5806: 5786: 5746: 5621: 5611: 5576: 5536: 5521: 5456: 5321: 5271: 5201: 5086: 5036: 5021: 5011: 5006: 4986: 4971: 4966: 4941: 4881: 4805: 4408: 4379: 4374: 4330: 4310: 4289: 4261: 4048: 4019: 3995: 3973: 3859:

The Origins Of The Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing For Change

1811: 1641: 1626: 1578: 1553: 1548: 1533: 1473: 1412: 1326: 1288: 1248: 1239: 1215: 1047: 1007: 957: 885: 765:

in the United States. The campaign lasted from December 5, 1955—the Monday after

231: 3343:

McAdam, Doug (December 1983). "Tactical Innovation and the Pace of Insurgency".

8407: 7812: 7775: 7765: 7525: 7520: 7462: 7297: 7227: 7157: 7152: 6656: 6580: 6478: 6459: 6048: 5896: 5881: 5811: 5761: 5726: 5711: 5696: 5656: 5636: 5626: 5581: 5566: 5546: 5316: 5286: 5276: 5246: 5236: 5146: 5116: 4916: 4542: 4494: 4384: 2971:"Montgomery Bus Boycott: The story of Rosa Parks and the Civil Rights Movement" 2335: 1740: 1636: 1621: 1606: 1573: 1543: 1485: 1376: 1353: 1177: 1136: 304: 1514:, to help illustrate the civil rights period. The memorial opened in downtown 1448:. On November 13, 1956, the Supreme Court upheld the district court's ruling. 1321:, including the successful boycott a few years earlier of service stations in 8531: 7365: 7347: 7337: 7307: 7252: 7207: 7192: 7137: 7127: 7112: 7062: 7057: 7027: 6824: 6752: 6575: 6454: 6384: 6232: 6098: 5921: 5851: 5756: 5606: 5541: 5526: 5516: 5476: 5401: 5391: 5351: 5336: 5226: 5216: 5176: 5126: 5001: 4926: 4896: 3895:

How Long? How Long?: African American Women in the Struggle for Civil Rights.

3810:

Freedman, Russell, "Freedom Walkers: The Story of the Montgomery Bus Boycott"

3604:"A Lynching Memorial Is Opening. The Country Has Never Seen Anything Like It" 3584: 3490: 3409: 2667: 2060: 1995: 1933: 1631: 1583: 1568: 1466: 1118:

ruling addressed the matter of Jim Crow travel within the individual states.

995: 965: 802: 638: 3882:

My Soul Is Rested: The Story Of The Civil Rights Movement In The Deep South.

3764:

Berg, Allison, "Trauma and Testimony in Black Women's Civil Rights Memoirs:

2892:"Address to the first Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) Mass Meeting" 2322: 1832:

Race and Racism in the United States: An Encyclopedia of the American Mosaic

1172:

by profession; she was also the secretary for the Montgomery chapter of the

7677: 7445: 7370: 7342: 7327: 7312: 7267: 7242: 7222: 7132: 7102: 7097: 7067: 7017: 6869: 6555: 6414: 6394: 5916: 5871: 5866: 5826: 5661: 5641: 5596: 5531: 5466: 5451: 5366: 5356: 5311: 5261: 5251: 5241: 5211: 5206: 5196: 5181: 5141: 5076: 5056: 5051: 5031: 5026: 5016: 4976: 4931: 4901: 4284: 2227:

The Jim Crow Encyclopedia: Greenwood Milestones in African-American History

2211:"African American passengers boycott segregated buses in Baton Rouge, 1953" 2158: 1778: 1558: 1496: 1477: 1380: 953: 869: 828: 811: 625: 2040: 1975: 1913: 1469:, one of the few white Montgomerians who had publicly sided with the MIA. 1038:, where Rosa Parks was an advisor. Colvin's legal case formed the core of 7697: 7682: 7530: 7493: 7332: 7287: 7272: 7037: 7032: 6879: 6434: 6404: 6031: 5995: 5936: 5931: 5891: 5841: 5776: 5771: 5681: 5631: 5561: 5556: 5496: 5481: 5331: 5326: 5191: 5071: 5041: 4981: 4946: 4207: 4036: 2795:

Black Maverick: T.R.M. Howard's Fight for Civil Rights and Economic Power

2604: 1611: 1391: 1334: 1322: 1227: 1185: 1059: 1053: 1003: 920: 908: 902: 849: 248: 3644: 2182: 7232: 7217: 7187: 7182: 6931: 6899: 6738: 6706: 6058: 5716: 5646: 5616: 5486: 5461: 5406: 5306: 4921: 4891: 3956: 3685: 3659: 3658:

Coleman, Christopher; Nee, Laurence D.; Rubinowitz, Leonard S. (2005).

3364: 1616: 1538: 1318: 1309: 1204: 1191: 1165: 1152: 916: 766: 620: 424: 253: 116: 45: 7568:

Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)

3738: 3714: 3461: 3256: 2441:

The company was sold to the City of Montgomery in 1974 and become the

2223: 866:, among others, for refusing to give up her seat on a Montgomery bus. 7846: 7692: 7197: 6981: 6919: 6814: 6036: 5506: 5491: 3636: 2823:

2709:"Leaflet, "Don't Ride the Bus", Come to a Mass Meeting on 5 December" 1511: 991: 6493: 4009: 4001: 3356: 8319: 8314: 7824: 5396: 3730: 3677: 3453: 2250: 1431:

traveling exhibition "381 Days: The Montgomery Bus Boycott" at the

1305: 1271:

bus, No. 2857, on which Rosa Parks rode before she was arrested (a

7583:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

4030: 2822: 952:(NAACP) had accepted and litigated other cases, including that of 6936: 5985: 1371: 1263: 758: 746: 3926:

Landmark Events in American History: The Montgomery Bus Boycott.

2305:

Getting Away With Murder: The True Story of the Emmett Till Case

40: 7770: 6053: 2124:

Justice Older Than the Law: The Life of Dovey Johnson Roundtree

1169: 3959:

Collection on Alabama Civil Rights and Southern Activists, at

2555:"Rosa Parks, civil rights icon, dead at 92 - The Boston Globe" 2204: 1424: 1048:

Murder of Emmett Till; trial and acquittal of the perpetrators

998:

for sitting in a front row. Four days after the strike began,

7582: 4788: 2946:

Encyclopedia of African American History, 1896 to the Present

1858:"The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History, Volume 1" 1199:

In 1955, Parks completed a course in "Race Relations" at the

949: 816: 61:

December 5, 1955 – December 20, 1956

2829:

The Martin Luther King Jr., Research and Education Institute

2538:"Parks, Rosa Louise." Encyclopedia Americana. Grolier Online 7627: 2102: 1980:(1st ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. xviii. 3932:

Eyes on The Prize: America's Civil Rights Years, 1954-1965

2108:"The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow: MORGAN v. Virginia (1946)" 1684:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

1096:

Private Sarah Keys, closed the legal loophole left by the

950:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

3786:(1988; New York: Simon & Schuster/Touchstone, 1989). 3589:

Legacy Museum and National Memorial for Peace and Justice

3048:"State of Alabama v. M. L. King, Jr., Nos. 7399 and 9593" 2866:

The Montgomery Bus Boycott: A History and Reference Guide

2432:, Volume II, 4 ed., Rowman and Littlefield, 2009, p. 730. 1829:

Gallagher, Charles A.; Lippard, Cameron D., eds. (2014).

1356: 4031:

Martin Luther King and the "Montgomery Story" Comic Book

3979:

Montgomery Bus Boycott – Story of Montgomery Bus Boycott

2609:"Grier Integrated a Game and Earned the World's Respect" 2457:

The UAW and the Heyday of American Liberalism, 1945–1968

929:

Alabama Committee for Equal Justice for Mrs. Recy Taylor

870:

Previous transport and bus boycotts in the United States

6238:

Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam

6016:"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)" 3967:

Montgomery Bus Boycott article, Encyclopedia of Alabama

3831:(Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1987). 3766:

The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It

3496:

Parting the Waters: America in the King Years 1954-1963

6262:

African American founding fathers of the United States

4615:

Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement

4480:

John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights

3784:

Parting The Waters: America In The King Years, 1954-63

1386:

In response, opposing whites swelled the ranks of the

1074: 4087: 3232:"Browder v. Gayle, 142 F. Supp. 707 (M.D. Ala. 1956)" 2812:. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers. p. 49. 2086:"The Road to Civil Rights: Journey of Reconciliation" 1762: 1456:

and gave King national attention as a rising leader.

3657: 2797:. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. p. 139. 346: 6310:

Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument

1495:Later in the year, Montgomery police charged seven 1488:, on the pretext that he was dating a white woman. 3534: 3170: 1071:magazine, the two men admitted to murdering Till. 2998:. Minneapolis: Lerner Publishing Group. pp. 1880: 16:1950s American protest against racial segregation 8529: 7618:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) 4846:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) 3984:Encyclopedia entry on the Montgomery Bus Boycott 2918:"To J.Edgar Hoover from Special Agent in Charge" 2121:McCabe, Katie; Roundtree, Dovey Johnson (2009). 1881:McCloskey, Robert G.; Levinson, Sanford (2010). 1828: 1275:, serial number 1132), is now on exhibit at the 844:Although it is often framed as the start of the 272:W. A. Gayle, President of the Commission (mayor) 7663:Black players in professional American football 7613:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) 4836:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) 4769:Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights 4660:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County 3312:. Montgomery: NewSouth Books. 2005. p. 31. 2224:Nikki L. M. Brown, Barry M. Stentiford (2008). 2120: 911:, a black woman, was raped by six white men in 876:Transport and bus boycotts in the United States 6315:Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument 3616: 3390:. University of Alabama Press. pp. 111–2. 2889: 2793:Beito, David T.; Beito, Linda Royster (2009). 1480:(who would later be charged for the bombings) 934: 820:, and left stranded after paying their fares. 441:Shuttlesworth v. Birmingham Board of Education 6509: 6223:List of lynching victims in the United States 4561:Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States 4073: 3698:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of March 2024 ( 3585:"The National Memorial for Peace and Justice" 3431: 3429: 3427: 3125:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 96–97. 2302: 2200: 2198: 1014: 332: 7376:Historically black colleges and universities 3202:"381 Days: The Montgomery Bus Boycott Story" 1308:to discuss boycott strategies. At that time 1168:(February 4, 1913 – October 24, 2005) was a 789:History of civil rights in the United States 4690:Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights 3516:"10 Things You Don't Know About Rosa Parks" 3196: 3194: 3145: 2848:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 2810:Martin Luther King, Jr. Civil Rights Leader 2338:University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill 2272:"The Origins of the Montgomery Bus Boycott" 2045:(1st ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 1735:Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story 1508:The National Memorial for Peace and Justice 1092:(ICC), in response to a complaint filed by 823:The year before the bus boycott began, the 6516: 6502: 4739:Council for United Civil Rights Leadership 4080: 4066: 4010:Montgomery Bus Boycott – Presented by the 3479:. University of Alabama Press. p. 94. 3424: 3050:. kinginstitute.stanford.edu. July 7, 2017 2792: 2656:"E.D. Nixon, leader in civil rights, dies" 2195: 2076:United States Department of Transportation 1946: 975: 645:University of Alabama desegregation crisis 591:Smith v. Young Men's Christian Association 453:Armstrong v. Birmingham Board of Education 339: 325: 39: 8628:December 1955 events in the United States 7593:National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC) 6295:Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument 3601: 3532: 3513: 3326:, page 123. Charro Book Co., Inc., 1991. 3208:. Smithsonian Institution. Archived from 3177:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. xx. 2942: 2460:. Cornell University Press. p. 121. 2034: 2032: 2030: 1918:. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. 689:Tuskegee High School desegregation crisis 6330:King Center for Nonviolent Social Change 4370:University of Georgia desegregation riot 3474: 3385: 3191: 3070:"Remembering the Montgomery Bus Boycott" 2949:. Oxford University Press. p. 360. 2807: 2711:. Mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu. Archived from 2548: 2546: 2277:Journal of the Southern Regional Council 1949:Mobilization: An International Quarterly 1860:. Oxford University Press. p. 396. 1423: 1262: 1190: 1156: 549:Martin Luther King Jr. residence bombing 486:Gaston Motel and King residence bombings 153:Southern Christian Leadership Conference 6244:Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence 5981:"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus" 5976:"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round" 4053:The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks. 3712: 3622: 3435: 3324:The Birth of the Montgomery Bus Boycott 3168: 3120: 2632: 2480: 2038: 1973: 1911: 1110:. However, neither the Supreme Court's 8530: 8492:Topics related to the African diaspora 7598:National Council of Negro Women (NCNW) 6158:African-American women in the movement 4610:White House Conference on Civil Rights 4441:"Segregation now, segregation forever" 3602:Robertson, Campbell (April 25, 2018). 3555: 3549: 3514:Theoharis, Jeanne (February 4, 2013). 3489: 3342: 2862: 2856: 2733: 2603: 2552: 2269: 2178: 2176: 2151: 2145: 2027: 2010:"Transportation Protests: 1841 - 1992" 1238:. Nixon intended that her arrest be a 896: 700:Lee v. Macon County Board of Education 584:U.S. v. Montgomery County Board of Ed. 8598:Transportation in Montgomery, Alabama 8472:Landmark African-American legislation 6523: 6497: 4599:Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections 4061: 3871: 2991: 2920:. Stanford University. Archived from 2894:. Stanford University. Archived from 2543: 2453: 2154:"Civil rights heroes may get pardons" 1855: 761:. It was a foundational event in the 320: 7603:National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) 6367:St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument 4831:Regional Council of Negro Leadership 4779:Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party 4725:Committee on Appeal for Human Rights 4202:Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company 4127:Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore 3796:Carson, Clayborne, et al., editors, 2307:. New York: Phyllis Fogelman Books. 2257:"The First Civil Rights Bus Boycott" 1660:Committee for Nonviolent Integration 1331:Regional Council of Negro Leadership 831:decided unanimously, in the case of 8583:African-American history of Alabama 7957:African-American Vernacular English 4774:Lowndes County Freedom Organization 4710:Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters 4380:Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address 3861:(New York: The Free Press, 1984). 3577: 3076:. February 22, 2016. Archived from 2360:"Jim Crow Barred in Interstate Bus" 2230:. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 66. 2173: 1961:10.17813/maiq.18.2.83123352476r2x82 1283:On the night of Parks' arrest, the 1236:Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters 1100:ruling in a landmark case known as 519:Shuttlesworth v. City of Birmingham 435:First Bethel Baptist Church bombing 13: 7875:U.S. cities with large populations 7578:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) 6218:African-American churches attacked 4784:Montgomery Improvement Association 4759:Georgia Council on Human Relations 4744:Council of Federated Organizations 4715:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) 4473:16th Street Baptist Church bombing 4431:Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot 4237:1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom 4141:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents 3934:(New York: Penguin Books, 1988). 3757: 3556:Wright, Barnett (April 19, 2018). 2512:. December 1, 1955. Archived from 2485:. Random House. p. 8 and 39. 2454:Boyle, Kevin (November 21, 1995). 1679:Montgomery Improvement Association 1253:Montgomery Improvement Association 1184:, to investigate the gang rape of 496:16th Street Baptist Church bombing 399:George Wallace's Inaugural Address 278:Clyde Sellers, Police Commissioner 181:Montgomery Improvement Association 14: 8639: 6748:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013 6744:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009 6551:African American founding fathers 6290:Birmingham Civil Rights Institute 6163:Jews in the civil rights movement 3946: 2553:Feeney, Mark (October 25, 2005). 797:Civil rights movement (1896–1954) 793:Civil rights movement (1865–1896) 288:Kenneth E. Totten, vice president 8510: 7628:United Negro College Fund (UNCF) 6773:Nadir of American race relations 6484:Civil rights movement portal 6477: 6325:Freedom Riders National Monument 6067:The Kingdom of God Is Within You 4579:1965 Selma to Montgomery marches 4538:1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests 4425:Second Emancipation Proclamation 4037:Montgomery Bus Boycott Documents 3897:Oxford University Press. (1997) 3800:(New York:Penguin Books, 1991). 3282:"Browder v. Gayle, 352 U.S. 903" 2633:Jackson, Joelle (May 31, 2011). 2152:Borger, Julian (April 3, 2006). 1784: 1772: 1653: 1333:, had spoken on the lynching of 1031:Booker T. Washington High School 964:ruling by instituting their own 915:. After investigating her case, 753:on the public transit system of 6634:Civil rights movement 1954–1968 6624:Civil rights movement 1865–1896 6352:Mississippi Civil Rights Museum 6340:Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial 4816:National Council of Negro Women 4754:Deacons for Defense and Justice 4045:, Civil Rights Digital Library. 3998:– Civil Rights Movement Archive 3953:Alabama Civil Rights Collection 3713:Glennon, Robert Jerome (1991). 3706: 3672:(4): 663–736 (notes 106, 187). 3651: 3595: 3526: 3507: 3483: 3468: 3436:Kennedy, Randall (April 1989). 3394: 3379: 3336: 3316: 3302: 3274: 3249: 3224: 3162: 3139: 3114: 3092: 3062: 3040: 3024:"Montgomery, Ala., Bus Boycott" 3016: 2985: 2963: 2936: 2910: 2883: 2816: 2801: 2786: 2761: 2740:. University of Georgia Press. 2727: 2701: 2681: 2648: 2626: 2597: 2572: 2531: 2499: 2474: 2447: 2435: 2419: 2409: 2391: 2377: 2352: 2329: 2296: 2263: 2244: 2217: 2129:University Press of Mississippi 2114: 2096: 2067: 1521: 1433:Washington State History Museum 749:campaign against the policy of 544:Robert Graetz residence bombing 8568:History of Montgomery, Alabama 7623:Thurgood Marshall College Fund 6629:Civil right movement 1896–1954 4232:Mansfield school desegregation 3533:Silberman, Charles E. (1964). 