Knowledge

3368:"Bellamy et al. (2009) looked at bird species and their food resources at six paired sites in Cambridgeshire comparing Miscanthus plantations up to 5 years old with winter wheat rotations in both the winter and summer breeding seasons. The authors found that Miscanthus offered a different ecological niche during each season; most of the frequently occurring species in the winter were woodland birds, whereas no woodland birds were found in the wheat; in summer, however, farmland birds were more numerous. More than half the species occurring across the sites were more numerous in the Miscanthus, 24 species recorded compared to 11 for wheat. During the breeding season, there was once again double the number of species found at the Miscanthus sites with individual abundances being higher for all species except skylark. Considering only birds whose breeding territories were either wholly or partially within crop boundaries, a total of seven species were found in the Miscanthus compared to five in the wheat with greater density of breeding pairs (1.8 vs. 0.59 species ha) and also breeding species (0.92 vs. 0.28 species ha). Two species were at statistically significant higher densities in the Miscanthus compared to wheat, and none were found at higher densities in the wheat compared to Miscanthus. As discussed, the structural heterogeneity, both spatially and temporally, plays an important role in determining within‐crop biodiversity, autumn‐sown winter wheat offers little overwinter shelter with ground cover averaging 0.08 m tall and very few noncrop plants, whereas the Miscanthus, at around 2 m, offered far more. In the breeding season, this difference between the crops remained evident; the wheat fields provided a uniform, dense crop cover throughout the breeding season with only tram lines producing breaks, whereas the Miscanthus had a low open structure early in the season rapidly increasing in height and density as the season progressed. Numbers of birds declined as the crop grew with two bird species in particular showing close (though opposite) correlation between abundance and crop height; red‐legged partridge declined as the crop grew, whereas reed warblers increased, and these warblers were not found in the crop until it had passed 1 m in height, even though they were present in neighbouring OSR fields and vegetated ditches. In conclusion, the authors point out that, for all species combined, bird densities in Miscanthus were similar to those found in other studies looking at SRC willow and set‐aside fields, all sites had greater bird densities than conventional arable crops. It is through these added resources to an intensive agricultural landscape and reductions in chemical and mechanical pressure on field margins that Miscanthus can play an important role in supporting biodiversity but must be considered complementary to existing systems and the wildlife that has adapted to it. Clapham et al. (2008) reports, as do the other studies here, that in an agricultural landscape, it is in the field margins and interspersed woodland that the majority of the wildlife and their food resources are to be found, and the important role that Miscanthus can play in this landscape is the cessation of chemical leaching into these key habitats, the removal of annual ground disturbance and soil erosion, improved water quality, and the provision of heterogeneous structure and overwinter cover." 3258:"Our work shows that crop establishment, yield and harvesting method affect the C. cost of Miscanthus solid fuel which for baled harvesting is 0.4 g CO2 eq. C MJ for rhizome establishment and 0.74 g CO2 eq. C MJ for seed plug establishment. If the harvested biomass is chipped and pelletized, then the emissions rise to 1.2 and 1.6 g CO2 eq. C MJ, respectively. The energy requirements for harvesting and chipping from this study that were used to estimate the GHG emissions are in line with the findings of Meehan et al. (2013). These estimates of GHG emissions for Miscanthus fuel confirm the findings of other Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies (e.g., Styles and Jones, 2008) and spatial estimates of GHG savings using Miscanthus fuel (Hastings et al., 2009). They also confirm that Miscanthus has a comparatively small GHG footprint due to its perennial nature, nutrient recycling efficiency and need for less chemical input and soil tillage over its 20-year life-cycle than annual crops (Heaton et al., 2004, 2008; Clifton-Brown et al., 2008; Gelfand et al., 2013; McCalmont et al., 2015a; Milner et al., 2015). In this analysis, we did not consider the GHG flux of soil which was shown to sequester on average in the United Kingdom 0.5 g of C per MJ of Miscanthus derived fuel by McCalmont et al. (2015a). Changes in SOC resulting from the cultivation of Miscanthus depend on the previous land use and associated initial SOC. If high carbon soils such as peatland, permanent grassland, and mature forest are avoided and only arable and rotational grassland with mineral soil is used for Miscanthus then the mean increase in SOC for the first 20-year crop rotation in the United Kingdom is ~ 1–1.4 Mg C ha y (Milner et al., 2015). In spite of ignoring this additional benefit, these GHG cost estimates compare very favorably with coal (33 g CO2 eq. C MJ), North Sea Gas (16), liquefied natural gas (22), and wood chips imported from the United States (4). In addition, although Miscanthus production C. cost is only < 1/16 of the GHG cost of natural gas as a fuel (16–22 g CO2 eq. C MJ-1), it is mostly due to the carbon embedded in the machinery, chemicals and fossil fuel used in its production. As the economy moves away from dependence on these fossil fuels for temperature regulation (heat for glasshouse temperature control or chilling for rhizome storage) or transport, then these GHG costs begin to fall away from bioenergy production. It should be noted, the estimates in this paper do not consider either the potential to sequester C. in the soil nor any impact or ILUC (Hastings et al., 2009)." 2546: 3459:"Significant reductions in leaching of dissolved inorganic nitrogen on a land surface basis are predicted to occur if land already growing maize for ethanol production is converted to a perennial feedstock (Davis et al., 2012; Iqbal et al., 2015). This reduction in leaching is attributed to lower fertilizer requirements, the continuous presence of a plant root sink for nitrogen, and the efficient internal recycling of nutrients by perennial grass species (Amougou et al., 2012; Smith et al., 2013). In support of this, Miscanthus and switchgrass assessed at a plot scale had significantly lower dissolved inorganic nitrogen leaching from subterranean drainage tiles relative to the typical maize/soy rotation, with fertilized plots of switchgrass showing little or no leaching after reaching maturity (Smith et al., 2013). Similarly, results from soil‐based measurements in the same feedstocks showed lower dissolved inorganic nitrogen relative to annual crops (McIsaac et al., 2010; Behnke et al., 2012). A recent meta‐analysis of the available literature concluded that switchgrass and Miscanthus had nine times less subsurface loss of nitrate compared to maize or maize grown in rotation with soya bean (Sharma & Chaubey, 2017). At the basin scale, displacement of maize production for ethanol by cellulosic perennial feedstock production could reduce total leaching by up to 22%, depending on the type of feedstock and management practice employed (Davis et al., 2012; Smith et al., 2013). While these previous studies provide evidence for the potential ecosystem services of transitioning to cellulosic production, it is yet to be established what the total change to dissolved inorganic nitrogen export and streamflow would be under such scenarios. Hydrological processes are tightly coupled to the nitrogen cycle (Castellano et al., 2010, 2013), are key drivers of dissolved inorganic nitrogen transport through streams and rivers (Donner et al., 2002), and are sensitive to LUC (Twine et al., 2004). Various modelling scenarios, where current land cover over the Mississippi River Basin of the United States was altered to accommodate varying proportions of switchgrass or Miscanthus, showed that the impact on streamflow was small relative to the improvement in water quality (VanLoocke et al., 2017)." 