142:, a part of the 1965 historic route of the Selma to Montgomery trial, on December 2, 1955, Parks first told the story of her arrest and the group decided to mount a bus boycott. Participants initially decided was to have a one-day boycott on Monday, December 5, but because the boycott that day was so successful, discussion of continuing it began at a meeting afterward at the church due to the fact that roughly 70 percent of Montgomery's bus passengers were black and most stayed off the buses. A few years earlier, the minister of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church had tried to prompt a group of blacks to walk off a bus in protest. The driver had ordered Reverend Vernon Johns to get up and let a white man sit down. Johns stood up and challenged the other blacks to march off the bus with him. Asking blacks to protest was asking a lot. They could expect to be fired from their jobs and harassed on the streets, ad could possibly become victims of an economic boycott on the part of the white segregationists. A successful bus boycott would need to be mapped out carefully and executed with discipline. Robinson was consulted by
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of these indignities. During the early 1950s WPC leaders met regularly with Mayor W. A. Gayle and the city commission to lobby for bus reforms. They complained that the city did not hire any black bus drivers, said that segregation of seating was unjust, and that bus stops in black neighborhoods were farther apart than in white ones, although blacks were the majority of the riders. Although they succeeded in pressuring the city to hire its first Black police officers, they made no progress in their effort to ameliorate bus segregation. Robinson and other WPC members met with bus company officials on their own. The segregation issue was deflected, as bus company officials said that segregation was city and state law. The WPC achieved a small victory, as the bus company officials agreed to have the buses stop at every corner in black neighborhoods, as was the practice in white neighborhoods.
100:, a newly hired English professor at Alabama State College, joined the council. Her firsthand experiences with segregated seating on buses prompted Robinson to succeed Burks as WPC president in 1950 and to shift the council's primary focus to challenging the seating policy. She organized the Women's Political Council and within a month's time they had over a hundred members. They organized a second chapter and a third, and soon they had more than 300 members. They had members in every elementary, junior high, and senior high school. They had them organized from federal and state and local jobs; Wherever there were more than 10 blacks employed, they had a member there. Under her leadership the council grew to over 200 members and expanded to three chapters in different areas of the city. Eventually, there were around three hundred members and all of them were registered to vote.
89:
fail the literacy test they were forced to take in order to vote. Other times, they were told they had come to the wrong location for registration or come on the wrong date. One goal of the WPC was to teach adults to read and write well enough to fulfill the literacy requirements for voting. One of its most successful programs was an annual event called Youth City, which taught Black high school students about politics and government and "what democracy could and should mean". During election campaigns the WPC worked with the white-only
85:. Many of its middle-class women were active in education; most of WPC's members were educators at Alabama State College or Montgomery's public schools. The organization targeted Montgomery's small population of black middle class women, encouraging their civic involvement and promoting voter registration. About forty women attended the first organizational meeting. Burks was the group's first president. Burks decided to form the organization after she was arrested after a traffic dispute with a white woman.
62:, beginning in December 1955. The group led efforts in the early 1950s to secure better treatment for Black bus passengers, and in December 1955 it initiated the thirteen-month bus boycott. They helped organize communications to get it started, as well as to support it, including giving people rides who were boycotting the buses. The African Americans of Montgomery upheld the boycott for more than a year. It ended in late December 1956, after the United States Supreme Court ruled in
132:, a fifteen-year-old high school student was arrested in March 1955, for refusing to give up her seat, the WPC and other local civil rights organizations began to discuss a boycott. Colvin's arrest and conviction angered and unified the Black community, but when they discovered that the unmarried Colvin was pregnant, they did not want to use her as the point person, as she would not have commanded support among the religious and conservative blacks.
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members serving as role models. Robinson stated in her memoir that "Members felt that young, concerned women, with their futures ahead, would benefit by the WPC and that we would help them to organize and select goals and directions for their future." Information is not available on the extent to which the younger women became involved in the later civil rights movement in
Montgomery and elsewhere.