3499:. Simon and Schuster. p. 2863:Phibbs, Cheryl Fisher (2009). 2443:Montgomery Area Transit System 2081:Federal Highway Administration 2002: 1967: 1940: 1905: 1874: 1856:Smith, Bonnie G., ed. (2008). 1849: 1822: 1804: 1221: 1090:Interstate Commerce Commission 572:New York Times Co. v. Sullivan 1: 8618:Bus transportation in Alabama 7803:Cherokee freedmen controversy 6779:The Negro Motorist Green Book 6362:National Voting Rights Museum 6305:Civil Rights Movement Archive 6104:Lynching in the United States 5991:"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize" 4446:Stand in the Schoolhouse Door 4419:University of Chicago sit-ins 4186:Davis v. Prince Edward County 3961:Pennsylvania State University 3774:From the Mississippi Delta', 3173:At the Dark End of the Street 2481:McGuire, Danielle L. (2010). 2430:The American South: A History 2039:McGuire, Danielle L. (2010). 1974:McGuire, Danielle L. (2010). 1816:Civil Rights Movement Archive 1797: 1146: 841:as a result of the decision. 782: 718:Murder of William Lewis Moore 650:Stand in the Schoolhouse Door 598:Gilmore v. City of Montgomery 555:Gilmore v. City of Montgomery 192:City Commission of Montgomery 8573:History of racism in Alabama 6357:National Civil Rights Museum 6213:March on Washington Movement 6198:Dexter Avenue Baptist Church 4667:Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co. 3345:American Sociological Review 3123:At the Dark End of the Stree 1664:Fellowship of Reconciliation 1459: 1339:Dexter Avenue Baptist Church 1234:chapter and a member of the 616:Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson 52:reporter covering the event. 7: 7673:Black players in ice hockey 7608:National Urban League (NUL) 7434:American Society of Muslims 6672:Selma to Montgomery marches 6592:Brown v. Board of Education 6001:"This Little Light of Mine" 4749:Dallas County Voters League 4695:Atlanta Negro Voters League 4458:Letter from Birmingham Jail 4165:Brown v. Board of Education 3680:(inactive March 19, 2024). 3475:Thornton, J. Mills (2006). 3386:Thornton, J. Mills (2006). 2507:"Rosa Park's arrest report" 2104:Public Broadcasting Service 1889:University of Chicago Press 1695: 1446:United States Supreme Court 1247:returned, he caucused with 1011:racially reserved seating. 834:Brown v. Board of Education 745:was a political and social 611:Selma to Montgomery marches 578:Selma to Montgomery marches 506:Murder of Virgil Lamar Ware 501:Shooting of Johnny Robinson 470:Gober v. City of Birmingham 368:Alabama Pupil Placement Law 204:Montgomery Citizens Council 10: 8644: 7830:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 7588:Nashville Student Movement 6599:Children of the plantation 6335:Martin Luther King Jr. Day 6203:Holt Street Baptist Church 6173:16th Street Baptist Church 5157:Annie Bell Robinson Devine 4801:Nashville Student Movement 4731:An Appeal for Human Rights 4025:Civil Rights Era Mug Shots 4018:December 13, 2012, at the 4002:Learning From Rosa Parks, 3992:– African-American History 3990:The Montgomery Bus Boycott 3844:King, Martin Luther, Jr., 3827:Garrow, David J., editor, 3776:Journal of Women's History 3169:McGuire, Danielle (2010). 3121:McGuire, Danielle (2010). 2635:"E.D. Nixon (1899-1987) •" 2185:Louisiana State University 1884:The American Supreme Court 1703:1957 Alexandra Bus Boycott 1419: 1350:Holt Street Baptist Church 1258: 1150: 1121: 1103:Keys v. Carolina Coach Co. 1084:Keys v. Carolina Coach Co. 1081: 1076:Keys v. Carolina Coach Co. 1051: 1018: 1015:Arrest of Claudette Colvin 1000:Louisiana Attorney General 986:On February 25, 1953, the 979: 941: 900: 873: 786: 728:Murder of Jonathan Daniels 694:Murder of Sammy Younge Jr. 8563:1955 in the United States 8553:Boycotts of organizations 8500: 8467:Index of related articles 8345: 8260: 7984: 7917: 7855: 7755: 7716: 7648: 7641: 7556: 7476: 7468:Doctrine of Father Divine 7414: 7356: 7005: 6860: 6852:Women's suffrage movement 6805:Reconstruction Amendments 6612:Voting Rights Act of 1965 6531: 6473: 6375: 6277: 6091: 6024: 5966: 5945: 5832:Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson 5802:Modjeska Monteith Simkins 4874: 4866:Women's Political Council 4861:Wednesdays in Mississippi 4856:United Auto Workers (UAW) 4841:Southern Regional Council 4811:Northern Student Movement 4720:Committee for Freedom Now 4680: 4627:Memphis sanitation strike 4593:Voting Rights Act of 1965 4515: 4336:Savannah Protest Movement 4298: 4156: 4117:Journey of Reconciliation 4109: 4096: 3914:Thornton III, J. Mills. 3778:, 21 (Fall 2009), 84–107. 3541:. Random House. pp. 3537:Crisis in Black and White 3406:www.montgomeryboycott.com 2808:Jakoubek, Robert (1989). 2773:nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu 2584:www.digitalhistory.uh.edu 2403:www.smithsoniansource.org 2388:, 142 F. Supp. 707 (1956) 2344:. unc.edu. Archived from 2270:Garrow, David J. (1985). 2189:"Baton Rouge Bus Boycott" 2088:. dot.gov. Archived from 1887:(5th ed.). Chicago: 1835:. ABC-CLIO. p. 807. 1716:Bristol Bus Boycott, 1963 1689:Women's Political Council 1526: 1285:Women's Political Council 1273:GM "old-look" transit bus 1230:, president of the local 723:Murder of Willie Brewster 667:Tuskegee merchant boycott 360: 275:Frank Parks, Commissioner 221: 216: 175:Women's Political Council 166: 161: 125: 89: 76: 57: 38: 30: 25: 8517:United States portal 7952:African-American English 7381:Inventors and scientists 7073:George Washington Carver 6677:Chicago Freedom Movement 4700:Atlanta Student Movement 4649:Civil Rights Act of 1968 4574:1964–1965 Scripto strike 4555:Civil Rights Act of 1964 4453:1963 Birmingham campaign 4346:Civil Rights Act of 1960 4270:Civil Rights Act of 1957 3665:Law & Social Inquiry 3102:. Teacher.scholastic.com 2943:Finkleman, Paul (2009). 2869:. ABC-CLIO. p. 19. 2825:"Montgomery Bus Boycott" 2342:"Remembering Sarah Keys" 1912:Lipsitz, George (2011). 1812:"Montgomery Bus Boycott" 891:Civil Rights Act of 1875 801:Before the bus boycott, 713:Murder of Willie Edwards 566:Connecticut Freedom Ride 405:United States v. Wallace 388:United States v. Alabama 8440:African-American firsts 7489:Back-to-Africa movement 7458:Black Hebrew Israelites 7238:Adam Clayton Powell Jr. 6786:Partus sequitur ventrem 6252:Voter Education Project 6006:"We Shall Not Be Moved" 5667:Adam Clayton Powell Jr. 5102:Josephine Dobbs Clement 4528:Chester school protests 4523:Twenty-fourth Amendment 4485:Detroit Walk to Freedom 4227:Tallahassee bus boycott 4148:Baton Rouge bus boycott 3876:. New York: Dial Books. 2973:. Montgomeryboycott.com 2734:Crosby, Emilye (2011). 2540:(accessed May 8, 2009). 1429:Smithsonian Institution 1388:White Citizens' Council 1337:as King's guest at the 1108:Interstate Commerce Act 982:Baton Rouge bus boycott 976:Baton Rouge bus boycott 860:Baton Rouge bus boycott 839:White Citizens' Council 491:Birmingham riot of 1963 301:Jack Crenshaw, attorney 147:Tallahassee bus boycott 106:Baton Rouge bus boycott 8578:Martin Luther King Jr. 8538:Montgomery bus boycott 8408:Spingarn Medal winners 7897:States and territories 7668:Black NFL quarterbacks 7168:Martin Luther King Jr. 6700:Dred Scott v. Sandford 6639:Montgomery bus boycott 6465:Movement photographers 5707:Bernice Johnson Reagon 5427:Martin Luther King Sr. 5422:Martin Luther King Jr. 4992:William Holmes Borders 4764:Highlander Folk School 4654:Poor People's Campaign 4507:St. Augustine movement 4357:Gomillion v. Lightfoot 4280:Katz Drug Store sit-in 4251:Royal Ice Cream sit-in 4213:Montgomery bus boycott 4043:Montgomery Bus Boycott 3996:Montgomery Bus Boycott 3846:Stride Toward Freedom. 3719:Law and History Review 2995:Martin Luther King, Jr 2426:William J. Cooper, Jr. 2303:Crowe, Chris. (2003). 1915:How racism takes place 1602:Martin Luther King Jr. 1435: 1401: 1302: 1280: 1201:Highlander Folk School 1196: 1162: 907:On September 3, 1944, 743:Montgomery bus boycott 683:Gomillion v. Lightfoot 626:Murder of Viola Liuzzo 532:Montgomery bus boycott 430:Birmingham bus boycott 394:Original Freedom Rides 244:Martin Luther King Jr. 141:Martin Luther King Jr. 26:Montgomery bus boycott 7718:Athletic associations 7653:Negro league baseball 7424:African-American Jews 7143:Ketanji Brown Jackson 7108:Henry Highland Garnet 6967:Negro National Anthem 6717:George Floyd protests 6682:Post–civil rights era 6300:Civil Rights Memorial 6188:Bethel Baptist Church 5837:Charles Kenzie Steele 5282:Audrey Faye Hendricks 5187:Myrlie Evers-Williams 5167:Patricia Stephens Due 5137:Abraham Lincoln Davis 5072:Colia Lafayette Clark 4826:Operation Breadbasket 4821:National Urban League 4568:Katzenbach v. McClung 4436:Atlanta's Berlin Wall 4089:Civil rights movement 4012:Montgomery Advertiser 3972:May 14, 2013, at the 2662:. February 27, 1987. 2428:, Thomas E. Terrill, 2253:National Public Radio 2014:Civil Rights Teaching 1454:Civil Rights Movement 1427: 1396: 1293: 1266: 1194: 1160: 1114:ruling nor the ICC's 846:civil rights movement 763:civil rights movement 512:Katzenbach v. McClung 464:Birmingham bus attack 349:Civil Rights Movement 293:Montgomery City Lines 200:Montgomery City Lines 100:public transportation 33:Civil Rights Movement 7925:Afro-Seminole Creole 7451:Azusa Street Revival 7323:Booker T. Washington 6847:Underground Railroad 6712:Free people of color 6566:Atlantic slave trade 6345:other King memorials 6320:Freedom Rides Museum 6257:1960s counterculture 6208:Edmund Pettus Bridge 5887:Walter Francis White 5792:Alexander D. Shimkin 4306:New Year's Day March 4275:Ministers' Manifesto 4122:Executive Order 9981 3911:67.1 (2014): 40–112. 3872:Parks, Rosa (1992). 3442:The Yale Law Journal 2992:Darby, Jean (1990). 2890:Martin Luther King. 2399:"Smithsonian Source" 2348:on December 3, 2013. 2340:(November 7, 2012). 2288:: 24. Archived from 2209:(December 9, 2010). 2187:(December 1, 2013). 2084:(October 17, 2013). 1408:against injustice." 1203:in Tennessee, where 966:Jim Crow regulations 862:, and the arrest of 621:Murder of James Reeb 459:Anniston bus bombing 298:J.H. Bagley, manager 8603:Protests in Alabama 8320:Trinidad and Tobago 7935:Black American Sign 7762:By African descent 7756:Ethnic subdivisions 7743:Southwestern (SWAC) 7658:Baseball color line 7573:Black Panther Party 7477:Political movements 7394:in computer science 7053:Carol Moseley Braun 6842:Tulsa race massacre 6835:Treatment of slaves 6667:March on Washington 6662:Birmingham movement 6083:Mary McLeod Bethune 6044:Sermon on the Mount 6011:"We Shall Overcome" 5592:William Lewis Moore 5372:Frank Minis Johnson 5347:Richie Jean Jackson 5302:Donald L. Hollowell 5107:Charles E. Cobb Jr. 4912:Gwendolyn Armstrong 4907:William G. Anderson 4887:Victoria Gray Adams 4851:The Freedom Singers 4705:Black Panther Party 4490:March on Washington 4403:Garner v. Louisiana 4364:Boynton v. Virginia 3625:Labour / Le Travail 3412:on February 6, 2016 3287:Stanford University 2924:on December 7, 2013 2898:on December 6, 2013 2694:Library of Congress 2607:(January 1, 2006). 