2879:"Biomass production costs for miscanthus are presently too high to compete commercially with fossil fuels on an energy basis. The high biomass production costs for miscanthus result from insufficient development of agricultural production technology, accompanied by additional costs for agricultural inputs, land and labor for a relatively low-value biomass. Although they are amortized over a production period of 10–25 years, initial establishment costs for miscanthus are still comparatively high. This is because the only commercially available genotype Miscanthus × giganteus is a triploid hybrid that does not produce viable seeds. Consequently, costly establishment via rhizome or in vitro propagation has to be performed (Xue et al., 2015). Miscanthus is also new to farmers and they have neither the knowledge nor the technical equipment to cultivate it. Thus, inefficient production technology is currently limiting its widespread uptake as a biomass crop. There are no stable markets for miscanthus biomass and relevant applications are low-value. Farmers are hesitant to cultivate miscanthus because it involves dedicating their fields to long-term biomass production. They will only be willing to do this once biomass markets are stable or if long-term contracts are available (Wilson et al., 2014). The main use of lignocellulosic biomass from perennial crops is as a solid fuel for heat and power generation—a comparatively low-value use, its profitability being ultimately determined by the price of fossil fuels. In Europe, subsidies are generally necessary for bioenergy products to be able to compete in retail energy markets—with the notable exception of forest wood and forestry by-products that cannot be used for wood material products. Therefore, also higher-value applications for miscanthus biomass are required in order to provide attractive market options. There are no miscanthus varieties adapted to different site characteristics and biomass use options. In Europe, Miscanthus × giganteus is the only genotype commercially available. Major barriers to the breeding of miscanthus varieties are the high costs involved and the long breeding periods, necessary because most yield- and quality-relevant parameters are not quantifiable until after the establishment phase of 2–3 years." 3323:"We will establish the amount of land that could be used in the UK for perennial energy crop production and for short rotation forestry (SRF). Existing biomass support schemes (Renewables Obligation, Contracts for Difference, RHI & RTFO) already support the use of perennial energy crops such as short rotation coppice and Miscanthus grown specifically for bioenergy purposes and as a material. However, only a small land area (~10,000 hectares) is cultivated with perennial energy crops in the UK at present, and this is mainly used for heat and electricity generation. Currently, there is little to no use of perennial energy crops for low carbon fuels supported under the RTFO due to a lack of commercial-scale processing capacities to convert these resources cost-efficiently into fuel. The CCC’s 6th Carbon Budget report highlighted the significant potential for perennial energy crops and SRF to contribute towards our carbon budget targets by increasing soil and biomass carbon stocks while also delivering other ecosystem benefits. In their balanced pathway, the CCC suggests that up to 708,000 hectares of land could be dedicated to energy crop production, which has led to an increased interest in the role of perennial energy crops and SRF as biomass feedstocks to deliver GHG savings in the land use and energy sectors. The Defra land use net zero programme, which is currently building a spatial understanding of the land use trade-offs across a number of policy areas, will help determine the potential scale of future availability of domestically grown biomass and their potential for delivering GHG savings in a landscape where land use change will need to be optimised for multiple benefits. This programme will inform our understanding and evidence on the availability and mix of biomass feedstocks for uses across sectors." 3352:"Felten & Emmerling (2011) compared earthworm abundance under a 15‐year‐old Miscanthus plantation in Germany to cereals, maize, OSR, grassland, and a 20‐year‐old fallow site (after previous cereals). Species diversity was higher in Miscanthus than that in annual crops, more in line with grassland or long‐term fallow with management intensity seen to be the most significant factor; the lower ground disturbance allowed earthworms from different ecological categories to develop a more heterogeneous soil structure. The highest number of species was found in the grassland sites (6.8) followed by fallow (6.4), Miscanthus (5.1), OSR (4.0), cereals (3.7), and maize (3.0) with total individual earthworm abundance ranging from 62 m−2 in maize sites to 355 m−2 in fallow with Miscanthus taking a medium position (132 m−2), although differences in abundance were not found to be significant between land uses. There is some trade‐off in this advantage for the earthworms however; the high‐nitrogen‐use efficiency and nutrient cycling which reduces the need for nitrogen fertilizer and its associated environmental harm means that, despite large volumes being available, Miscanthus leaf litter does not provide a particularly useful food resource due to its low‐nitrogen, high‐carbon nature (Ernst et al., 2009; Heaton et al., 2009) and earthworms feeding on this kind of low‐nitrogen material have been found in other studies to lose overall mass (Abbott & Parker, 1981). In contrast, though, the extensive litter cover at ground level under Miscanthus compared to the bare soil under annual cereals was suggested to be a potentially significant advantage for earthworms in soil surface moisture retention and protection from predation." 3232:"After centuries of burning wood for energy or processing forage into horse power, the first generation of bioenergy feedstocks were food crops, such as maize, oil seed rape, sugar cane, and oil palm, used to produce bioethanol and biodiesel. These required a high input in terms of fertilizer and energy, which increased their carbon footprint (St. Clair et al., 2008). In addition, the carbon cost of converting the food crop feedstock to bioethanol or biodiesel was significant with a low ratio of energy produced to energy input, high GHG cost and a low productivity in terms of GJ of energy per hectare of land (Hastings et al., 2012). Another drawback of using food crops for energy production is the pressure put on the balance of supply and demand for these feedstocks which can impact the cost of food (Valentine et al., 2011) and the increase of indirect land use change (ILUC) to increase the arable cropped area (Searchinger et al., 2008) which consequentially increases their environmental footprint. The second generation bioenergy crop Miscanthus almost always has a smaller environmental footprint than first generation annual bioenergy ones (Heaton et al., 2004, 2008; Clifton-Brown et al., 2008; Gelfand et al., 2013; McCalmont et al., 2015a; Milner et al., 2015). This is due to its perennial nature, nutrient recycling efficiency and need for less chemical input and soil tillage over its 20-year life-cycle than annual crops (St. Clair et al., 2008; Hastings et al., 2012). Miscanthus can be grown on agricultural land that is economically marginal for food crop production (Clifton-Brown et al., 2015)." 