154:
their parents. Robinson did not put her name or that of the Women's
Political Council on the handbills. She feared the city and state officials would realize she had used the mimeograph machine at Alabama State and, in revenge, cut off funds for the all-black school. The handbills asked blacks to boycott the buses the following Monday, December 5, in support of Parks.
188:, on behalf of five women who had each been arrested for defying bus segregation (one dropped out that month.) A three-judge panel ruled on June 13, 1956, that bus segregation was unconstitutional, and the case went to the US Supreme Court. It upheld the lower court ruling on December 17, 1956, and three days later ordered the state to desegregate the buses.
212:, which won the publication prize by the Southern Association for Women's Historians. Through her historical work, Robinson helped restore women to their proper place in the Montgomery boycott, and through her political commitment, she helped launch one of the most important civil rights struggles in the Jim Crow South.
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as president. Jo Ann
Robinson served on the group's executive board and edited their newsletter. In order to protect her position at Alabama State College and her colleagues, she stayed out of the limelight. Robinson and other WPC members helped sustain the boycott by providing car transportation for
146:, president of the NAACP. The night of Parks' arrest, Robinson called the other WPC leaders, and they agreed that this was the right time for a bus boycott. Parks was a longtime NAACP activist who was deeply respected and seemed like the ideal community symbol around which to mobilize a mass protest.
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at
Alabama State College to distribute the next day. She called students and arranged to meet them at elementary and high schools in the morning. She drove to the various schools to drop the handbills off to the students who would distribute them in the schools and ask students to take them home for
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As president, she began to study the issue of bus segregation, which affected the many blacks who were the majority of riders on the city system. First, members appeared before the City
Commission to report abuses on the buses, such as blacks who were first on the bus being required later to give up
88:
The group's initial purposes were to foster women's involvement in civic affairs, to promote voter registration through citizenship education, and to aid women who were victims of rape or assault. Many
African Americans were illiterate due to centuries of oppression and poverty; they would sometimes
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The success of the boycott and the rise of the
Montgomery Improvement Association contributed to the organization's decline. The MIA was created to direct the boycott, as a result the WPC leadership role in the black community was diminished. Younger women reinvigorated the council, guided by older
112:
In
Montgomery, black women especially were regularly humiliated by the bus service. Jo Ann Robinson sat down in the white section of a city bus one day without thinking. She was brought to tears by the bus driver who cursed her out for sitting there. The Women's political council was formed because
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Robinson and Burks left
Montgomery in 1960, after several Alabama State College professors were fired for civil rights activities. Robinson taught for one year at Grambling State College in Grambling, Louisiana, then moved to Los Angeles, where she taught English in the public schools until 1976,
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By Friday night, word of a boycott had spread all over the city. That same night, local ministers and civil rights leaders held a meeting and announced the boycott for Monday. With some ministers hesitant to engage their congregations in a boycott, about half left the meeting in frustration. They
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In 1960, Burks resigned from
Alabama State College after several professors were fired for their involvement in civil rights issues. She then taught literature at the University of Maryland until her retirement in 1986. Burks was appointed to a
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when she retired. After retiring, Robinson remained active in a host of civic and social groups, giving one day a week of free service to the city of Los Angeles and serving in the League of Women Voters, the Alpha Gamma Omega chapter of the
138:, the secretary of the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP, was arrested in December 1955; she, the NAACP, and the WPC agreed that she could be the lead for a boycott. At a meeting of about fifty people in the basement of the
76:
The WPC formed in 1946 as a civic organization for African-American professional women in the city of Montgomery, Alabama. It was organized by Mary Fair Burks, the chairperson of the English department at
81:, and 40 other women. The WPC was a political organization composed of Alabama State College faculty members and the wives of black professional men throughout the city. It was inspired by the
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The boycott had demonstrated African-American organizing power and highlighted civil rights issues in the city. Its success helped further steps in the drive for civil rights.
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By 1955, there was growing dissatisfaction with the segregated bus system. The WPC decided that when the right person got arrested, they would initiate a boycott. When
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decision was announced, Robinson wrote a letter to Mayor W. A. Gayle saying that there was growing support among local black organizations for a bus boycott.