2519:on October 22, 2015 2364:archive.nytimes.com 1518:on April 26, 2018. 1516:Montgomery, Alabama 1269:National City Lines 1141:United Auto Workers 1133:National City Lines 1036:NAACP Youth Council 970:Lillie Mae Bradford 897:Rape of Recy Taylor 476:Birmingham campaign 412:Hamilton v. Alabama 283:National City Lines 196:National City Lines 82:Montgomery, Alabama 8418:US representatives 8413:US cabinet members 8305:Dominican Republic 7892:Metropolitan areas 7733:Mid-Eastern (MEAC) 7558:Civic and economic 7536:Self-determination 7357:Education, science 7278:Fred Shuttlesworth 7258:A. Philip Randolph 7163:Coretta Scott King 7088:Frederick Douglass 6915:Harlem Renaissance 6820:Separate but equal 6810:Reconstruction era 6798:Plessy v. Ferguson 6689:Cornerstone Speech 6603:Civil Rights Acts 6586:Black Lives Matter 6561:American Civil War 6400:Michael Eric Dyson 6285:In popular culture 6168:Fifth Circuit Four 6152:Loving v. Virginia 6145:Hernandez v. Texas 6124:Buchanan v. Warley 6116:Separate but equal 6110:Plessy v. Ferguson 6073:Frederick Douglass 5907:Robert F. Williams 5817:Kelly Miller Smith 5797:Fred Shuttlesworth 5722:Frederick D. Reese 5702:George Raymond Jr. 5692:A. Philip Randolph 5672:Fay Bellamy Powell 5587:Queen Mother Moore 5472:Z. Alexander Looby 5417:Coretta Scott King 5362:Barbara Rose Johns 5342:Jimmie Lee Jackson 5267:William E. Harbour 5047:Stokely Carmichael 4962:Randolph Blackwell 4632:King assassination 4621:Loving v. Virginia 4605:March Against Fear 4585:How Long, Not Long 4463:Children's Crusade 4414:Cambridge movement 4351:Ax Handle Saturday 4316:Greensboro sit-ins 4243:Give Us the Ballot 3893:Robnett, Belinda. 3857:Morris, Aldon D., 3770:Warriors Don't Cry 3609:The New York Times 3257:"Gayle v. Browder" 2660:The New York Times 2207:Swarthmore College 2092:on April 30, 2011. 1727:The Long Walk Home 1597:Coretta Scott King 1593:Grover C. Hall Jr. 1436: 1281: 1208:civil disobedience 1197: 1182:Abbeville, Alabama 1163: 1094:Women's Army Corps 944:Morgan v. Virginia 936:Morgan v. Virginia 913:Abbeville, Alabama 882:Frederick Douglass 855:Morgan v. Virginia 807:racial segregation 751:racial segregation 632:City of Tuscaloosa 561:Montgomery sit-ins 526:City of Montgomery 481:Children's Crusade 447:Birmingham sit-ins 419:City of Birmingham 374:NAACP v. Patterson 96:Racial segregation 8613:1956 in transport 8608:1955 in transport 8558:Conflicts in 1955 8525: 8524: 8353:African Americans 8225:Dallas–Fort Worth 7820:Black Southerners 7751: 7750: 7203:Thurgood Marshall 7173:Bernard Lafayette 6768:Million Man March 6525:African Americans 6491: 6490: 6268:Eyes on the Prize 6183:A.G. Gaston Motel 6178:Kelly Ingram Park 6138:Sweatt v. Painter 5822:Mary Louise Smith 5782:Cleveland Sellers 5767:Michael Schwerner 5732:Gloria Richardson 5512:Thurgood Marshall 5432:Bernard Lafayette 5162:John Wesley Dobbs 4676: 4675: 4395:Birmingham attack 4375:Rock Hill sit-ins 4326:Sibley Commission 4321:Nashville sit-ins 4193:Gebhart v. Belton 4179:Briggs v. Elliott 4172:Bolling v. Sharpe 4133:Sweatt v. Painter 3813:Garrow, David J. 3212:on March 16, 2011 3184:978-0-307-26906-5 3132:978-0-307-26906-5 2580:"Digital History" 2492:978-0-307-26906-5 2467:978-1-5017-1327-9 2292:on July 14, 2010. 2255:(June 19, 2003). 2213:. swarthmore.edu. 2052:978-0-307-26906-5 1987:978-0-307-26906-5 1925:978-1-4399-0257-8 1898:978-0-226-55686-4 1756:Eyes on the Prize 1746:Rosa Parks Museum 1721:The Legacy Museum 1674:Men of Montgomery 1647:Mary Louise Smith 1502:Charles Silberman 1413:Club from Nowhere 1365:Lloyd's of London 1277:Henry Ford Museum 736: 735: 315: 314: 212: 211: 104:Successful 6-day 8635: 8515: 8514: 8513: 8477:Lynching victims 7976:Louisiana Creole 7947:American English 7835:Louisiana Creole 7808:Choctaw freedmen 7646: 7645: 7183:Huddie Ledbetter 7123:Fannie Lou Hamer 7093:W. E. B. Du Bois 7083:Claudette Colvin 7078:Shirley Chisholm 6895:Family structure 6763:Military history 6645:Browder v. Gayle 6518: 6511: 6504: 6495: 6494: 6482: 6481: 6445:Charles M. Payne 6430:Steven F. Lawson 6420:David Halberstam 6390:Clayborne Carson 6131:Hocutt v. Wilson 6078:W. E. B. Du Bois 5927:Sammy Younge Jr. 5912:Q. V. Williamson 5877:Wyatt Tee Walker 5742:Bernice Robinson 5687:Lincoln Ragsdale 5677:Rodney N. Powell 5572:Douglas E. Moore 5447:Sanford R. Leigh 5382:J. Charles Jones 5257:Fannie Lou Hamer 5172:Joseph Ellwanger 5132:Jonathan Daniels 5122:Claudette Colvin 5112:Annie Lee Cooper 5097:Kathleen Cleaver 5092:Eldridge Cleaver 5067:Shirley Chisholm 4957:Gloria Blackwell 4548:workers' murders 4495:"I Have a Dream" 4390:Anniston bombing 4341:Greenville Eight 4256:Little Rock Nine 4219:Browder v. Gayle 4107: 4106: 4082: 4075: 4068: 4059: 4058: 3930:Williams, Juan, 3880:Raines, Howell, 3877: 3782:Branch, Taylor. 3751: 3750: 3710: 3704: 3703: 3697: 3689: 3655: 3649: 3648: 3637:10.2307/25149348 3620: 3614: 3613: 3599: 3593: 3592: 3581: 3575: 3574: 3572: 3570: 3563:Birmingham Times 3553: 3547: 3546: 3540: 3530: 3524: 3523: 3511: 3505: 3504: 3487: 3481: 3480: 3472: 3466: 3465: 3433: 3422: 3421: 3419: 3417: 3408:. Archived from 3398: 3392: 3391: 3383: 3377: 3376: 3340: 3334: 3320: 3314: 3313: 3306: 3300: 3299: 3297: 3295: 3290:. April 24, 2017 3278: 3272: 3271: 3269: 3267: 3253: 3247: 3246: 3244: 3242: 3228: 3222: 3221: 3219: 3217: 3198: 3189: 3188: 3176: 3166: 3160: 3159: 3157: 3155: 3146:Blackside, Inc. 3143: 3137: 3136: 3118: 3112: 3111: 3109: 3107: 3096: 3090: 3089: 3087: 3085: 3066: 3060: 3059: 3057: 3055: 3044: 3038: 3037: 3035: 3033: 3028: 3020: 3014: 3013: 2989: 2983: 2982: 2980: 2978: 2967: 2961: 2960: 2940: 2934: 2933: 2931: 2929: 2914: 2908: 2907: 2905: 2903: 2887: 2881: 2880: 2860: 2854: 2853: 2847: 2839: 2837: 2835: 2820: 2814: 2813: 2805: 2799: 2798: 2790: 2784: 2783: 2781: 2779: 2765: 2759: 2758: 2756: 2754: 2731: 2725: 2724: 2722: 2720: 2715:on April 2, 2015 2705: 2699: 2698: 2685: 2679: 2678: 2676: 2674: 2652: 2646: 2645: 2643: 2641: 2630: 2624: 2623: 2621: 2619: 2601: 2595: 2594: 2592: 2590: 2576: 2570: 2569: 2567: 2565: 2550: 2541: 2535: 2529: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2518: 2511: 2503: 2497: 2496: 2478: 2472: 2471: 2451: 2445: 2439: 2433: 2423: 2417: 2413: 2407: 2406: 2395: 2389: 2385:Browder v. Gayle 2381: 2375: 2374: 2372: 2370: 2356: 2350: 2349: 2333: 2327: 2326: 2300: 2294: 2293: 2286:Emory University 2267: 2261: 2260: 2251:Debbie Elliott; 2248: 2242: 2241: 2221: 2215: 2214: 2202: 2193: 2192: 2183:Dr. Mary Price; 2180: 2171: 2170: 2168: 2166: 2149: 2143: 2142: 2118: 2112: 2111: 2100: 2094: 2093: 2071: 2065: 2064: 2036: 2025: 2024: 2022: 2020: 2006: 2000: 1999: 1971: 1965: 1964: 1944: 1938: 1937: 1909: 1903: 1902: 1878: 1872: 1871: 1853: 1847: 1846: 1826: 1820: 1819: 1808: 1789: 1788: 1787: 1777: 1776: 1775: 1768: 1564:Claudette Colvin 1467:Robert S. Graetz 1441:Browder v. Gayle 1354:J Edgar Hoover's 1297:Claudette Colvin 1041:Browder v. Gayle 1027:Claudette Colvin 1021:Claudette Colvin 864:Claudette Colvin 818: 776:Browder v. Gayle 771:African-American 707:Other localities 677:Tuskegee sit-ins 661:City of Tuskegee 538:Browder v. Gayle 381:NAACP v. Alabama 363:State of Alabama 355: 341: 334: 327: 318: 317: 168: 167: 133:Browder v. Gayle 111:Claudette Colvin 72: 70: 66: 43: 23: 22: 8643: 8642: 8638: 8637: 8636: 8634: 8633: 8632: 8593:1956 in Alabama 8588:1955 in Alabama 8528: 8527: 8526: 8521: 8511: 8509: 8496: 8462:Historic places 8455:US state firsts 8341: 8256: 7980: 7913: 7885:2010 majorities 7880:2000 majorities 7851: 7798:Black Seminoles 7747: 7738:Southern (SIAC) 7721: 7720:and conferences 7719: 7712: 7708:Serena Williams 7703:Jackie Robinson 7637: 7561: 7559: 7552: 7472: 7439:Nation of Islam 7410: 7358: 7352: 7293:Sojourner Truth 7283:Clarence Thomas 7248:Gabriel Prosser 7148:Michael Jackson 7023:Crispus Attucks 7013:Ralph Abernathy 7001: 6957:Musical theater 6856: 6722:Great Migration 6694:COVID-19 impact 6652:Sit-in movement 6527: 6522: 6492: 6487: 6476: 6469: 6450:Thomas E. Ricks 6440:Diane McWhorter 6425:Vincent Harding 6410:Adam Fairclough 6377: 6371: 6273: 6228:Freedom Schools 6087: 6020: 5968: 5962: 5953:Omaha, Nebraska 5941: 5857:Hartman Turnbow 5847:Dorothy Tillman 5807:Glenn E. Smiley 5787:Charles Sherrod 5747:Jo Ann Robinson 5622:Charles Neblett 5612:Elijah Muhammad 5577:Harriette Moore 5537:Floyd McKissick 5522:Franklin McCain 5457:Stanley Levison 5322:T. R. M. Howard 5272:Vincent Harding 5202:Walter Fauntroy 5087:Xernona Clayton 5037:John H. Calhoun 5022:Aurelia Browder 5012:Stanley Branche 5007:Raylawni Branch 4987:Joseph E. Boone 4972:Ezell Blair Jr. 4967:Unita Blackwell 4942:Harry Belafonte 4882:Ralph Abernathy 4870: 4806:Nation of Islam 4682: 4672: 4511: 4468:Birmingham riot 4409:Albany Movement 4331:Atlanta sit-ins 4311:Sit-in movement 4294: 4290:Biloxi wade-ins 4262:Cooper v. Aaron 4152: 4098: 4092: 4086: 4020:Wayback Machine 4004:The Indypendent 3974:Wayback Machine 3949: 3944: 3760: 3758:Further reading 3755: 3754: 3711: 3707: 3691: 3690: 3656: 3652: 3621: 3617: 3600: 3596: 3583: 3582: 3578: 3568: 3566: 3554: 3550: 3531: 3527: 3520:Huffington Post 3512: 3508: 3488: 3484: 3473: 3469: 3448:(6): 999–1067. 3434: 3425: 3415: 3413: 3400: 3399: 3395: 3384: 3380: 3357:10.2307/2095322 3341: 3337: 3321: 3317: 3308: 3307: 3303: 3293: 3291: 3280: 3279: 3275: 3265: 3263: 3255: 3254: 3250: 3240: 3238: 3230: 3229: 3225: 3215: 3213: 3200: 3199: 3192: 3185: 3167: 3163: 3153: 3151: 3144: 3140: 3133: 3119: 3115: 3105: 3103: 3098: 3097: 3093: 3083: 3081: 3068: 3067: 3063: 3053: 3051: 3046: 3045: 3041: 3031: 3029: 3026: 3022: 3021: 3017: 3010: 2990: 2986: 2976: 2974: 2969: 2968: 2964: 2957: 2941: 2937: 2927: 2925: 2916: 2915: 2911: 2901: 2899: 2888: 2884: 2877: 2861: 2857: 2841: 2840: 2833: 2831: 2821: 2817: 2806: 2802: 2791: 2787: 2777: 2775: 2767: 2766: 2762: 2752: 2750: 2748: 2732: 2728: 2718: 2716: 2707: 2706: 2702: 2687: 2686: 2682: 2672: 2670: 2654: 2653: 2649: 2639: 2637: 2631: 2627: 2617: 2615: 2602: 2598: 2588: 2586: 2578: 2577: 2573: 2563: 2561: 2551: 2544: 2536: 2532: 2522: 2520: 2516: 2509: 2505: 2504: 2500: 2493: 2479: 2475: 2468: 2452: 2448: 2440: 2436: 2424: 2420: 2414: 2410: 2397: 2396: 2392: 2382: 2378: 2368: 2366: 2358: 2357: 2353: 2334: 2330: 2315: 2301: 2297: 2268: 2264: 2249: 2245: 2238: 2222: 2218: 2203: 2196: 2181: 2174: 2164: 2162: 2150: 2146: 2139: 2131:. p. 103. 