3297:"The highest biomass yields as well as the highest GHG- and fossil-energy savings potentials (up to 30.6 t CO2eq/ha*a and 429 GJ/ha*a, respectively) can be achieved on non-marginal sites in Central Europe. On marginal sites limited by cold (Moscow/Russia) or drought (Adana/Turkey) savings of up to 19.2 t CO2eq/ha*a and 273 GJ/ha*a (Moscow) and 24.0 t CO2eq/ha*a and 338 GJ/ha*a (Adana) can be achieved. The GHG and fossil-energy savings are highest where miscanthus biomass is used as construction material (our analysis uses the example of insulation material). A high GHG- and fossil-energy-saving potential was also found for domestic heating on account of the short transportation distance. Pelleting is only advantageous in terms of the minimization of GHG emissions and energy consumption where biomass is transported over a long distance, for example for heat and power production in CHP. Pelleting requires additional energy, but at the same time reduces the energy required for transport due to its higher density. The lowest GHG- and fossil-energy-saving potentials were found for power production via the biogas pathway, followed by bioethanol. However, this result is strongly influenced by the assumptions that (a) only 50% of the available heat is used and (b) transport distance from the field to the biogas plant is relatively long (15 km). A biogas chain with 100% heat utilization and lower transportation distances would perform better. It can be concluded that for power generation from miscanthus biomass, the most favorable pathway is combustion for base load power, and biogas to cover peak loads." 2353:"The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) estimates that marginal lands make up approximately 400 million hectares across Asia, the Pacific Islands, Australia, and North America. Other estimates put the global marginal land area anywhere from 1100 to 6650 million hectares, depending on the parameters used to describe marginal (e.g., "non-favored agricultural land", "abandoned or degraded cropland", or arid, forested, grassland, shrubland, or savanna habitats). The potential area available in the USA for cellulosic biomass crops and low-input, high-diversity native perennial mixtures ranges from 43 to 123 million hectares. The differences in these estimates reflect the inconsistencies in the usage of the term "marginal land", despite its common use in the bioenergy industry and literature. Marginal lands are often described as degraded lands that are unfit for food production and/or of some ambiguously poor quality and are often termed unproductive. Unproductive soils are characterized by unfavorable chemical and/or physical properties that limit plant growth and yield, including low water and nutrient storage capacity, high salinity, toxic elements, and poor texture. Further difficulties encountered in marginal landscapes include shallow soil depth due to erosion, poor drainage, low fertility, steep terrain, and unfavorable climate. Despite the poor quality of marginal land and the potential problems it could present for its production, biomass is unlikely to be grown on high-quality land that is economically viable for traditional crops." 3310:"The costs and life-cycle assessment of seven miscanthus-based value chains, including small- and large-scale heat and power, ethanol, biogas, and insulation material production, revealed GHG-emission- and fossil-energy-saving potentials of up to 30.6 t CO2eq C ha y and 429 GJ ha y, respectively. Transport distance was identified as an important cost factor. Negative carbon mitigation costs of −78€ t−1 CO2eq C were recorded for local biomass use. The OPTIMISC results demonstrate the potential of miscanthus as a crop for marginal sites and provide information and technologies for the commercial implementation of miscanthus-based value chains. The overall biomass transport distance was assumed to be 400 km when bales were transported to the bioethanol plant or to the plant producing insulation material as well as in the value chain 'Combined heat and power (CHP) bales.' For the value chains 'CHP pellets' and 'Heat pellets' the bales were transported 100 km to a pelleting plant and from there the pellets were transported 400 km to the power plants. The average farm-to-field distance was assumed to be 2 km. This transport distance is also assumed for the value chain 'heat chips' in which a utilization of the chips as a biomass fuel on the producing farm was assumed. Because of the higher biomass requirements of the biogas plant an average transport distance of 15 km from field to plant was assumed." 3498:"The approach to evaluating ES suggests that the growth of 2G bioenergy crops across GB broadly produces beneficial effects when replacing first‐generation crops (Table 1). Beneficial effects on the overall ecosystem rather than specific ES are in agreement with recent reports in the literature (Semere & Slater, 2007a,b; Rowe et al., 2009; Dauber et al., 2010). Benefits of a transition to 2G crops include increased farm‐scale biodiversity (Rowe et al., 2011), improved functional attributes such as predation (Rowe et al., 2013) and a net GHG mitigation benefit (Hillier et al., 2009). Benefits are primarily consequence of low inputs and longer management cycles associated with 2G crops (Clifton‐Brown et al., 2008; St Clair et al., 2008). The benefits may have distinct temporal patterns as establishment and harvest phases of 2G crop production are disruptive and have a short‐term negative impact on ES (Donnelly et al., 2011), although practices could be tailored to ameliorate these; however, this temporal effect has not been considered here and is similar to harvesting and planting food crops, grass or trees. When land is filtered for different planting scenarios under ALC 3 and 4, >92.3% available land will offer a positive ES effect when planting Miscanthus or SRC and such transitions are likely to create a net improvement in GHG balance." 3485:"This study distils a large body of literature into simple statements around the environmental costs and benefits of producing Miscanthus in the UK, and while there is scope for further research, particularly around hydrology at a commercial scale, biodiversity in older plantations or higher frequency sampling for N2O in land-use transitions to and from Miscanthus, clear indications of environmental sustainability do emerge. Any agricultural production is primarily based on human demand, and there will always be a trade-off between nature and humanity or one benefit and another; however, the literature suggests that Miscanthus can provide a range of benefits while minimizing environmental harm. Consideration must be given to appropriateness of plantation size and location, whether there will be enough water to sustain its production and the environmental cost of transportation to end-users; its role as a long-term perennial crop in a landscape of rotational agriculture must be understood so as not to interfere with essential food production. There is nothing new in these considerations, they lie at the heart of any agricultural policy, and decision-makers are familiar with these issues; the environmental evidence gathered here will help provide the scientific basis to underpin future agricultural policy." 3095:"The environmental costs and benefits of bioenergy have been the subject of significant debate, particularly for first‐generation biofuels produced from food (e.g. grain and oil seed). Studies have reported life‐cycle GHG savings ranging from an 86% reduction to a 93% increase in GHG emissions compared with fossil fuels (Searchinger et al., 2008; Davis et al., 2009; Liska et al., 2009; Whitaker et al., 2010). In addition, concerns have been raised that N2O emissions from biofuel feedstock cultivation could have been underestimated (Crutzen et al., 2008; Smith & Searchinger, 2012) and that expansion of feedstock cultivation on agricultural land might displace food production onto land with high carbon stocks or high conservation value (i.e. iLUC) creating a carbon debt which could take decades to repay (Fargione et al., 2008). Other studies have shown that direct nitrogen‐related emissions from annual crop feedstocks can be mitigated through optimized management practices (Davis et al., 2013) or that payback times are less significant than proposed (Mello et al., 2014). However, there are still significant concerns over the impacts of iLUC, despite policy developments aimed at reducing the risk of iLUC occurring (Ahlgren & Di Lucia, 2014; Del Grosso et al., 2014)." 