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497:"THE SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL ORIGINS OF THE MONTGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT: SOCIAL INTERACTION AND HUMILIATION IN THE EMERGENCE OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS"
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that the state and local laws for bus segregation were unconstitutional, and ordered the state to desegregate public transportation.
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515:"The Suzanne Mackenzie Memorial Lecture: Rethinking the politics of feminist knowledge production in Anglo-American geography"
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The one-day boycott was so successful that the organizers met on Monday night and decided to continue. They established the
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The Montgomery bus boycott and the women who started it: The memoir of Jo Ann Gibson Robinson
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The Montgomery bus boycott and the women who started it: The memoir of Jo Ann Gibson Robinson
684:"Rosa Parks' arrest on Dec. 1, 1955 sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott and changed the world"
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seats for whites as buses became crowded. The commission acted surprised but did nothing.
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The WPC was the first group to officially call for a boycott of the bus system during the
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decided to hold a mass meeting Monday night to decide if the boycott should continue.
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Extremist for Love: Martin Luther King Jr., Man of Ideas and Nonviolent Social Action
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Women in the Civil Rights Movement: Trailblazers and Torchbearers 1941-1965.
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Women in the Civil Rights Movement: Trailblazers and Torchbearers !941-1965
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Crawford, Rouse, Woods, Vicki L., Jacquline Anne, and Barbara (1993).
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The Unsung Heroines of the Civil Rights Movement from 1830 to 1970
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860:, and Barbara Woods, eds. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1993. 71-83.
802:
Women in the Civil Rights Movement: Trailblazers and Torchbearers
2893:
640:
On the Road to Freedom: A guided tour of the civil rights trail
483:
On the Road to Freedom: A guided Tour of the civil rights trail
328:
On the Road to Freedom: A guided tour of the civil rights trail
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194:
177:
On February 1, 1956, associated lawyers filed a civil suit,
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Robinson stayed up all night copying 35,000 handbills by a
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David J. Garrow, ed. Knoxville: U of Tennessee P, 1987.
852:
Burks, Mary Fair. "Women in the Montgomery Bus Boycott."
223:
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Eyes on the prize: Americas civil rights years 1954-1965
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Eyes on the prize: American Civil rights years 1954-1965
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Eyes on the prize: Americas civil rights years 1954-1965
3078:
Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam
2856:"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"
313:
Landmarks of The American Mosaic: Civil Rights Movement
210:
The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It
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African American founding fathers of the United States
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Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement
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John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights
422:
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to inform Black citizens about political candidates.
3150:
Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument
708:
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267:Black Women in America: an historical encyclopedia
615:"Before Rosa Parks, there was a 15-year-old girl"
169:to organize the boycott and elected the Reverend
3364:Women's organizations based in the United States
3335:
1686:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
1676:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
1609:Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights
1500:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
548:Daybreak of freedom: The Montgomery bus boycott
3155:Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument
315:. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood. pp. 35–6.
3063:List of lynching victims in the United States
1401:Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States
913:
3354:History of civil rights in the United States
485:. chapel hill: Algonquin books. p. 211.
437:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
279:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1530:Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights
681:
612:
550:. Univ of North Carolina Press – via
370:
330:. chapel hill: algoquin books. p. 211.
158:and her students helped distribute fliers.
1579:Council for United Civil Rights Leadership
920:
906:
371:Christensen, Stephanie (11 January 2008).
292:
290:
269:. Brooklyn N.Y. Carlson Publ. p. 987.