2119: 2115: 2101: 2097: 2072: 2068: 2053: 2037: 2028: 2018: 2016: 2008: 2007: 2003: 1988: 1972: 1968: 1945: 1941: 1926: 1910: 1906: 1899: 1891:. p. 144. 1879: 1875: 1868: 1854: 1850: 1843: 1827: 1823: 1810: 1809: 1805: 1800: 1795: 1785: 1783: 1773: 1771: 1763: 1750: 1698: 1693: 1669:Georgia Gilmore 1656: 1651: 1627:Jo Ann Robinson 1579:Georgia Gilmore 1554:Mary Fair Burks 1549:Aurelia Browder 1534:Ralph Abernathy 1529: 1524: 1474:Randall Kennedy 1462: 1422: 1327:T. R. M. Howard 1306:Mt. Zion Church 1289:Jo Ann Robinson 1261: 1249:Ralph Abernathy 1224: 1216:1956 Sugar Bowl 1155: 1149: 1124: 1086: 1080: 1056: 1050: 1029:, a student at 1023: 1017: 1008:Fred S. LeBlanc 984: 978: 958:Commerce Clause 946: 940: 905: 899: 886:James N. Buffum 884:and his friend 878: 872: 799: 785: 739: 738: 737: 732: 672:Alabama Act 140 356: 347: 345: 311: 310: 267:City Commission 263: 232:Jo Ann Robinson 208: 186: 85: 68: 64: 62: 53: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8641: 8631: 8630: 8625: 8620: 8615: 8610: 8605: 8600: 8595: 8590: 8585: 8580: 8575: 8570: 8565: 8560: 8555: 8550: 8545: 8540: 8523: 8522: 8520: 8519: 8507: 8501: 8498: 8497: 8495: 8494: 8489: 8484: 8479: 8474: 8469: 8464: 8459: 8458: 8457: 8452: 8447: 8437: 8436: 8435: 8430: 8428:Visual artists 8425: 8420: 8415: 8410: 8405: 8400: 8395: 8390: 8388:Mathematicians 8385: 8380: 8375: 8370: 8365: 8360: 8349: 8347: 8343: 8342: 8340: 8339: 8338: 8337: 8329: 8324: 8323: 8322: 8317: 8312: 8307: 8302: 8294: 8293: 8292: 8287: 8282: 8277: 8266: 8264: 8258: 8257: 8255: 8254: 8249: 8244: 8239: 8238: 8237: 8232: 8227: 8222: 8212: 8207: 8205:South Carolina 8202: 8197: 8196: 8195: 8187: 8182: 8177: 8175:North Carolina 8172: 8171: 8170: 8160: 8155: 8154: 8153: 8143: 8138: 8137: 8136: 8128: 8127: 8126: 8120:Massachusetts 8118: 8117: 8116: 8106: 8101: 8100: 8099: 8089: 8084: 8083: 8082: 8072: 8067: 8066: 8065: 8055: 8050: 8049: 8048: 8038: 8037: 8036: 8031: 8021: 8016: 8015: 8014: 8009: 7999: 7994: 7988: 7986: 7982: 7981: 7979: 7978: 7973: 7968: 7967: 7966: 7965: 7964: 7962:social context 7959: 7949: 7939: 7938: 7937: 7927: 7921: 7919: 7915: 7914: 7912: 7911: 7910: 7909: 7904: 7894: 7889: 7888: 7887: 7882: 7872: 7871: 7870: 7859: 7857: 7853: 7852: 7850: 7849: 7844: 7843: 7842: 7832: 7827: 7822: 7817: 7816: 7815: 7813:Creek Freedmen 7810: 7805: 7800: 7790: 7788:Alabama Creole 7785: 7784: 7783: 7778: 7773: 7768: 7759: 7757: 7753: 7752: 7749: 7748: 7746: 7745: 7740: 7735: 7730: 7728:Central (CIAA) 7724: 7722: 7717: 7714: 7713: 7711: 7710: 7705: 7700: 7695: 7690: 7685: 7680: 7675: 7670: 7665: 7660: 7655: 7649: 7643: 7639: 7638: 7636: 7635: 7630: 7625: 7620: 7615: 7610: 7605: 7600: 7595: 7590: 7585: 7580: 7575: 7570: 7564: 7562: 7557: 7554: 7553: 7551: 7550: 7545: 7544: 7543: 7533: 7528: 7523: 7521:Pan-Africanism 7518: 7513: 7508: 7503: 7502: 7501: 7491: 7486: 7480: 7478: 7474: 7473: 7471: 7470: 7465: 7463:Black theology 7460: 7455: 7454: 7453: 7443: 7442: 7441: 7436: 7426: 7420: 7418: 7412: 7411: 7409: 7408: 7407: 7406: 7404:in STEM fields 7401: 7396: 7388: 7383: 7378: 7373: 7368: 7362: 7360: 7359:and technology 7354: 7353: 7351: 7350: 7345: 7340: 7335: 7330: 7325: 7320: 7315: 7310: 7305: 7300: 7298:Harriet Tubman 7295: 7290: 7285: 7280: 7275: 7270: 7265: 7260: 7255: 7250: 7245: 7240: 7235: 7230: 7228:Michelle Obama 7225: 7220: 7215: 7210: 7205: 7200: 7195: 7190: 7185: 7180: 7175: 7170: 7165: 7160: 7158:Barbara Jordan 7155: 7153:Harriet Jacobs 7150: 7145: 7140: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7120: 7115: 7110: 7105: 7100: 7095: 7090: 7085: 7080: 7075: 7070: 7065: 7060: 7055: 7050: 7045: 7043:Amelia Boynton 7040: 7035: 7030: 7025: 7020: 7015: 7009: 7007: 7006:Notable people 7003: 7002: 7000: 6999: 6994: 6989: 6984: 6979: 6974: 6969: 6964: 6959: 6954: 6949: 6944: 6942:LGBT community 6939: 6934: 6929: 6924: 6923: 6922: 6912: 6907: 6902: 6897: 6892: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6872: 6866: 6864: 6858: 6857: 6855: 6854: 6849: 6844: 6839: 6838: 6837: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6812: 6807: 6802: 6794: 6789: 6782: 6775: 6770: 6765: 6760: 6755: 6750: 6741: 6736: 6735: 6734: 6729: 6719: 6714: 6709: 6704: 6696: 6691: 6686: 6685: 6684: 6679: 6674: 6669: 6664: 6659: 6657:Freedom Riders 6654: 6649: 6641: 6631: 6626: 6621: 6620: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6601: 6596: 6588: 6583: 6581:Black genocide 6578: 6573: 6568: 6563: 6558: 6553: 6548: 6543: 6537: 6535: 6529: 6528: 6521: 6520: 6513: 6506: 6498: 6489: 6488: 6474: 6471: 6470: 6468: 6467: 6462: 6460:Akinyele Umoja 6457: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6437: 6432: 6427: 6422: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6381: 6379: 6373: 6372: 6370: 6369: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6348: 6347: 6337: 6332: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6281: 6279: 6275: 6274: 6272: 6271: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6248: 6247: 6235: 6230: 6225: 6220: 6215: 6210: 6205: 6200: 6195: 6190: 6185: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6165: 6160: 6155: 6148: 6141: 6134: 6127: 6120: 6119: 6118: 6106: 6101: 6095: 6093: 6089: 6088: 6086: 6085: 6080: 6075: 6070: 6063: 6062: 6061: 6056: 6049:Mahatma Gandhi 6046: 6041: 6040: 6039: 6028: 6026: 6022: 6021: 6019: 6018: 6013: 6008: 6003: 5998: 5993: 5988: 5983: 5978: 5972: 5970: 5964: 5963: 5961: 5960: 5958:South Carolina 5955: 5949: 5947: 5943: 5942: 5940: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5924: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5904: 5899: 5897:Hosea Williams 5894: 5889: 5884: 5882:Hollis Watkins 5879: 5874: 5869: 5864: 5859: 5854: 5849: 5844: 5839: 5834: 5829: 5824: 5819: 5814: 5812:A. Maceo Smith 5809: 5804: 5799: 5794: 5789: 5784: 5779: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5762:Bernie Sanders 5759: 5754: 5752:Angela Russell 5749: 5744: 5739: 5737:David Richmond 5734: 5729: 5727:Walter Reuther 5724: 5719: 5714: 5712:Cordell Reagon 5709: 5704: 5699: 5697:George Raymond 5694: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5657:Charles Person 5654: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5627:Huey P. Newton 5624: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5582:Harry T. Moore 5579: 5574: 5569: 5567:Cecil B. Moore 5564: 5559: 5554: 5549: 5547:James Meredith 5544: 5539: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5519: 5514: 5509: 5504: 5499: 5494: 5489: 5484: 5479: 5474: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5429: 5424: 5419: 5414: 5409: 5404: 5399: 5394: 5389: 5384: 5379: 5377:Clarence Jones 5374: 5369: 5364: 5359: 5354: 5349: 5344: 5339: 5334: 5329: 5324: 5319: 5317:Zilphia Horton 5314: 5309: 5304: 5299: 5294: 5289: 5287:Lola Hendricks 5284: 5279: 5277:Dorothy Height 5274: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5247:Lawrence Guyot 5244: 5239: 5237:Jack Greenberg 5234: 5229: 5224: 5222:Andrew Goodman 5219: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5147:Joseph DeLaine 5144: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5119: 5117:Dorothy Cotton 5114: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5094: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5069: 5064: 5062:J. L. Chestnut 5059: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5029: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5009: 5004: 4999: 4997:Amelia Boynton 4994: 4989: 4984: 4979: 4974: 4969: 4964: 4959: 4954: 4949: 4944: 4939: 4934: 4929: 4924: 4919: 4917:Arnold Aronson 4914: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4878: 4876: 4872: 4871: 4869: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4797: 4796: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4735: 4734: 4722: 4717: 4712: 4707: 4702: 4697: 4692: 4686: 4684: 4678: 4677: 4674: 4673: 4671: 4670: 4663: 4656: 4651: 4646: 4645: 4644: 4639: 4629: 4624: 4617: 4612: 4607: 4602: 4595: 4590: 4589: 4588: 4576: 4571: 4564: 4557: 4552: 4551: 4550: 4543:Freedom Summer 4540: 4535: 4533:Bloody Tuesday 4530: 4525: 4519: 4517: 4513: 4512: 4510: 4509: 4504: 4503: 4502: 4497: 4487: 4482: 4477: 4476: 4475: 4470: 4465: 4460: 4450: 4449: 4448: 4438: 4433: 4428: 4421: 4416: 4411: 4406: 4399: 4398: 4397: 4392: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4360: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4302: 4300: 4296: 4295: 4293: 4292: 4287: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4267: 4266: 4265: 4253: 4248: 4247: 4246: 4234: 4229: 4224: 4223: 4222: 4210: 4205: 4198: 4197: 4196: 4189: 4182: 4175: 4160: 4158: 4154: 4153: 4151: 4150: 4145: 4137: 4129: 4124: 4119: 4113: 4111: 4104: 4094: 4093: 4085: 4084: 4077: 4070: 4062: 4056: 4055: 4046: 4040: 4034: 4028: 4022: 4007: 3999: 3993: 3987: 3981: 3976: 3964: 3948: 3947:External links 3945: 3943: 3942: 3928: 3924:Walsh, Frank, 3922: 3912: 3909:Alabama Review 3905: 3903:978-0195114904 3891: 3878: 3869: 3855: 3842: 3839: 3825: 3811: 3808: 3794: 3780: 3761: 3759: 3756: 3753: 3752: 3731:10.2307/743660 3705: 3678:10.1086/500178 3650: 3615: 3594: 3576: 3548: 3525: 3506: 3491:Branch, Taylor 3482: 3467: 3454:10.2307/796572 3423: 3393: 3378: 3335: 3322:Wright, H. R: 3315: 3301: 3273: 3248: 3223: 3190: 3183: 3161: 3138: 3131: 3113: 3091: 3080:on May 7, 2021 3061: 3039: 3015: 3008: 2984: 2962: 2955: 2935: 2909: 2882: 2875: 2855: 2815: 2800: 2785: 2760: 2746: 2726: 2700: 2680: 2647: 2625: 2613:New York Times 2596: 2571: 2542: 2530: 2498: 2491: 2473: 2466: 2446: 2434: 2418: 2408: 2390: 2376: 2351: 2336:Shay, Alison; 2328: 2313: 2295: 2262: 2243: 2237:978-0313341816 2236: 2216: 2205:Julio Alicea; 2194: 2172: 2144: 2138:978-1617031212 2137: 2113: 2095: 2066: 2051: 2026: 2001: 1986: 1966: 1955:(2): 117–142. 