2015:, reported in Lindroth et al. (1994) and Lindroth & Cienciala (1996), and suggest that WUE for Miscanthus could be around twice that of this willow species. Clifton‐Brown & Lewondowski (2000) reported figures from 11.5 to 14.2 g total (above‐ and belowground) DM (kg H2O) for various Miscanthus genotypes in pot trials, and this compares to figures calculated by Ehdaie & Waines (1993) with seven wheat cultivars who found WUE between 2.67 and 3.95 g total DM (kg H2O). Converting these Miscanthus values to dry matter biomass per hectare of cropland would see ratios of biomass to water use in the range of to 78–92 kg DM ha (mm H2O). Richter et al. (2008) modelled harvestable yield potentials for Miscanthus from 14 UK field trials and found soil water available to plants was the most significant factor in yield prediction, and they calculated a DM yield to soil available water ratio at 55 kg DM ha (mm H2O), while just 13 kg DM ha was produced for each 1 mm of incoming precipitation, likely related to the high level of canopy interception and evaporation. Even by C4 standards these efficiencies are high, as seen in comparisons to field measurements averaging 27.5 ± 0.4 kg aboveground DM ha (mm H2O) for maize (Tolk et al., 1998)." 3511:"outh‐west and north‐west England were identified as areas where Miscanthus and SRC could be grown, respectively, with favourable combinations of economic viability, carbon sequestration, high yield and positive ES benefits. Beneficial impacts were found on 146 583 and 71 890 ha when planting Miscanthus or SRC, respectively, under baseline planting conditions rising to 293 247 and 91 318 ha, respectively, under 2020 planting scenarios. In Great Britain (GB), there are approximately 22.9 M ha of land in total (Lovett et al., 2014). The land available for planting was calculated using constraints maps produced by Lovett et al. (2014) using social and environmental constraints based on 8 factors: road, river and urban areas; slope > 15%; monuments; designated areas; existing protected woodlands; high organic carbon soils; and areas with a high 'naturalness score' such as National Parks and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty. This land availability was further constrained using agricultural land classes (ALC) (Lovett et al., 2014) in GB as summarized in Table 7, accomplished by aggregating a map of the ALC data at 100 m2 raster resolution to derive total hectares of land in different ALC in each 1 km2 grid cell." 3537:"In contrast to annual crops, bioenergy from dedicated perennial crops is widely perceived to have lower life‐cycle GHG emissions and other environmental cobenefits (Rowe et al., 2009; Creutzig et al., 2015). Perennial crops such as Miscanthus and short‐rotation coppice (SRC) willow and poplar have low nitrogen input requirements (with benefits for N2O emissions and water quality), can sequester soil carbon due to reduced tillage and increased belowground biomass allocation, and can be economically viable on marginal and degraded land, thus minimizing competition with other agricultural activities and avoiding iLUC effects (Hudiburg et al., 2015; Carvalho et al., 2017). With respect to the perennial crop sugarcane, large GHG savings can be achieved due to high crop productivity and the use of residues for cogeneration of electricity, whilst the recent shift to mechanized harvest without burning in Brazil should also increase the potential for soil carbon sequestration (Silva‐Olaya et al., 2017). Nevertheless, the site‐level impacts of perennial crop cultivation on ecosystem carbon storage (resulting from dLUC) vary geographically, dependent on soil type and climate (Field et al., 2016)." 1354: 2578:"Miscanthus grown on contaminated soils can contain higher shoot TE concentrations, but the TF , which is for the most part less than 1, indicates that root-to-shoot TE transfer is minimized (Table 3). The combination of this trait with low BCF and higher TE concentrations in roots than in shoots demonstrates the capacity to contain TE in soils. Owing to the perennial growth and its ability to stabilize TE and degrade some organic pollutants, Miscanthus could potentially limit pollutant transfer into different environmental compartments by reducing (1) pollutant leaching from the root zone and groundwater contamination, (2) pollutant run-off (water erosion) and surface water contamination, (3) dust emission into the atmosphere due to wind erosion and seasonal soil tillage, and (4) pollutant transfer into plant AG parts and thus transfer into food chains. Therefore, as non-food crops, Miscanthus forms a potential resource for phytomanagement of contaminated areas, with the option of TE phytostabilization and/or organic pollutant degradation, hence the opportunity to reduce both human and environmental risks." 2383:, p. 184. Quinn et al. state that "iscanthus × giganteus leaf area and yield reduced under drought stress, but water availability does not affect shoot production or plant height at the beginning of the growing season. . Miscanthus × giganteus biomass and rhizome viability unaffected by flooding . Salinity above 100 mM affected Miscanthus × giganteus growth, with rhizomes > roots > shoots in order of increasing sensitivity (rhizomes least sensitive). Plants grown from larger rhizomes initially were less sensitive. . The lethal temperature at which 50 % (LT50) of Miscanthus × giganteus rhizomes were killed was −3.4 °C, which can be problematic especially during first winter. Miscanthus × giganteus shows unusual cold tolerance for a C4 species. Because C4 and CAM species have inherent mechanisms to resist heat stress, it makes sense to consider biomass crops with these photosynthetic pathways (see Table 5) . Our literature review has revealed several "all purpose" biomass crops that are moderately or highly tolerant of multiple environmental stressors (Table 6). For example, 3138:"Significant reductions in GHG emissions have been demonstrated in many LCA studies across a range of bioenergy technologies and scales (Thornley et al., 2009, 2015). The most significant reductions have been noted for heat and power cases. However, some other studies (particularly on transport fuels) have indicated the opposite, that is that bioenergy systems can increase GHG emissions (Smith & Searchinger, 2012) or fail to achieve increasingly stringent GHG savings thresholds. A number of factors drive this variability in calculated savings, but we know that where significant reductions are not achieved or wide variability is reported there is often associated data uncertainty or variations in the LCA methodology applied (Rowe et al., 2011). For example, data uncertainty in soil carbon stock change following LUC has been shown to significantly influence the GHG intensity of biofuel production pathways (Fig. 3), whilst the shorter term radiative forcing impact of black carbon particles from the combustion of biomass and biofuels also represents significant data uncertainty (Bond et al., 2013)." 3336:"In 2015, a workshop was convened with researchers, policymakers and industry/business representatives from the UK, EU and internationally. Outcomes from global research on bioenergy land‐use change were compared to identify areas of consensus, key uncertainties, and research priorities. Our analysis suggests that the direct impacts of dedicated perennial bioenergy crops on soil carbon and nitrous oxide are increasingly well understood and are often consistent with significant life cycle GHG mitigation from bioenergy relative to conventional energy sources. We conclude that the GHG balance of perennial bioenergy crop cultivation will often be favourable, with maximum GHG savings achieved where crops are grown on soils with low carbon stocks and conservative nutrient application, accruing additional environmental benefits such as improved water quality. The analysis reported here demonstrates there is a mature and increasingly comprehensive evidence base on the environmental benefits and risks of bioenergy cultivation which can support the development of a sustainable bioenergy industry." 