264:
3135:Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument
530:
373:"Women's Political Council of Montgomery"
195:Members After The Women Political Council
3170:King Center for Nonviolent Social Change
1210:University of Georgia desegregation riot
784:
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706:
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552:http://uncpress.unc.edu/books/T-222.html
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3344:African Americans' rights organizations
3084:Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence
2821:"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"
2816:"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"
545:
340:
287:
3384:African-American women's organizations
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2998:African-American women in the movement
1450:White House Conference on Civil Rights
1281:"Segregation now, segregation forever"
587:
344:Women's studies encyclopedia, Volume 2
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224:Decline of the Women Political Council
1439:Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections
901:
824:
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734:
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218:National Endowment for the Humanities
39:issues in the city. Members included
3359:Defunct American political movements
3207:St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument
1671:Regional Council of Negro Leadership
1619:Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
1565:Committee on Appeal for Human Rights
1042:Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company
967:Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore
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298:"Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956)"
260:
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204:sorority, the Angel City chapter of
1614:Lowndes County Freedom Organization
1550:Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters
1220:Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address
753:
427:. Bloomington: Indiana. p. 79.
13:
3394:Women's clubs in the United States
3379:African-American women in politics
3058:African-American churches attacked
1624:Montgomery Improvement Association
1599:Georgia Council on Human Relations
1584:Council of Federated Organizations
1555:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
1313:16th Street Baptist Church bombing
1271:Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot
1077:1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom
981:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents
829:. Simon and Schuster. p. 131.
729:
613:Taylor-Dior, Rumble (2018-03-10).
265:Hine,Brown, Darlene, Elsa (1993).
167:Montgomery Improvement Association
14:
3405:
3389:Organizations established in 1946
3130:Birmingham Civil Rights Institute
3003:Jews in the civil rights movement
885:
361:
239:
3324:Civil rights movement portal
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3165:Freedom Riders National Monument
2907:The Kingdom of God Is Within You
1419:1965 Selma to Montgomery marches
1378:1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests
1265:Second Emancipation Proclamation
481:Cobb Jr., Charles E> (2008).
16:Organization that formed in 1946
3192:Mississippi Civil Rights Museum
3180:Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial
1656:National Council of Negro Women
1594:Deacons for Defense and Justice
833:
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116:In May 1954, shortly after the
35:that was formed to address the
3369:History of Montgomery, Alabama
1072:Mansfield school desegregation
642:. chapel hill: algoquin books.
445:
416:
390:
319:
304:
107:
1:
3202:National Voting Rights Museum
3145:Civil Rights Movement Archive
2944:Lynching in the United States
2831:"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"
1286:Stand in the Schoolhouse Door
1259:University of Chicago sit-ins
1026:Davis v. Prince Edward County
774:– via Internet Archive.
638:Cobb Jr., Charles E. (2008).
326:Cobb Jr., Charles E. (2008).
232:
3197:National Civil Rights Museum
3053:March on Washington Movement
3038:Dexter Avenue Baptist Church
1507:Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.
892:"Women's Political Council."
186:United States District Court
140:Dexter Avenue Baptist Church
7:
3374:History of women in Alabama
2841:"This Little Light of Mine"
1589:Dallas County Voters League
1535:Atlanta Negro Voters League
1298:Letter from Birmingham Jail
1005:Brown v. Board of Education
789:. Univ. of Tennessee Press.
743:. Univ. of Tennessee Press.
715:. new york: penguin books.
661:. New york: Penguin books.
460:. new york: penguin books.
123:United States Supreme Court
119:Brown v. Board of Education
10:
3410:
3175:Martin Luther King Jr. Day
3043:Holt Street Baptist Church
3013:16th Street Baptist Church
1997:Annie Bell Robinson Devine
1641:Nashville Student Movement
1571:An Appeal for Human Rights
682:Contributed (2017-12-01).
347:. Greenwood. p. 604.
83:Atlanta Neighborhood Union
71:
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2672:Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson
2642:Modjeska Monteith Simkins
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1706:Women's Political Council
1701:Wednesdays in Mississippi
1696:United Auto Workers (UAW)
1681:Southern Regional Council
1651:Northern Student Movement
1560:Committee for Freedom Now
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1467:Memphis sanitation strike
1433:Voting Rights Act of 1965
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1176:Savannah Protest Movement
1138:
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957:Journey of Reconciliation
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841:"Baltimore Afro American"
800:Bruks, Mary Fair (1993).
785:Robinson, Jo Ann (1989).
760:The Montgomery Advertiser
739:Robinson, Jo Ann (1989).