1939: 1924: 1904: 1897: 1873: 1866: 1848: 1841: 1821: 1802: 1801: 1799: 1796: 1794: 1793: 1781: 1761: 1760: 1749: 1748: 1743: 1741:Rosa Parks Act 1738: 1731: 1723: 1718: 1713: 1705: 1699: 1697: 1694: 1692: 1691: 1686: 1681: 1676: 1671: 1666: 1661: 1657: 1655: 1652: 1650: 1649: 1644: 1639: 1637:Nate Singleton 1634: 1629: 1624: 1622:Mother Pollard 1619: 1614: 1609: 1607:Theodora Lacey 1604: 1599: 1594: 1591: 1586: 1581: 1576: 1574:Mildred Fahrni 1571: 1566: 1561: 1556: 1551: 1546: 1544:James F. Blake 1541: 1536: 1530: 1528: 1525: 1523: 1520: 1486:Willie Edwards 1461: 1458: 1421: 1418: 1377:motor vehicles 1260: 1257: 1223: 1220: 1178:James F. Blake 1151:Main article: 1148: 1145: 1137:Walter Reuther 1123: 1120: 1082:Main article: 1079: 1073: 1052:Main article: 1049: 1046: 1019:Main article: 1016: 1013: 980:Main article: 977: 974: 942:Main article: 939: 933: 925:Rufus A. Lewis 901:Main article: 898: 895: 871: 868: 858:, the earlier 784: 781: 734: 733: 731: 730: 725: 720: 715: 704: 703: 696: 691: 686: 679: 674: 669: 658: 657: 655:Bloody Tuesday 652: 647: 642: 629: 628: 623: 618: 613: 602: 601: 594: 587: 580: 575: 568: 563: 558: 551: 546: 541: 534: 523: 522: 515: 508: 503: 498: 493: 488: 483: 478: 473: 466: 461: 456: 449: 444: 437: 432: 427: 416: 415: 408: 401: 396: 391: 384: 377: 370: 361: 358: 357: 344: 343: 336: 329: 321: 313: 312: 309: 308: 305:James F. Blake 302: 299: 290: 289: 280: 279: 276: 273: 264: 262: 261: 256: 251: 246: 235: 234: 223: 222: 219: 218: 214: 213: 210: 209: 207: 206: 201: 198: 193: 189: 187: 185: 184: 178: 171: 164: 163: 159: 158: 157: 156: 149: 143: 137: 127: 123: 122: 121: 120: 114: 108: 102: 91: 87: 86: 80: 78: 74: 73: 59: 55: 54: 44: 36: 35: 28: 27: 21: 20: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8640: 8629: 8626: 8624: 8621: 8619: 8616: 8614: 8611: 8609: 8606: 8604: 8601: 8599: 8596: 8594: 8591: 8589: 8586: 8584: 8581: 8579: 8576: 8574: 8571: 8569: 8566: 8564: 8561: 8559: 8556: 8554: 8551: 8549: 8548:1956 protests 8546: 8544: 8543:1955 protests 8541: 8539: 8536: 8535: 8533: 8518: 8508: 8506: 8503: 8502: 8499: 8493: 8490: 8488: 8487:Neighborhoods 8485: 8483: 8480: 8478: 8475: 8473: 8470: 8468: 8465: 8463: 8460: 8456: 8453: 8451: 8450:Sports firsts 8448: 8446: 8443: 8442: 8441: 8438: 8434: 8431: 8429: 8426: 8424: 8421: 8419: 8416: 8414: 8411: 8409: 8406: 8404: 8401: 8399: 8396: 8394: 8391: 8389: 8386: 8384: 8381: 8379: 8376: 8374: 8371: 8369: 8366: 8364: 8361: 8359: 8356: 8355: 8354: 8351: 8350: 8348: 8344: 8336: 8333: 8332: 8330: 8328: 8325: 8321: 8318: 8316: 8313: 8311: 8308: 8306: 8303: 8301: 8298: 8297: 8295: 8291: 8288: 8286: 8283: 8281: 8278: 8276: 8273: 8272: 8271: 8268: 8267: 8265: 8263: 8259: 8253: 8252:West Virginia 8250: 8248: 8245: 8243: 8240: 8236: 8233: 8231: 8228: 8226: 8223: 8221: 8218: 8217: 8216: 8213: 8211: 8208: 8206: 8203: 8201: 8198: 8194: 8191: 8190: 8189:Pennsylvania 8188: 8186: 8183: 8181: 8178: 8176: 8173: 8169: 8168:New York City 8166: 8165: 8164: 8161: 8159: 8156: 8152: 8149: 8148: 8147: 8144: 8142: 8139: 8135: 8132: 8131: 8129: 8125: 8122: 8121: 8119: 8115: 8112: 8111: 8110: 8107: 8105: 8102: 8098: 8095: 8094: 8093: 8090: 8088: 8085: 8081: 8078: 8077: 8076: 8073: 8071: 8068: 8064: 8061: 8060: 8059: 8056: 8054: 8051: 8047: 8044: 8043: 8042: 8039: 8035: 8032: 8030: 8027: 8026: 8025: 8022: 8020: 8017: 8013: 8012:San Francisco 8010: 8008: 8005: 8004: 8003: 8000: 7998: 7995: 7993: 7990: 7989: 7987: 7985:By state/city 7983: 7977: 7974: 7972: 7969: 7963: 7960: 7958: 7955: 7954: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7944: 7943: 7940: 7936: 7933: 7932: 7931: 7930:American Sign 7928: 7926: 7923: 7922: 7920: 7916: 7908: 7905: 7903: 7900: 7899: 7898: 7895: 7893: 7890: 7886: 7883: 7881: 7878: 7877: 7876: 7873: 7869: 7866: 7865: 7864: 7863:Neighborhoods 7861: 7860: 7858: 7854: 7848: 7845: 7841: 7838: 7837: 7836: 7833: 7831: 7828: 7826: 7823: 7821: 7818: 7814: 7811: 7809: 7806: 7804: 7801: 7799: 7796: 7795: 7794: 7793:Black Indians 7791: 7789: 7786: 7782: 7779: 7777: 7774: 7772: 7769: 7767: 7764: 7763: 7761: 7760: 7758: 7754: 7744: 7741: 7739: 7736: 7734: 7731: 7729: 7726: 7725: 7723: 7715: 7709: 7706: 7704: 7701: 7699: 7696: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7686: 7684: 7681: 7679: 7676: 7674: 7671: 7669: 7666: 7664: 7661: 7659: 7656: 7654: 7651: 7650: 7647: 7644: 7640: 7634: 7631: 7629: 7626: 7624: 7621: 7619: 7616: 7614: 7611: 7609: 7606: 7604: 7601: 7599: 7596: 7594: 7591: 7589: 7586: 7584: 7581: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7571: 7569: 7566: 7565: 7563: 7555: 7549: 7546: 7542: 7539: 7538: 7537: 7534: 7532: 7529: 7527: 7524: 7522: 7519: 7517: 7514: 7512: 7509: 7507: 7504: 7500: 7497: 7496: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7481: 7479: 7475: 7469: 7466: 7464: 7461: 7459: 7456: 7452: 7449: 7448: 7447: 7444: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7431: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7421: 7419: 7417: 7413: 7405: 7402: 7400: 7397: 7395: 7392: 7391: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7374: 7372: 7371:Black schools 7369: 7367: 7366:Black studies 7364: 7363: 7361: 7355: 7349: 7348:Whitney Young 7346: 7344: 7341: 7339: 7338:Oprah Winfrey 7336: 7334: 7331: 7329: 7326: 7324: 7321: 7319: 7316: 7314: 7311: 7309: 7308:Denmark Vesey 7306: 7304: 7301: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7291: 7289: 7286: 7284: 7281: 7279: 7276: 7274: 7271: 7269: 7266: 7264: 7261: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7253:Joseph Rainey 7251: 7249: 7246: 7244: 7241: 7239: 7236: 7234: 7231: 7229: 7226: 7224: 7221: 7219: 7216: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7208:Toni Morrison 7206: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7196: 7194: 7193:Joseph Lowery 7191: 7189: 7186: 7184: 7181: 7179: 7176: 7174: 7171: 7169: 7166: 7164: 7161: 7159: 7156: 7154: 7151: 7149: 7146: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7138:Jesse Jackson 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7128:Kamala Harris 7126: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7114: 7113:Marcus Garvey 7111: 7109: 7106: 7104: 7101: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7066: 7064: 7063:Blanche Bruce 7061: 7059: 7058:Edward Brooke 7056: 7054: 7051: 7049: 7048:James Bradley 7046: 7044: 7041: 7039: 7036: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7028:James Baldwin 7026: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7010: 7008: 7004: 6998: 6995: 6993: 6990: 6988: 6985: 6983: 6980: 6978: 6975: 6973: 6972:Neighborhoods 6970: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6945: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6921: 6918: 6917: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6898: 6896: 6893: 6891: 6888: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6871: 6868: 6867: 6865: 6863: 6859: 6853: 6850: 6848: 6845: 6843: 6840: 6836: 6833: 6832: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6825:Silent Parade 6823: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6811: 6808: 6806: 6803: 6800: 6799: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6788: 6787: 6783: 6781: 6780: 6776: 6774: 6771: 6769: 6766: 6764: 6761: 6759: 6756: 6754: 6753:Jim Crow laws 6751: 6749: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6724: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6702: 6701: 6697: 6695: 6692: 6690: 6687: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6658: 6655: 6653: 6650: 6647: 6646: 6642: 6640: 6637: 6636: 6635: 6632: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6622: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6604: 6602: 6600: 6597: 6594: 6593: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6577: 6576:Black cowboys 6574: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6562: 6559: 6557: 6554: 6552: 6549: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6539: 6538: 6536: 6534: 6530: 6526: 6519: 6514: 6512: 6507: 6505: 6500: 6499: 6496: 6486: 6485: 6480: 6472: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6455:Timothy Tyson 6453: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6443: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6426: 6423: 6421: 6418: 6416: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6385:Taylor Branch 6383: 6382: 6380: 6374: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6346: 6343: 6342: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6282: 6280: 6276: 6270: 6269: 6265: 6263: 6260: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6245: 6241: 6240: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6233:Freedom songs 6231: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6211: 6209: 6206: 6204: 6201: 6199: 6196: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6164: 6161: 6159: 6156: 6154: 6153: 6149: 6147: 6146: 6142: 6140: 6139: 6135: 6133: 6132: 6128: 6126: 6125: 6121: 6117: 6114: 6113: 6112: 6111: 6107: 6105: 6102: 6100: 6099:Jim Crow laws 6097: 6096: 6094: 6090: 6084: 6081: 6079: 6076: 6074: 6071: 6069: 6068: 6064: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6051: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6038: 6035: 6034: 6033: 6030: 6029: 6027: 6023: 6017: 6014: 6012: 6009: 6007: 6004: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5996:"Oh, Freedom" 5994: 5992: 5989: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5973: 5971: 5965: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5950: 5948: 5944: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5928: 5925: 5923: 5922:Whitney Young 5920: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5903: 5902:Kale Williams 5900: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5862:Albert Turner 5860: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5852:A. P. Tureaud 5850: 5848: 5845: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5835: 5833: 5830: 5828: 5825: 5823: 5820: 5818: 5815: 5813: 5810: 5808: 5805: 5803: 5800: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5783: 5780: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5757:Bayard Rustin 5755: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5607:William Moyer 5605: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5542:Joseph McNeil 5540: 5538: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5527:Charles McDew 5525: 5523: 5520: 5518: 5517:Benjamin Mays 5515: 5513: 5510: 5508: 5505: 5503: 5502:Vivian Malone 5500: 5498: 5495: 5493: 5490: 5488: 5485: 5483: 5480: 5478: 5477:Joseph Lowery 5475: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5433: 5430: 5428: 5425: 5423: 5420: 5418: 5415: 5413: 5410: 5408: 5405: 5403: 5402:Clyde Kennard 5400: 5398: 5395: 5393: 5392:Vernon Jordan 5390: 5388: 5387:Matthew Jones 5385: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5363: 5360: 5358: 5355: 5353: 5352:T. J. Jemison 5350: 5348: 5345: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5337:Jesse Jackson 5335: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5325: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5288: 5285: 5283: 5280: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5227:Robert Graetz 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5217:Golden Frinks 