3194:"Fig. 3 confirmed either no change or a gain of SOC (positive) through planting Miscanthus on arable land across England and Wales and only a loss of SOC (negative) in parts of Scotland. The total annual SOC change across GB in the transition from arable to Miscanthus if all nonconstrained land was planted with would be 3.3 Tg C yr . The mean changes for SOC for the different land uses were all positive when histosols were excluded, with improved grasslands yielding the highest Mg C ha yr at 1.49, followed by arable lands at 1.28 and forest at 1. Separating this SOC change by original land use (Fig. 4) reveals that there are large regions of improved grasslands which, if planted with bioenergy crops, are predicted to result in an increase in SOC. A similar result was found when considering the transition from arable land; however for central eastern England, there was a predicted neutral effect on SOC. Scotland, however, is predicted to have a decrease for all land uses, particularly for woodland due mainly to higher SOC and lower Miscanthus yields and hence less input." 3018:"Slagging is a phenomenon brought about though the melting of ash when ash deposits are exposed to radiant heat, such as flames in a furnace. As most furnaces are designed to remove ash as a powdery residue, having a high ash melting temperature is often desirable. Otherwise it has a higher tendency to fuse into a hard glassy slag, known as a clinker, which can be difficult to remove from the furnace. The AFT is a qualitative method of assessing the propensity of a fuel to slag and works by heating an ash test piece and analysing the transitions in the ash chemistry. Key transitions include; (i) shrinkage, which predominantly represents the decomposition of carbonates in hydrothermally derived chars, (ii) deformation temperature, essentially representing the onset point at which the powdery ash starts to agglomerate and starts to stick to surfaces, (iii) hemisphere, whereby ash is agglomerating and is sticky and (v) flow, whereby the ash melts. For most power stations, slagging becomes problematic between the deformation and hemisphere temperature." 2215:"The yields used in the calculation of GHG emissions and crop economics this study used mean yields of 12–14 Mg ha y that have been observed from Mxg from current commercial plantings observed in the United Kingdom (private communication, M. Mos). We have assumed a logistic yield increase for establishment year yields and a linear decline in yield after 15 years Lesur et al. (2013). Inter-annual yield variation, due to weather conditions, as observed in long term trials (Clifton-Brown et al., 2007) and modeled Miscanthus yields for the United Kingdom, using weather data from 2000 to 2009 (Harris et al., 2014) using the MiscanFor model (Hastings et al., 2009, 2013) indicates that the weather related standard deviation of inter-annual yield variation in the United Kingdom is of the order 2.1 Mg ha y for a mean yield of 10.5 Mg ha y for the whole of the United Kingdom. The modeled yields are generally pessimistic as they calculate rain-fed yields and do not account for ground water support that is available in many United Kingdom arable farms." 2569: 2949:"Flame stability can be further exacerbated by differences in particle size as large particle sizes can act as heat sinks, increasing the resonance time of the particle before ignition and influencing the balance of heat loss and heat release. For a stable flame in a pulverised coal operation, pulverisation of fuel to 70% below 75 μm is typically required. The ease in which fuels can be pulverised to 70% below 75 μm is described using the Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI). Coals typically lie between 30 (increased resistance to pulverization) and 100 (more easily pulverised) on the scale. The HGI for the unprocessed Miscanthus and processed bio-coals are given in Table 3. The unprocessed Miscanthus has an HGI of zero which essentially implies under the test conditions, that no fuel would reach the desired 75 μm and thus, assuming co-milling, there would be either a greater energy requirement for milling to achieve 75 μm or the pulverised fuel particles would be greater than 75 μm in diameter." 996:(MRT) of 0.1–2 years, 15–100 years, and 500–5000 years for the three pools, respectively. The topsoil carbon residence time was 60 years on average in one experiment (specifically 19 years for depths between 0 and 10 centimetres (0.0 and 3.9 in), and 30–152 years for depths between 10 and 50 centimetres (3.9 and 19.7 in).) Carbon below 50 centimetres (20 in) was stable. The actual rate of carbon decay in a particular location depends on many factors, for instance plant species, soil type, temperature and humidity. Researchers did not find evidence of decreasing soil organic carbon accumulation as their test miscanthus crop aged, which meant no carbon saturation at that site for 20 years. Others estimate 30–50 years of continuous soil carbon increase after a land use change from annual to perennial crops. The amount of carbon in the ground under miscanthus fields is expected to increase during the entire life of the crop, but possibly with a slow start because of the initial 2892:"Miscanthus can be harvested by cutting with a conditioner mower and baling in large Heston bales or round bales and then chipped out of the bales. It can also be chipped by a maize Kemper header on harvest. However the problem with this type of harvest is the crops low bulk density of approx 50 – 130 kg/m3. The crop is very bulky and will take up a lot of storage space on harvest. Additionally, storage of chips may be problematic if the chips are too small or too wet as heating may occur. The other potential problem with the miscanthus is due to its fluffy nature in chip form it can potentially bridge or get blocked while feeding into the boiler combustion zone. However a suitable auger feed in mechanism will overcome this issue. When transporting miscanthus in bulk chipped form it can be transported in 96 m3 loads. Most operators report minimum loads of 11.5 tonnes per load at 20% moisture indicating a bulk density of about 120 kg/m3 which equates to €1.60 per GJ of energy delivered." 913: 2992:"Inorganics can be a particular issue for Miscanthus during combustion as large amounts of alkali and alkaline metals, particularly potassium and sodium, along with sulphur and chlorine influence ash chemistry and influence the behaviours of the fuel in terms of its tendency to corrode equipment and cause slagging, fouling and in certain furnaces bed agglomeration. Fouling is a phenomenon brought about when potassium and sodium, in combination with chlorine, partially evaporate when exposed to radiant heat and form alkali chlorides which condense on cooler surfaces such as heat exchangers. These deposits don't just reduce heat exchanger efficiency; they also play a major role in corrosion as these deposits can react with sulphur in the flue gas to form alkali sulphates releasing chlorine. This chlorine has a catalytic effect which results in the active oxidation and corrosion of the furnace material." 3125:(GWP), could be a significant factor in offsetting CO2 gains (Crutzen et al., 2008) as well as possible acidification and eutrophication of the surrounding environment (Kim & Dale, 2005). However, not all biomass feedstocks are equal, and most studies critical of bioenergy production are concerned with biofuels produced from annual food crops at high fertilizer cost, sometimes using land cleared from natural ecosystems or in direct competition with food production (Naik et al., 2010). Dedicated perennial energy crops, produced on existing, lower grade, agricultural land, offer a sustainable alternative with significant savings in greenhouse gas emissions and soil carbon sequestration when produced with appropriate management (Crutzen et al., 2008; Hastings et al., 2008, 2012; Cherubini et al., 2009; Dondini et al., 2009a; Don et al., 2012; Zatta et al., 2014; Richter et al., 2015)." 