688:The Montgomery Advertiser
311:Jamie J., Wilson (2013).
220:reviewing panel in 1979.
21:Women's Political Council
1540:Atlanta Student Movement
1489:Civil Rights Act of 1968
1414:1964–1965 Scripto strike
1395:Civil Rights Act of 1964
1293:1963 Birmingham campaign
1186:Civil Rights Act of 1960
1110:Civil Rights Act of 1957
870:Robinson, Jo Ann Gibson.
3092:Voter Education Project
2846:"We Shall Not Be Moved"
2507:Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
1942:Josephine Dobbs Clement
1368:Chester school protests
1363:Twenty-fourth Amendment
1325:Detroit Walk to Freedom
1067:Tallahassee bus boycott
988:Baton Rouge bus boycott
707:Williams, Juan (2002).
653:Williams, Juan (2002).
546:Stewart, Burns (2012).
519:The Canadian Geographer
452:Williams, Juan (2002).
341:Tierney, Helen (1999).
3305:Movement photographers
2547:Bernice Johnson Reagon
2267:Martin Luther King Sr.
2262:Martin Luther King Jr.
1832:William Holmes Borders
1604:Highlander Folk School
1494:Poor People's Campaign
1347:St. Augustine movement
1197:Gomillion v. Lightfoot
1120:Katz Drug Store sit-in
1091:Royal Ice Cream sit-in
1053:Montgomery bus boycott
588:Burrow, Rufus (2014).
171:Martin Luther King Jr.
91:League of Women Voters
60:Montgomery bus boycott
3140:Civil Rights Memorial
3028:Bethel Baptist Church
2677:Charles Kenzie Steele
2122:Audrey Faye Hendricks
2027:Myrlie Evers-Williams
2007:Patricia Stephens Due
1977:Abraham Lincoln Davis
1912:Colia Lafayette Clark
1666:Operation Breadbasket
1661:National Urban League
1408:Katzenbach v. McClung
1276:Atlanta's Berlin Wall
929:Civil rights movement
858:Jacqueline Anne Rouse
825:Olson, Lynne (2001).
513:Peake, Linda (2015).
79:Alabama State College
55:, and Euretta Adair.
33:civil rights movement
3349:Community organizing
3185:other King memorials
3160:Freedom Rides Museum
3097:1960s counterculture
3048:Edmund Pettus Bridge
2727:Walter Francis White
2632:Alexander D. Shimkin
1146:New Year's Day March
1115:Ministers' Manifesto
962:Executive Order 9981
2923:Mary McLeod Bethune
2884:Sermon on the Mount
2851:"We Shall Overcome"
2432:William Lewis Moore
2212:Frank Minis Johnson
2187:Richie Jean Jackson
2142:Donald L. Hollowell
1947:Charles E. Cobb Jr.
1752:Gwendolyn Armstrong
1747:William G. Anderson
1727:Victoria Gray Adams
1691:The Freedom Singers
1545:Black Panther Party
1330:March on Washington
1243:Garner v. Louisiana
1204:Boynton v. Virginia
856:Vicki L. Crawford,
399:"Voting Rights Act"
29:Montgomery, Alabama
3240:Michael Eric Dyson
3125:In popular culture
3008:Fifth Circuit Four
2992:Loving v. Virginia
2985:Hernandez v. Texas
2964:Buchanan v. Warley
2956:Separate but equal
2950:Plessy v. Ferguson
2913:Frederick Douglass
2747:Robert F. Williams
2657:Kelly Miller Smith
2637:Fred Shuttlesworth
2562:Frederick D. Reese
2542:George Raymond Jr.
2532:A. Philip Randolph
2512:Fay Bellamy Powell
2427:Queen Mother Moore
2312:Z. Alexander Looby
2257:Coretta Scott King
2202:Barbara Rose Johns
2182:Jimmie Lee Jackson
2107:William E. Harbour
1887:Stokely Carmichael
1802:Randolph Blackwell
1472:King assassination
1461:Loving v. Virginia
1445:March Against Fear
1425:How Long, Not Long
1303:Children's Crusade
1254:Cambridge movement
1191:Ax Handle Saturday
1156:Greensboro sit-ins
1083:Give Us the Ballot
894:King Encyclopedia.