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5177:Charles Evers 5175: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5127:Vernon Dahmer 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5082:Septima Clark 5080: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5030: 5028: 5025: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5008: 5005: 5003: 5002:Bruce Boynton 5000: 4998: 4995: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4983: 4980: 4978: 4975: 4973: 4970: 4968: 4965: 4963: 4960: 4958: 4955: 4953: 4950: 4948: 4945: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4927:James Baldwin 4925: 4923: 4920: 4918: 4915: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4897:Mathew Ahmann 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4879: 4877: 4873: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4795: 4794:Youth Council 4792: 4791: 4790: 4787: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4733: 4732: 4728: 4727: 4726: 4723: 4721: 4718: 4716: 4713: 4711: 4708: 4706: 4703: 4701: 4698: 4696: 4693: 4691: 4688: 4687: 4685: 4679: 4669: 4668: 4664: 4662: 4661: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4643: 4640: 4638: 4635: 4634: 4633: 4630: 4628: 4625: 4623: 4622: 4618: 4616: 4613: 4611: 4608: 4606: 4603: 4601: 4600: 4596: 4594: 4591: 4586: 4582: 4581: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4569: 4565: 4563: 4562: 4558: 4556: 4553: 4549: 4546: 4545: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4536: 4534: 4531: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4521: 4520: 4518: 4514: 4508: 4505: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4492: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4455: 4454: 4451: 4447: 4444: 4443: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4426: 4422: 4420: 4417: 4415: 4412: 4410: 4407: 4405: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4387: 4386: 4385:Freedom Rides 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4365: 4361: 4359: 4358: 4354: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4307: 4304: 4303: 4301: 4297: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4264: 4263: 4259: 4258: 4257: 4254: 4252: 4249: 4244: 4240: 4239: 4238: 4235: 4233: 4230: 4228: 4225: 4221: 4220: 4216: 4215: 4214: 4211: 4209: 4206: 4204: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4194: 4190: 4188: 4187: 4183: 4181: 4180: 4176: 4174: 4173: 4169: 4168: 4167: 4166: 4162: 4161: 4159: 4155: 4149: 4146: 4143: 4142: 4138: 4135: 4134: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4120: 4118: 4115: 4114: 4112: 4110:Prior to 1954 4108: 4105: 4102: 4095: 4090: 4083: 4078: 4076: 4071: 4069: 4064: 4063: 4060: 4054: 4050: 4047: 4044: 4041: 4038: 4035: 4032: 4029: 4026: 4023: 4021: 4017: 4014: 4013: 4008: 4006: 4005: 4000: 3997: 3994: 3991: 3988: 3985: 3982: 3980: 3977: 3975: 3971: 3968: 3965: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3951: 3950: 3941: 3940:0-14-009653-1 3937: 3933: 3929: 3927: 3923: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3910: 3906: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3890: 3889:0-14-006753-1 3886: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3870: 3868: 3867:0-02-922130-7 3864: 3860: 3856: 3854: 3853:0-06-250490-8 3850: 3847: 3843: 3840: 3838: 3837:0-87049-527-5 3834: 3830: 3826: 3824: 3823:0-394-75623-1 3820: 3816: 3812: 3809: 3807: 3806:0-14-015403-5 3803: 3799: 3795: 3793: 3792:0-671-68742-5 3789: 3785: 3781: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3762: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3725:(1): 59–112. 3724: 3720: 3716: 3709: 3701: 3695: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3666: 3661: 3654: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3619: 3611: 3610: 3605: 3598: 3590: 3586: 3580: 3565: 3564: 3559: 3552: 3544: 3539: 3538: 3529: 3521: 3517: 3510: 3502: 3498: 3497: 3492: 3486: 3478: 3471: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3432: 3430: 3428: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3397: 3389: 3382: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3351:(6): 735–54. 3350: 3346: 3339: 3333: 3332:0-9629468-0-X 3329: 3325: 3319: 3311: 3305: 3289: 3288: 3283: 3277: 3262: 3258: 3252: 3237: 3236:Justia US law 3233: 3227: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3197: 3195: 3186: 3180: 3175: 3174: 3165: 3149: 3142: 3134: 3128: 3124: 3117: 3106:September 28, 3101: 3095: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3065: 3049: 3043: 3032:September 28, 3025: 3019: 3011: 3009:0-8225-4902-6 3005: 3001: 2997: 2996: 2988: 2977:September 28, 2972: 2966: 2958: 2956:9780195167795 2952: 2948: 2947: 2939: 2923: 2919: 2913: 2897: 2893: 2886: 2878: 2876:9780313358876 2872: 2868: 2867: 2859: 2851: 2845: 2830: 2826: 2819: 2811: 2804: 2796: 2789: 2774: 2770: 2764: 2749: 2747:9780820338651 2743: 2739: 2738: 2730: 2714: 2710: 2704: 2696: 2695: 2690: 2684: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2651: 2636: 2629: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2600: 2585: 2581: 2575: 2564:September 28, 2560: 2556: 2549: 2547: 2539: 2534: 2515: 2508: 2502: 2494: 2488: 2484: 2477: 2469: 2463: 2459: 2458: 2450: 2444: 2438: 2431: 2427: 2422: 2412: 2404: 2400: 2394: 2387: 2386: 2380: 2365: 2361: 2355: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2332: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2310: 2306: 2299: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2278: 2273: 2266: 2258: 2254: 2247: 2239: 2233: 2229: 2228: 2220: 2212: 2208: 2201: 2199: 2190: 2186: 2179: 2177: 2161: 2160: 2155: 2148: 2140: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2125: 2117: 2109: 2105: 2099: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2082: 2078: 2077: 2070: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2048: 2044: 2043: 2035: 2033: 2031: 2015: 2011: 2005: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1983: 1979: 1978: 1970: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1943: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1921: 1917: 1916: 1908: 1900: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1883: 1877: 1869: 1867:9780195148909 1863: 1859: 1852: 1844: 1842:9781440803468 1838: 1834: 1833: 1825: 1817: 1813: 1807: 1803: 1792: 1791:United States 1782: 1780: 1770: 1769: 1766: 1758: 1757: 1752: 1751: 1747: 1744: 1742: 1739: 1737: 1736: 1732: 1729: 1728: 1724: 1722: 1719: 1717: 1714: 1711: 1710: 1706: 1704: 1701: 1700: 1690: 1687: 1685: 1682: 1680: 1677: 1675: 1672: 1670: 1667: 1665: 1662: 1659: 1658: 1654:Organizations 1648: 1645: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1635: 1633: 1632:Bayard Rustin 1630: 1628: 1625: 1623: 1620: 1618: 1615: 1613: 1610: 1608: 1605: 1603: 1600: 1598: 1595: 1592: 1590: 1587: 1585: 1584:Robert Graetz 1582: 1580: 1577: 1575: 1572: 1570: 1569:Clifford Durr 1567: 1565: 1562: 1560: 1557: 1555: 1552: 1550: 1547: 1545: 1542: 1540: 1537: 1535: 1532: 1531: 1519: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1503: 1498: 1493: 1489: 1487: 1484:a black man, 1483: 1479: 1475: 1470: 1468: 1457: 1455: 1449: 1447: 1443: 1442: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1417: 1414: 1409: 1405: 1400: 1395: 1393: 1389: 1384: 1382: 1381:Jim Crow laws 1378: 1373: 1368: 1366: 1360: 1358: 1355: 1351: 1346: 1342: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1314: 1311: 1307: 1301: 1298: 1292: 1290: 1286: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1265: 1256: 1254: 1250: 1244: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1219: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1206: 1202: 1193: 1189: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1159: 1154: 1144: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1128: 1119: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1104: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1085: 1077: 1072: 1070: 1066: 1061: 1055: 1045: 1043: 1042: 1037: 1032: 1028: 1022: 1012: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 996:T. J. Jemison 993: 989: 983: 973: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 951: 945: 937: 932: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 904: 894: 892: 887: 883: 877: 867: 865: 861: 857: 856: 851: 847: 842: 840: 836: 835: 830: 826: 825:Supreme Court 821: 819: 813: 808: 805:mandated the 804: 803:Jim Crow laws 798: 794: 790: 780: 778: 777: 772: 768: 764: 760: 756: 752: 748: 744: 729: 726: 724: 721: 719: 716: 714: 711: 710: 709: 708: 702: 701: 697: 695: 692: 690: 687: 685: 684: 680: 678: 675: 673: 670: 668: 665: 664: 663: 662: 656: 653: 651: 648: 646: 643: 641: 640: 639:Lucy v. Adams 636: 635: 634: 633: 627: 624: 622: 619: 617: 614: 612: 609: 608: 607: 606: 605:City of Selma 600: 599: 595: 593: 592: 588: 586: 585: 581: 579: 576: 574: 573: 569: 567: 564: 562: 559: 557: 556: 552: 550: 547: 545: 542: 540: 539: 535: 533: 530: 529: 528: 527: 521: 520: 516: 514: 513: 509: 507: 504: 502: 499: 497: 494: 492: 489: 487: 484: 482: 479: 477: 474: 472: 471: 467: 465: 462: 460: 457: 455: 454: 450: 448: 445: 443: 442: 438: 436: 433: 431: 428: 426: 423: 422: 421: 420: 414: 413: 409: 407: 406: 402: 400: 397: 395: 392: 390: 389: 385: 383: 382: 378: 376: 375: 371: 369: 366: 365: 364: 359: 354: 350: 342: 337: 335: 330: 328: 323: 322: 319: 306: 303: 300: 297: 296: 295: 294: 287: 286: 285: 284: 277: 274: 271: 270: 269: 268: 260: 257: 255: 252: 250: 247: 245: 242: 241: 240: 239: 233: 230: 229: 228: 227: 220: 215: 205: 202: 199: 197: 194: 191: 190: 188: 182: 179: 176: 173: 172: 170: 169: 165: 160: 154: 151:Formation of 150: 148: 144: 142: 139:Emergence of 138: 135: 134: 130: 129: 128: 124: 118: 115: 112: 109: 107: 103: 101: 97: 94: 93: 92: 88: 83: 79: 75: 60: 56: 51: 47: 42: 37: 34: 29: 24: 19: 8403:Sportspeople 8373:Billionaires 8290:Sierra Leone 8193:Philadelphia 8029:Jacksonville 7856:Demographics 7688:Jack Johnson 7678:Muhammad Ali 7511:Conservatism 7446:Black church 7343:Andrew Young 7328:Ida B. Wells 7318:David Walker 7313:C. T. Vivian 7268:Paul Robeson 7263:Hiram Revels 7243:Colin Powell 7223:Barack Obama 7178:James Lawson 7133:Jimi Hendrix 7103:James Farmer 7098:Medgar Evers 7068:Ralph Bunche 7018:Maya Angelou 6992:Middle class 6870:Afrofuturism 6796: 6784: 6777: 6698: 6643: 6638: 6590: 6556:Afrocentrism 6546:Abolitionism 6475: 6415:David Garrow 6395:John Dittmer 6266: 6193:Brown Chapel 6150: 6143: 6136: 6129: 6122: 6108: 6065: 5917:Andrew Young 5872:A. T. Walden 5867:C. T. Vivian 5827:Maxine Smith 5662:Homer Plessy 5642:James Orange 5597:Irene Morgan 5552:William Ming 5532:Ralph McGill 5467:Viola