1959:"Plastic mulch film reduced establishment time, improving crop economics. The mulch film trial in Aberystwyth showed a significant (P < 0.05) difference between establishment rates for varying plant densities with the cumulative first 2-year mean yield almost doubling under film as shown in Table 3. Using film adds £100 per ha and 220 kg CO2 eq. C ha, to the cost of establishment. The effect of this increase is to reduce the establishment period of the crop by 1 year in Aberystwyth environmental conditions, similar reduction in establishment times were observed at the other trial sites and also in Ireland (O’Loughlin et al., 2017). With mulch film agronomy the latest seeded hybrids establish far more quickly with significantly higher early yields (years 1 and 2) compared to commercial Mxg in the United Kingdom delivering a breakeven return on investment at least a year earlier." 3181:"Whilst these values represent the extremes, they demonstrate that site selection for bioenergy crop cultivation can make the difference between large GHG savings or losses, shifting life‐cycle GHG emissions above or below mandated thresholds. Reducing uncertainties in ∆C following LUC is therefore more important than refining N2O emission estimates (Berhongaray et al., 2017). Knowledge on initial soil carbon stocks could improve GHG savings achieved through targeted deployment of perennial bioenergy crops on low carbon soils (see section 2). The assumption that annual cropland provides greater potential for soil carbon sequestration than grassland appears to be over‐simplistic, but there is an opportunity to improve predictions of soil carbon sequestration potential using information on the initial soil carbon stock as a stronger predictor of ∆C than prior land use." 1033: 3554:' of bioenergy was not rigorously assessed. As more studies began to include assessment of dLUC and iLUC impacts, the credibility of first‐generation bioenergy as an environmentally sustainable, renewable energy source was damaged. In recent years, a more nuanced understanding of the environmental benefits and risks of bioenergy has emerged, and it has become clear that perennial bioenergy crops have far greater potential to deliver significant GHG savings than the conventional crops currently being grown for biofuel production around the world (e.g. corn, palm oil and oilseed rape). Furthermore, the increasingly stringent GHG savings thresholds for biofuels and bioenergy being introduced in Europe (Council Corrigendum 2016/0382(COD)) and the US (110th Congress of the United States 2007) are providing increased impetus for this transition to perennial bioenergy crops." 827:, low fertility, or steep terrain. Depending on how the term is defined, between 1.1 and 6.7 billion hectares of marginal land exists in the world. For comparison, Europe consists of roughly 1 billion hectares (10 million km2, or 3.9 million square miles), and Asia 4.5 billion hectares (45 million km, or 17 million square miles). According to IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency), 1.5 billion hectares of land is currently used for food production globally, while " about 1.4 billion ha additional land is suitable but unused to date and thus could be allocated for bioenergy supply in the future." The IPCC estimates that there is between 0.32 and 1.4 billion hectares of marginal land suitable for bioenergy in the world. The EU project MAGIC estimates that there is 45 million hectares (449 901 km2; comparable to Sweden in size) of marginal land suitable for 3082:"Recent studies by Reza et al. and Smith et al. have reported of the fate of inorganics and heteroatoms during HTC of Miscanthus and indicate significant removal of the alkali metals, potassium and sodium, along with chlorine. Analysis of ash melting behaviour in Smith et al., showed a significant reduction in the slagging propensity of the resulting fuel, along with the fouling and corrosion risk combined. Consequently HTC offers the potential to upgrade Miscanthus from a reasonably low value fuel into a high grade fuel, with a high calorific value, improved handling properties and favourable ash chemistry. HTC at 250 °C can overcome slagging issues and increase the ash deformation temperature from 1040 °C to 1320 °C for early harvested Miscanthus. The chemistry also suggests a reduction in fouling and corrosion propensity for both 250 °C treated fuels." 849: 1346: 1920:"Results show that new hybrid seed propagation significantly reduces establishment cost to below £900 ha . The breakeven yield was calculated to be 6 Mg DM ha y , which is about half average United Kingdom yield for Mxg; with newer seeded hybrids reaching 16 Mg DM ha in second year United Kingdom trials. These combined improvements will significantly increase crop profitability. The trade-offs between costs of production for the preparation of different feedstock formats show that bales are the best option for direct firing with the lowest transport costs (£0.04 Mg km) and easy on-farm storage. However, if pelleted fuel is required then chip harvesting is more economic. The specific cost of rhizome and plug planting are similar as they are relatively labor intensive whereas seed drilling, is predicted to halve the cost." 3472:"Blanco-Canqui (2010) point out that this water-use and nutrient efficiency can be a boon on compacted, poorly drained acid soils, highlighting their possible suitability for marginal agricultural land. The greater porosity and lower bulk density of soils under perennial energy grasses, resulting from more fibrous, extensive rooting systems, and reduced ground disturbance, improves soil hydraulic properties, infiltration, hydraulic conductivity, and water storage compared to annual row crops. There may be potentially large impacts on soil water where plantation size is mismatched to water catchment or irrigation availability but note that increased ET and improved ground water storage through increased porosity could be beneficial during high rainfall with storage capability potentially increased by 100 to 150 mm." 3284:"The results in Fig. 3c show most of the land in the UK could produce Miscanthus biomass with a carbon index that is substantially lower, at 1.12 g CO2-C equivalent per MJ energy in the furnace, than coal (33), oil (22), LNG (21), Russian gas (20), and North Sea gas (16) (Bond et al., 2014), thus offering large potential GHG savings over comparable fuels even after accounting for variations in their specific energy contents. Felten et al. (2013) found Miscanthus energy production (from propagation to final conversion) to offer far higher potential GHG savings per unit land area when compared to other bioenergy systems. They found Miscanthus (chips for domestic heating) saved 22.3 ± 0.13 Mg CO2-eq ha yr compared to rapeseed (biodiesel) at 3.2 ± 0.38 and maize (biomass, electricity, and thermal) at 6.3 ± 0.56." 909: 2189:"The majority of the literature reporting dry biomass yield for M. x giganteus originates from European studies. Ceiling peak biomass yields in established stands of M. x giganteus have approached 40 t dry matter (DM) ha in some European locations, although it may take 3–5 years to achieve these ceiling yields. Across Europe, harvestable yields of up to 25 t DM ha from established stands of M. x giganteus have been reported in areas between central Germany and southern Italy, while peak yields in central and northern Europe have ranged between 10–25 t DM ha, and in excess of 30 t DM ha in southern Europe. A quantitative review of established M. x giganteus stands across Europe reported a mean peak biomass yield of 22 t DM ha, averaged across N rates and precipitation levels." 2441:"Rhizome D.W. and the ratios of root/rhizome and below‐/above‐ground D.W. were not affected by increased salinity, and only, the root D.W. was significantly reduced at the highest salt concentration (22.4 dS m−1 NaCl) (Table 1). Płażek et al. (2014) showed a similar response in M. × giganteus, with reduction only in roots D.W. at 200 mm NaCl and no changes in rhizomes D.W. below 200 mm NaCl. This ability of perennial grasses to maintain below‐ground biomass under stress conditions could preserve sufficient reserves for the following growing season (Karp & Shield, 2008); while this may be physiologically relevant for transitory stresses like drought, it remains to be seen how this response affects year on year yield under the accumulative stress effect of salinity." 