397:Williams, Yohuru.
151:mimeograph machine
3331:
3330:
3108:Eyes on the Prize
3023:A.G. Gaston Motel
3018:Kelly Ingram Park
2978:Sweatt v. Painter
2662:Mary Louise Smith
2622:Cleveland Sellers
2607:Michael Schwerner
2572:Gloria Richardson
2352:Thurgood Marshall
2272:Bernard Lafayette
2002:John Wesley Dobbs
1516:
1515:
1235:Birmingham attack
1215:Rock Hill sit-ins
1166:Sibley Commission
1161:Nashville sit-ins
1033:Gebhart v. Belton
1019:Briggs v. Elliott
1012:Bolling v. Sharpe
973:Sweatt v. Painter
811:978-0-253-20832-3
567:External link in
532:10.1111/cag.12174
354:978-0-313-31072-0
202:Alpha Kappa Alpha
174:many boycotters.
3401:
3322:
3321:
3285:Charles M. Payne
3270:Steven F. Lawson
3260:David Halberstam
3230:Clayborne Carson
2971:Hocutt v. Wilson
2918:W. E. B. Du Bois
2767:Sammy Younge Jr.
2752:Q. V. Williamson
2717:Wyatt Tee Walker
2582:Bernice Robinson
2527:Lincoln Ragsdale
2517:Rodney N. Powell
2412:Douglas E. Moore
2287:Sanford R. Leigh
2222:J. Charles Jones
2097:Fannie Lou Hamer
2012:Joseph Ellwanger
1972:Jonathan Daniels
1962:Claudette Colvin
1952:Annie Lee Cooper
1937:Kathleen Cleaver
1932:Eldridge Cleaver
1907:Shirley Chisholm
1797:Gloria Blackwell
1388:workers' murders
1335:"I Have a Dream"
1230:Anniston bombing
1181:Greenville Eight
1096:Little Rock Nine
1059:Browder v. Gayle
947:
946:
922:
915:
908:
899:
898:
845:
844:
837:
831:
830:
822:
816:
815:
797:
791:
790:
782:
776:
775:
773:
771:
766:on 16 April 2007
762:. Archived from
754:Pippins, Erica.
751:
745:
744:
736:
727:
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697:
695:
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459:
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368:
359:
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338:
332:
331:
323:
317:
316:
308:
302:
301:
294:
285:
284:
278:
270:
262:
180:Browder v. Gayle
130:Claudette Colvin
65:Browder v. Gayle
3409:
3408:
3404:
3403:
3402:
3400:
3399:
3398:
3334:
3333:
3332:
3327:
3316:
3309:
3290:Thomas E. Ricks
3280:Diane McWhorter
3265:Vincent Harding
3250:Adam Fairclough
3217:
3211:
3113:
3068:Freedom Schools
2927:
2860:
2808:
2802:
2793:Omaha, Nebraska
2781:
2697:Hartman Turnbow
2687:Dorothy Tillman
2647:Glenn E. Smiley
2627:Charles Sherrod
2587:Jo Ann Robinson
2462:Charles Neblett
2452:Elijah Muhammad
2417:Harriette Moore
2377:Floyd McKissick
2362:Franklin McCain
2297:Stanley Levison
2162:T. R. M. Howard
2112:Vincent Harding
2042:Walter Fauntroy
1927:Xernona Clayton
1877:John H. Calhoun
1862:Aurelia Browder
1852:Stanley Branche
1847:Raylawni Branch
1827:Joseph E. Boone
1812:Ezell Blair Jr.