Liuzzo 5452:Jim Letherer 5437:James Lawson 5367:Vernon Johns 5357:Esau Jenkins 5312:Myles Horton 5262:Fred Hampton 5252:Prathia Hall 5242:Dick Gregory 5212:Marie Foster 5207:James Forman 5197:James Farmer 5182:Medgar Evers 5142:Angela Davis 5077:Ramsey Clark 5057:James Chaney 5052:Johnnie Carr 5032:Ralph Bunche 5027:H. Rap Brown 5017:Ruby Bridges 4977:Joanne Bland 4952:Claude Black 4932:Marion Barry 4902:Muhammad Ali 4729: 4665: 4658: 4619: 4597: 4566: 4559: 4401: 4362: 4355: 4285:Kissing Case 4260: 4217: 4212: 4200: 4191: 4184: 4177: 4170: 4163: 4139: 4131: 4052: 4011: 4003: 3931: 3925: 3915: 3908: 3894: 3881: 3873: 3858: 3845: 3828: 3814: 3797: 3783: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3722: 3718: 3708: 3694:cite journal 3669: 3663: 3653: 3628: 3624: 3618: 3607: 3597: 3588: 3579: 3567:. Retrieved 3561: 3551: 3536: 3528: 3519: 3509: 3495: 3485: 3476: 3470: 3445: 3441: 3416:February 13, 3414:. Retrieved 3410:the original 3405: 3396: 3387: 3381: 3348: 3344: 3338: 3323: 3318: 3309: 3304: 3292:. Retrieved 3285: 3276: 3264:. Retrieved 3260: 3251: 3239:. Retrieved 3235: 3226: 3214:. Retrieved 3210:the original 3206:sites.si.edu 3205: 3172: 3164: 3154:November 26, 3152:. Retrieved 3141: 3122: 3116: 3104:. Retrieved 3094: 3082:. Retrieved 3078:the original 3073: 3064: 3052:. Retrieved 3042: 3030:. Retrieved 3018: 2994: 2987: 2975:. Retrieved 2965: 2945: 2938: 2926:. Retrieved 2922:the original 2912: 2900:. Retrieved 2896:the original 2885: 2865: 2858: 2832:. Retrieved 2828: 2818: 2809: 2803: 2794: 2788: 2776:. Retrieved 2772: 2763: 2751:. Retrieved 2736: 2729: 2717:. Retrieved 2713:the original 2703: 2692: 2683: 2671:. Retrieved 2659: 2650: 2638:. Retrieved 2628: 2616:. Retrieved 2612: 2605:Thamel, Pete 2599: 2587:. Retrieved 2583: 2574: 2562:. Retrieved 2558: 2533: 2521:. Retrieved 2514:the original 2501: 2482: 2476: 2456: 2449: 2437: 2429: 2421: 2411: 2402: 2393: 2383: 2379: 2367:. Retrieved 2363: 2354: 2346:the original 2331: 2304: 2298: 2290:the original 2281: 2275: 2265: 2246: 2226: 2219: 2163:. Retrieved 2159:The Guardian 2157: 2147: 2123: 2116: 2098: 2090:the original 2079: 2074: 2069: 2041: 2017:. Retrieved 2013: 2004: 1976: 1969: 1952: 1948: 1942: 1914: 1907: 1885: 1882: 1876: 1851: 1831: 1824: 1815: 1806: 1754: 1733: 1725: 1707: 1642:Glenn Smiley 1559:Johnnie Carr 1522:Participants 1506: 1494: 1490: 1471: 1463: 1453: 1450: 1439: 1437: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1397: 1385: 1369: 1361: 1347: 1343: 1315: 1303: 1294: 1282: 1245: 1225: 1212: 1198: 1164: 1129: 1125: 1115: 1111: 1101: 1097: 1087: 1075: 1068: 1064: 1057: 1039: 1024: 985: 961: 954:Irene Morgan 947: 935: 919:—along with 906: 879: 853: 843: 832: 829:Warren Court 822: 817:shortchanged 812:white people 800: 774: 742: 740: 706: 705: 698: 681: 660: 659: 637: 631: 630: 604: 603: 596: 589: 582: 570: 553: 536: 531: 525: 524: 517: 510: 468: 451: 439: 418: 417: 410: 403: 386: 379: 372: 362: 307:, bus driver 292: 291: 282: 281: 266: 265: 237: 236: 225: 224: 217:Lead figures 131: 31:Part of the 18: 8423:US senators 8393:Republicans 8378:Journalists 8235:San Antonio 8200:Puerto Rico 8141:Mississippi 8034:Tallahassee 8007:Los Angeles 7698:Jesse Owens 7683:Arthur Ashe 7541:Nationalism 7531:Raised fist 7494:Black power 7399:in medicine 7333:Roy Wilkins 7288:Emmett Till 7273:Al Sharpton 7038:Julian Bond 7033:James Bevel 6997:Upper class 6987:Stereotypes 6880:Black mecca 6792:Plantations 6571:Black Codes 6435:Doug McAdam 6405:Chuck Fager 6032:Nonviolence 5937:James Zwerg 5932:Bob Zellner 5892:Roy Wilkins 5842:Hank Thomas 5777:Pete Seeger 5772:Bobby Seale 5637:Jack O'Dell 5632:Edgar Nixon 5562:Amzie Moore 5557:Jack Minnis 5497:Mae Mallory 5482:Clara Luper 5442:Bernard Lee 5332:Cecil Ivory 5327:Ruby Hurley 5297:Oliver Hill 5292:Aaron Henry 5192:Chuck Fager 5152:Dave Dennis 5042:Guy Carawan 4982:Julian Bond 4947:James Bevel 4937:Daisy Bates 4208:Emmett Till 4091:(1954–1968) 4049:The Boycott 3294:January 18, 3054:December 4, 2928:December 3, 2902:December 3, 2834:January 23, 2778:January 23, 2589:January 22, 2369:January 22, 1730:(1990 film) 1712:(2001 film) 1612:Edgar Nixon 1335:Emmett Till 1323:Mississippi 1228:E. D. Nixon 1222:E. D. Nixon 1186:Recy Taylor 1060:Emmett Till 1054:Emmett Till 1004:Baton Rouge 1002:and former 988:Baton Rouge 921:E. D. Nixon 909:Recy Taylor 903:Recy Taylor 850:Recy Taylor 238:MIA members 126:Resulted in 8532:Categories 8368:Astronauts 8158:New Jersey 8002:California 7506:Capitalism 7303:Nat Turner 7233:Rosa Parks 7218:Diane Nash 7188:John Lewis 6977:Newspapers 6947:Literature 6932:Juneteenth 6885:Businesses 6739:Exodusters 6707:Free Negro 6378:historians 6059:Satyagraha 6025:Influences 5717:James Reeb 5652:James Peck 5647:Rosa Parks 5617:Diane Nash 5487:Danny Lyon 5462:John Lewis 5407:A. D. King 5307:James Hood 4922:Ella Baker 4892:Zev Aelony 3957:Jack Rabin 3402:"Overview" 2673:August 24, 2640:August 24, 2559:Boston.com 2314:0803728042 2191:. lsu.edu. 2110:. pbs.org. 2019:August 24, 1798:References 1617:Rosa Parks 1539:Hugo Black 1392:firebombed 1319:Deep South 1310:Rosa Parks 1205:nonviolent 1170:seamstress 1166:Rosa Parks 1153:Rosa Parks 1147:Rosa Parks 917:Rosa Parks 874:See also: 787:See also: 783:Background 767:Rosa Parks 755:Montgomery 425:Bombingham 254:Rosa Parks 249:E.D. Nixon 226:WPC member 117:Rosa Parks 69:1956-12-20 65:1955-12-05 46:Rosa Parks 8482:Monuments 8358:Activists 8210:Tennessee 8130:Michigan 8114:Baltimore 8104:Louisiana 8097:Lexington 8080:Davenport 8019:Cleveland 7918:Languages 7847:Melungeon 7825:Blaxicans 7693:Joe Louis 7548:Socialism 7484:Anarchism 7213:Bob Moses 7198:Malcolm X 7118:Fred Gray 6982:Soul food 6920:New Negro 6905:Folktales 6815:Redlining 6037:Padayatra 5986:"Kumbaya" 5946:By region 5602:Bob Moses 5507:Bob Mants 5492:Malcolm X 5412:C.B. King 5232:Fred Gray 4875:Activists 4516:1964–1968 4299:1960–1963 4157:1954–1959 3747:145141702 3569:April 21, 3216:March 31, 2668:0362-4331 2618:April 15, 2165:March 23, 2061:503042152 1996:503042152 1934:708094574 1589:Fred Gray 1512:Dana King 1460:Aftermath 1287:, led by 1240:test case 992:Louisiana 259:Fred Gray 145:Inspired 113:'s arrest 90:Caused by 8623:Boycotts 8505:Category 8296:America 8262:Diaspora 8247:Virginia 8180:Oklahoma 8163:New York 8146:Nebraska 8109:Maryland 8092:Kentucky 8058:Illinois 7997:Arkansas 7902:Illinois 7840:of color 7526:Populism 7499:Movement 7416:Religion 6758:Lynching 6541:Timeline 5967:Movement 5397:Tom Kahn 4681:Activist 4101:timeline 4016:Archived 3970:Archived 3874:My Story 3645:25149348 3493:(1988). 3373:62832487 3266:June 27, 3241:June 23, 2844:cite web 2523:March 3, 2416:riders." 2323:49699347 2106:(2002). 1696:See also 1497:Klansmen 1478:Klansmen 1078:decision 938:decision 880:In 1841 119:' arrest 77:Location 67: – 8433:Writers 8398:Singers 8383:Jurists 8331:Europe 8285:Liberia 8230:Houston 8134:Detroit 8070:Indiana 8063:Chicago 8046:Atlanta 8041:Georgia 8024:Florida 7992:Alabama 7942:English 7516:Leftism 7386:Museums 6937:Kwanzaa 6862:Culture 6830:Slavery 6533:History 6092:Related 5682:Al Raby 4637:funeral 4500:Big Six 3920:excerpt 3918:(2002) 3817:(1986) 3686:4092740 3365:2095322 2753:June 5, 2719:June 5, 1765:Portals 1709:Boycott 1482:lynched 1420:Victory 1329:of the 1259:Boycott 1122:History 759:Alabama 747:protest 353:Alabama 162:Parties 63: ( 8445:Mayors 8363:Actors 8335:France 8327:Israel 8315:Mexico 8300:Canada 8275:Gambia 8270:Africa 8220:Austin 8185:Oregon 8124:Boston 8087:Kansas 8053:Hawaii 7971:Gullah 7781:Yoruba 7771:Gullah 7642:Sports 7560:groups 7390:Women 6927:Hoodoo 6801:(1896) 6727:Second 6703:(1857) 6648:(1956) 6595:(1954) 6278:Legacy 6054:Ahimsa 4683:groups 4144:(1950) 4136:(1950) 4097:Events 4033:– 1956 3938: 3901: 3887: 3865: 3851: 3835: 3821: 3804: 3790: 3772:, and 3745: 3739:743660 3737: 3684: 3643: 3462:796572 3460: 3371: 3363: 3330: 3181: 3129: 3084:May 7, 3006: 2953: 2873: 2744: 2666: 2489: 2464: 2321: 2311: 2259:. NPR. 2234: 2135: 2059: 2049: 1994: 1984: 1932: 1922: 1895: 1864: 1839: 1527:People 1370:Black 1139:, the 1112:Morgan 1098:Morgan 1006:mayor 962:Morgan 795:, and 155:(SCLC) 136:(1956) 84:, U.S. 8346:Lists 8310:Haiti 8280:Ghana 8215:Texas 8151:Omaha 7429:Islam 6962:Names 6952:Music 6890:Dance 6376:Noted 5969:songs 4789:NAACP 4642:riots 3743:S2CID 3735:JSTOR 3682:JSTOR 3641:JSTOR 3458:JSTOR 3369:S2CID 3361:JSTOR 3027:(PDF) 3000:41–42 2517:(PDF) 2510:(PDF) 2284:(5). 1779:1950s 1232:NAACP 1174:NAACP 769:, an 183:(MIA) 177:(WPC) 8242:Utah 8075:Iowa 7907:Ohio 7868:list 7776:Igbo 7766:Fula 6910:Hair 6900:Film 6617:1968 6607:1964 3936:ISBN 3899:ISBN 3885:ISBN 3863:ISBN 3849:ISBN 3833:ISBN 3819:ISBN 3802:ISBN 3788:ISBN 3700:link 3571:2018 3418:2015 3328:ISBN 3296:2021 3268:2020 3261:Oyez 3243:2020 3218:2016 3179:ISBN 3156:2011 3127:ISBN 3108:2012 3086:2021 3056:2019 3034:2012 3004:ISBN 2979:2012 2951:ISBN 2930:2013 2904:2013 2871:ISBN 2850:link 2836:2021 2780:2021 2755:2014 2742:ISBN 2721:2014 2675:2021 2664:ISSN 2642:2021 2620:2009 2591:2021 2566:2012 2525:2016 2487:ISBN 2462:ISBN 2371:2021 2319:OCLC 2309:ISBN 2232:ISBN 2167:2017 2133:ISBN 2057:OCLC 2047:ISBN 2021:2021 1992:OCLC 1982:ISBN 1930:OCLC 1920:ISBN 1893:ISBN 1862:ISBN 1837:ISBN 1372:taxi 1267:The 1116:Keys 1069:Look 948:The 827:and 741:The 58:Date 6875:Art 6732:New 3727:doi 3674:doi 3633:doi 3545:–2. 3543:141 3501:202 3450:doi 3353:doi 3074:UAW 1957:doi 1753:In 1357:FBI 1065:Jet 351:in 98:on 50:UPI 8534:: 6746:/ 4051:, 3955:– 3768:, 3741:. 3733:. 3721:. 3717:. 3696:}} 3692:{{ 3670:30 3668:. 3662:. 3639:. 3629:51 3627:. 3606:. 3587:. 3560:. 3518:. 3456:. 3446:98 3444:. 3440:. 3426:^ 3404:. 3367:. 3359:. 3349:48 3347:. 3284:. 3259:. 3234:. 3204:. 3193:^ 3072:. 3002:. 2846:}} 2842:{{ 2827:. 2771:. 2691:. 2658:. 2611:. 2582:. 2557:. 2545:^ 2401:. 2362:. 2317:. 2280:. 2274:. 2197:^ 2175:^ 2156:. 2127:. 2055:. 2029:^ 2012:. 1990:. 1953:18 1951:. 1928:. 1814:. 1383:. 1367:. 1218:. 990:, 923:, 791:, 757:, 6517:e 6510:t 6503:v 6246:" 6242:" 4587:" 4583:" 4427:" 4423:" 4245:" 4241:" 4103:) 4099:( 4081:e 4074:t 4067:v 3749:. 3729:: 3723:9 3702:) 3688:. 3676:: 3647:. 3635:: 3612:. 3591:. 3573:. 3522:. 3503:. 3464:. 3452:: 3420:. 3375:. 3355:: 3298:. 3270:. 3245:. 3220:. 3187:. 3158:. 3135:. 3110:. 3088:. 3058:. 3036:. 3012:. 2981:. 2959:. 2932:. 2906:. 2879:. 2852:) 2838:. 2782:. 2757:. 2723:. 2697:. 2677:. 2644:. 2622:. 2593:. 2568:. 2527:. 2495:. 2470:. 2405:. 2373:. 2325:. 2282:7 2240:. 2169:. 2141:. 2063:. 2023:. 1998:. 1963:. 1959:: 1936:. 1901:. 1870:. 1845:. 1818:. 1767:: 1279:. 340:e 333:t 326:v 71:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.