2514: 3381:"Our results show that young miscanthus stands sustain high plant species diversity before the canopy closure. Species richness was found to correlate negatively with the density of the stands and to be lower in mature plantations. However, even the 16-year-old, dense miscanthus plantations supported up to 16 different weed species per 25-m2 plot, accounting for up to 12% of the plantation. The literature data support this finding: Miscanthus stands are usually reported to support farm biodiversity, providing habitat for birds, insects, and small mammals (Semere and Slater, 2007a; Bellamy et al., 2009). Studies by Semere and Slater (2007b) have shown biodiversity in miscanthus to be higher than in other crop stands, but still lower than in open field margins." 792: 962: 2715:"Five options have large mitigation potential (>3 GtCO2e yr–1) without adverse impacts on the other challenges (high confidence). These are: increased food productivity; reduced deforestation and forest degradation; increased soil organic carbon content; fire management; and reduced post-harvest losses. Increasing soil carbon stocks removes CO2 from the atmosphere and increases the water-holding capacity of the soil, thereby conferring resilience to climate change and enhancing adaptation capacity. Since increasing soil organic matter content is a measure to address land degradation (see Section 6.2.1), and restoring degraded land helps to improve resilience to climate change, soil carbon increase is an important option for 3108:"The impact of growing bioenergy and biofuel feedstock crops has been of particular concern, with some suggesting the greenhouse gas (GHG) balance of food crops used for ethanol and biodiesel may be no better or worse than fossil fuels (Fargione et al., 2008; Searchinger et al., 2008). This is controversial, as the allocation of GHG emissions to the management and the use of coproducts can have a large effect on the total carbon footprint of resulting bioenergy products (Whitaker et al., 2010; Davis et al., 2013). The potential consequences of land use change (LUC) to bioenergy on GHG balance through food crop displacement or 'indirect' land use change (iLUC) are also an important consideration (Searchinger et al., 2008)." 3433:"Miscanthus provides cover for most of the year because, although the crop is harvested annually, it is harvested shortly before the following year's growth begins. This cover can act as a wildlife corridor linking existing habitats. Miscanthus can also act as a nesting habitat, for both ground nesting birds in the early spring e.g. sky larks, and reed nesting birds such as the reed warbler, later in the summer. Miscanthus might be a useful game cover crop and nursery for young pheasants and partridges. A minimum of nine species have been observed in miscanthus, including the brown hare, stoat, mice, vole, shrew, fox and rabbit. Many of these are a useful source of food for larger carnivores such as the barn owl." 3069: 663: 1868:"Producing rhizomes for propagation in the United Kingdom climate takes at least two growing season, this entails clearing the production ground of weeds, plowing in spring and tilling the ground to a fine seed bed like tilth before planting the rhizomes with a potato type planter. In the spring following the second growth year, the rhizomes are harvested using a modified potato harvester, hand or semi-automatically sorted and cut into viable pieces, 20–40 g. One ha of rhizomes produces enough material to plant 10–30 ha of crop with the same modified potato type planter. Lower quality rhizomes, tested by sprouting tests, would require 80–90 g rhizomes (private communication, M. Mos)." 675: 841:), and cool soil temperatures (down to −3.4 °C, or 25 °F). This robustness makes it possible to establish relatively high-yielding miscanthus fields on marginal land, for instance in coastal areas, damp habitats, grasslands, abandoned milling sites, forest edges, streamsides, foothills and mountain slopes. 99% of Europe's saline, marginal lands can be used for M. × giganteus plantations, with only an expected maximum yield loss of 11%. Since salinity up to 200 mM does not affect roots and rhizomes, carbon sequestration carry on unaffected. Researchers found a yield loss of 36% on a marginal site limited by low temperatures (Moscow), compared to maximum yield on 1674: 2702:"Tillage breaks apart soil aggregates which, among other functions, are thought to inhibit soil bacteria, fungi and other microbes from consuming and decomposing SOM (Grandy and Neff 2008). Aggregates reduce microbial access to organic matter by restricting physical access to mineral-stabilised organic compounds as well as reducing oxygen availability (Cotrufo et al. 2015; Lehmann and Kleber 2015). When soil aggregates are broken open with tillage in the conversion of native ecosystems to agriculture, microbial consumption of SOC and subsequent respiration of CO2 increase dramatically, reducing soil carbon stocks (Grandy and Robertson 2006; Grandy and Neff 2008)." 1985:"Crop productivity is determined as the product of total solar radiation incident on an area of land, and the efficiencies of interception, conversion and partitioning of that sunlight energy into plant biomass. Beale and Long demonstrated in field trials in southeastern England that εc,a was 0.050–0.060, 39% above the maximum value observed in C3 species. Furthermore, when εc is calculated in terms of total (i.e., above-ground and below-ground) M. x giganteus biomass production (εc,t), it reaches 0.078, which approaches theoretical maximum of 0.1. Studies performed in the midwestern USA by Heaton et al. reported a similar efficiency of intercepted PAR (0.075)." 1367: 4982: 1998:"– Water‐use efficiency is among the highest of any crop, in the range of 7.8–9.2 g DM (kg H2O). – Overall, water demand will increase due to high biomass productivity and increased evapotranspiration at the canopy level (e.g. ET up from wheat by 100–120 mm yr). – Improved soil structures mean greater water‐holding capacity (e.g. up by 100–150 mm), although soils may still be drier in drought years. – Reduced run‐off in wetter years, aiding flood mitigation and reducing soil erosion. – Drainage water quality is improved, and nitrate leaching is significantly lower than arable (e.g. 1.5–6.6 kg N ha yr Miscanthus, 34.2–45.9 maize/soya bean)." 2080:, pp. 551–552. Hastings et al. used computer modelling software to estimate miscanthus, willow and poplar yields for Great Britain, and concluded with mean yields in the narrow range 8.1 to 10.6 dry tonnes per hectare per year for all these plants, with miscanthus taking the middle position. Miscanthus had the highest yield in the warmer southwest, and adjusting the computer model for the expected warmer climate in 2050 made miscanthus the top yielding crop for a larger area: "As the climate warms through the time‐slices, there is a yield increase and thus a larger area where Miscanthus is the highest yielder of the feed‐stocks considered." 3420:"Two studies, one at IACR-Rothamsted and another in Germany, comparing miscanthus with cereals, indicated that miscanthus seemed to provide a habitat which encourages a greater diversity of species than cereal crops. In these studies three times as many earthworms and spiders were found in the miscanthus crop, miscanthus also supported a greater diversity of spider species. One of the studies also showed that the miscanthus crop had 5 more mammal species and 4 more bird species than a crop of wheat. Spink and Britt (1998) identified miscanthus to be one of the most environmentally benign alternatives to permanent set-aside." 