1807:Unita Blackwell
1782:Harry Belafonte
1722:Ralph Abernathy
1710:
1646:Nation of Islam
1522:
1512:
1351:
1308:Birmingham riot
1249:Albany Movement
1171:Atlanta sit-ins
1151:Sit-in movement
1134:
1130:Biloxi wade-ins
1102:Cooper v. Aaron
992:
938:
932:
926:
888:
849:
848:
839:
838:
834:
823:
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288:
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263:
240:
235:
226:
197:
110:
98:Jo Ann Robinson
74:
45:Jo Ann Robinson
41:Mary Fair Burks
17:
12:
11:
5:
3407:
3397:
3396:
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3386:
3381:
3376:
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3356:
3351:
3346:
3329:
3328:
3314:
3311:
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3308:
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3302:
3300:Akinyele Umoja
3297:
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3257:
3252:
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2929:
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2926:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2903:
2902:
2901:
2896:
2889:Mahatma Gandhi
2886:
2881:
2880:
2879:
2868:
2866:
2862:
2861:
2859:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2812:
2810:
2804:
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2801:
2800:
2798:South Carolina
2795:
2789:
2787:
2783:
2782:
2780:
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2774:
2769:
2764:
2759:
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2749:
2744:
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2737:Hosea Williams
2734:
2729:
2724:
2722:Hollis Watkins
2719:
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2709:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
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2669:
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2652:A. Maceo Smith
2649:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2602:Bernie Sanders
2599:
2594:
2592:Angela Russell
2589:
2584:
2579:
2577:David Richmond
2574:
2569:
2567:Walter Reuther
2564:
2559:
2554:
2552:Cordell Reagon
2549:
2544:
2539:
2537:George Raymond
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2497:Charles Person
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2467:Huey P. Newton
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2422:Harry T. Moore
2419:
2414:
2409:
2407:Cecil B. Moore
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2387:James Meredith
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
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2334:
2329:
2324:
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2299:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2269:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2217:Clarence Jones
2214:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2157:Zilphia Horton
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2127:Lola Hendricks
2124:
2119:
2117:Dorothy Height
2114:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2087:Lawrence Guyot
2084:
2079:
2077:Jack Greenberg
2074:
2069:
2064:
2062:Andrew Goodman
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1987:Joseph DeLaine
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1957:Dorothy Cotton
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1902:J. L. Chestnut
1899:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1879:
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1869:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1837:Amelia Boynton
1834:
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1814:
1809:
1804:
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1757:Arnold Aronson
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1442:
1435:
1430:
1429:
1428:
1416:
1411:
1404:
1397:
1392:
1391:
1390:
1383:Freedom Summer
1380:
1375:
1373:Bloody Tuesday
1370:
1365:
1359:
1357:
1353:
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1349:
1344:
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1337:
1327:
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985:
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924:
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886:External links
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883:
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846:
832:
817:
810:
792:
777:
756:"Thelma Glass"
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645:
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525:(3): 257–266.
505:
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109:
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73:
70:
51:, Irene West,
27:), founded in
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3:
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3298:
3296:
3295:Timothy Tyson
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3226:
3225:Taylor Branch
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3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3085:
3081:
3080:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3073:Freedom songs
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
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3044:
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2940:
2939:Jim Crow laws
2937:
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2867:
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2857:
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2849:
2847:
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2842:
2839:
2837:
2836:"Oh, Freedom"
2834:
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2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2813:
2811:
2805:
2799:
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2791:
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2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2762:Whitney Young
2760:
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2755:
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2750:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2742:Kale Williams
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2702:Albert Turner
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2692:A. P. Tureaud
2690:
2688:
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2598:
2597:Bayard Rustin
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2448:
2447:William Moyer
2445:
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2383:
2382:Joseph McNeil
2380:
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2368:
2367:Charles McDew
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2357:Benjamin Mays
2355:
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2348:
2345:
2343:
2342:Vivian Malone
2340:
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2323:
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2232:Vernon Jordan
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2017:Charles Evers
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1199:
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950:Prior to 1954
948:
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722:9780140096538
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668:9780140096538
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467:9780140096538
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393:
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377:BlackPast.org
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67:
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61:
56:
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50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
3315:
3255:David Garrow
3235:John Dittmer
3106:
3033:Brown Chapel
2990:
2983:
2976:
2969:
2962:
2948:
2905:
2757:Andrew Young
2712:A. T. Walden
2707:C. T. Vivian
2667:Maxine Smith
2502:Homer Plessy
2482:James Orange
2437:Irene Morgan
2392:William Ming
2372:Ralph McGill
2307:Viola Liuzzo
2292:Jim Letherer
2277:James Lawson
2207:Vernon Johns
2197:Esau Jenkins
2152:Myles Horton
2102:Fred Hampton
2092:Prathia Hall
2082:Dick Gregory
2052:Marie Foster
2047:James Forman
2037:James Farmer
2022:Medgar Evers
1982:Angela Davis
1917:Ramsey Clark
1897:James Chaney
1892:Johnnie Carr
1872:Ralph Bunche
1867:H. Rap Brown
1857:Ruby Bridges
1817:Joanne Bland
1792:Claude Black
1772:Marion Barry
1742:Muhammad Ali
1705:
1569:
1505:
1498:
1459:
1437:
1406:
1399:
1241:
1202:
1195:
1125:Kissing Case
1100:
1057:
1040:
1031:
1024:
1017:
1010:
1003:
979:
971:
871:
853:
835:
826:
820:
801:
795:
786:
780:
768:. Retrieved
764:the original
759:
749:
740:
710:
702:
691:. Retrieved
687:
677:
656:
648:
639:
633:
622:. Retrieved
618:
608:
589:
583:
547:
541:
522:
518:
508:
491:
482:
476:
455:
447:
424:
418:
408:February 22,
406:. Retrieved
402:
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380:. Retrieved
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160:
156:Thelma Glass
148:
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111:
102:
95:
87:
75:
63:
57:
53:Thelma Glass
49:Maude Ballou
24:
20:
18:
3275:Doug McAdam
3245:Chuck Fager
2872:Nonviolence
2777:James Zwerg
2772:Bob Zellner
2732:Roy Wilkins
2682:Hank Thomas
2617:Pete Seeger
2612:Bobby Seale
2477:Jack O'Dell
2472:Edgar Nixon
2402:Amzie Moore
2397:Jack Minnis
2337:Mae Mallory
2322:Clara Luper
2282:Bernard Lee
2172:Cecil Ivory
2167:Ruby Hurley
2137:Oliver Hill
2132:Aaron Henry
2032:Chuck Fager
1992:Dave Dennis
1882:Guy Carawan
1822:Julian Bond
1787:James Bevel
1777:Daisy Bates
1048:Emmett Till
931:(1954–1968)
770:20 February
403:History.com
382:20 February
144:E. D. Nixon
108:Bus boycott
3338:Categories
3218:historians
2899:Satyagraha
2865:Influences
2557:James Reeb
2492:James Peck
2487:Rosa Parks
2457:Diane Nash
2327:Danny Lyon
2302:John Lewis
2247:A. D. King
2147:James Hood
1762:Ella Baker
1732:Zev Aelony
693:2022-05-18
624:2022-05-18
570:|via=
233:References
136:Rosa Parks
2877:Padayatra
2826:"Kumbaya"
2786:By region
2442:Bob Moses
2347:Bob Mants
2332:Malcolm X
2252:C.B. King
2072:Fred Gray
1715:Activists
1356:1964–1968
1139:1960–1963
997:1954–1959
560:cite book
433:cite book
275:cite book
206:The Links
96:In 1949,
2807:Movement
2237:Tom Kahn
1521:Activist
941:timeline
619:BBC News
2932:Related
2522:Al Raby
1477:funeral
1340:Big Six
843:. 1979.
184:in the
72:Origins
3118:Legacy
2894:Ahimsa
1523:groups
984:(1950)
976:(1950)
937:Events
878:
864:
808:
719:
665:
596:
464:
351:
37:racial
3216:Noted
2809:songs
1629:NAACP
1482:riots
500:(PDF)
876:ISBN
862:ISBN
806:ISBN
772:2017
717:ISBN
663:ISBN
594:ISBN
575:help
462:ISBN
439:link
410:2018
384:2017
349:ISBN
281:link
19:The
527:doi
25:WPC
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