1503: 1103:. This solid product contains approximately 85% of the original biomass energy however. Basically the mass part has shrunk more than the energy part, and the consequence is that the calorific value of torrefied biomass increases significantly, to the extent that it can compete with energy dense coals used for electricity generation (steam/thermal coals). The energy density of the most common steam coals today is 22–26 MJ/kg (2.8–3.3 kWh/lb). Torrefaction can be done "autothermic" (i.e. the required energy is delivered by partial combustion of the to-be-torrefied material) or "heterothermic" (i.e. the required 2518:, pp. 1001, 1004. Stričević et al. make a similar point, adding root depth to the equation: "Water availability for Miscanthus depended equally on precipitation and accumulated soil moisture, such that yields were generally a reflection of root depth and soil characteristics. For example, the yields recorded at Ralja were lower than those achieved at Zemun because of the restrictive soil layer in the former case and the inability of Miscanthus to develop deeper roots. The importance of soil and root depth for the simulation of plant production has been corroborated by other researchers (Raes et al., 2009)." See 3031:"For Miscanthus to best fit the combustion quality requirements, it is conventionally harvested during the late winter or early spring in the UK, after which the crop has fully senesced and nutrients have been remobilised into the rhizome. Moreover while late harvested Miscanthus samples have improved fuel quality, with lower nitrogen, chlorine, ash and alkaline metal content, the results presented in Baxter et al., indicate that slagging, fouling and corrosion is still most probable in most crops. Thus, the reduction in nutrients brought about by overwintering is still insufficient to lead to safe combustion ." 897: 1652: 1894:"Seeds are sown by machine and raised in the greenhouse (Figure 3A) before being planted out in the field (Figure 3B). It is anticipated that seed-based establishment methods will prove most effective for the scaling up of miscanthus production because they have the following advantages: · With increasing market demand, large quantities can easily be provided, once seed production has been well developed · Short growing period for plantlets: Only 8–10 weeks from seed to final product (plugs) · Plug production is energy efficient (no need for refrigerators) · Low establishment costs" 800: 1946:"Nitrogen fertilizer is unnecessary and can be detrimental to sustainability, unless planted into low fertility soils where early establishment will benefit from additions of around 50 kg N ha. N2O emissions can be five times lower under unfertilized Miscanthus than annual crops, and up to 100 times lower than intensive pasture land. Inappropriate nitrogen fertilizer additions can result in significant increases in N2O emission from Miscanthus plantations, exceeding IPCC emission factors although these are still offset by potential fossil fuel replacement." 2564:, pp. 1204–1205. (However, in table 2, page 1208, the stated rainfall levels for the 20–25 tonne yields is even lower; 220, 220 and 217 mm. It is unclear why the authors went for the 300–400 mm estimation instead of 220 mm.) The authors note that if there are no water constraints at all, that is, if the crops are irrigated, you can expect twice the yield (42 tonnes per hectare per year). Note that this yield is a result of a computer simulation, it is not an actual measured yield. The authors used FAO's freely available yield prediction software 3245:"A systematic review and meta-analysis were used to assess the current state of knowledge and quantify the effects of land use change (LUC) to second generation (2G), non-food bioenergy crops on soil organic carbon (SOC) and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of relevance to temperate zone agriculture. Following analysis from 138 original studies, transitions from arable to short rotation coppice (SRC, poplar or willow) or perennial grasses (mostly Miscanthus or switchgrass) resulted in increased SOC (+5.0 ± 7.8% and +25.7 ± 6.7% respectively)." 865: 2686:"Any soil disturbance, such as ploughing and cultivation, is likely to result in short-term respiration losses of soil organic carbon, decomposed by stimulated soil microbe populations (Cheng, 2009; Kuzyakov, 2010). Annual disturbance under arable cropping repeats this year after year resulting in reduced SOC levels. Perennial agricultural systems, such as grassland, have time to replace their infrequent disturbance losses which can result in higher steady-state soil carbon contents (Gelfand et al., 2011; Zenone et al., 2013)." 2866:" iscanthus had different chemical properties to that of ordinary wood pellets and requires specific boiler technologies to handle its alternative burning nature . There are various boiler manufacturers and suppliers who claim they would be happy to utilise miscanthus in their boilers and will stand over the warranty with its use. However not every boiler supplier is happy to use miscanthus. Invariably if the boiler can utilise miscanthus it can also deal with less troublesome fuels such as wood but not the other way around." 1072: 3207:"In summary, we have quantified the impacts of LUC to bioenergy cropping on SOC and GHG balance. This has identified LUC from arable, in general to lead to increased SOC, with LUC from forests to be associated with reduced SOC and enhanced GHG emissions. Grasslands are highly variable and uncertain in their response to LUC to bioenergy and given their widespread occurrence across the temperate landscape, they remain a cause for concern and one of the main areas where future research efforts should be focussed." 3215:, pp. 29–30. Low carbon accumulation rates for young plantations are to be expected, because of accelerated carbon decay at the time of planting (due to soil aeration), and relatively low mean carbon input to the soil during the establishment phase (2–3 years). Also, since dedicated energy crops like miscanthus produce significantly more biomass per year than regular grasslands, and roughly 25% of the carbon content of that biomass is successfully added to the soil carbon stock every year (see 1433:. However, since carbon content of grasslands vary considerably, so does the success rate of land use changes from grasslands to perennial. Even though the net carbon storage below perennial energy crops like miscanthus greatly exceeds the net carbon storage below grassland, forest and arable crops, carbon input from miscanthus is simply too low to compensate for the loss of existing soil carbon during the early establishment phase. Over time however, soil carbon may increase, also for grassland. 3005:"In the combustion of miscanthus, the inorganic constituents remain as ash. The typical total ash content of miscanthus is in the range of 2.0% to 3.5%. In grate-fired combustion systems, the coarser ash is discharged as bottom ash while the finer ash fraction leaves the combustion zone with the off-gas as fly ash. Because of the low ash melting temperature, which is strongly correlated with the potassium and chloride content of the ash, the combustion temperature is kept as low as possible." 3394:"The diverse ground flora which can inhabit the soil beneath a mature miscanthus canopy will provide food for butterflies, other insects and their predators. Skylarks, meadow pipits and lapwings use miscanthus, as well as 37 other species of birds including wren, linnet and goldfinch that feed on the grass seeds. Once the leaves are shed in winter, a suitable habitat is provided for yellowhammers. Open areas between stools provide ideal habitat for birds such as skylarks and meadow pipits." 768:(Portugal), and 42–49 tonnes (France). Individual trials also show delayed (winter/spring) yields of 10 tonnes (Denmark), 11–17 tonnes (UK), 14 tonnes (Spain), 10–20 tonnes (Germany), 16–17 tonnes (The Netherlands), 22 tonnes (Austria), 20–25 tonnes (Italy), 26–30 tonnes (Portugal) and 30 tonnes (France). A different trial showed delayed yields of 15 tonnes in Germany. Researchers have estimated a mean delayed yield of both 10 tonnes for the UK, and between 10.5 and 15 tonnes for the UK. 117: 3524:" vidence does indicate that the use of low‐input perennial crops, such as SRC, Miscanthus and switchgrass, can provide significant GHG savings compared to fossil fuel alternatives provided that reasonable yields are obtained, low carbon soils are targeted (see sections 2 and 3 above), and the development context is one where tension with land use for food (and associated potential for iLUC emissions) is mitigated. There are many cases where these criteria are satisfied." 921: 1162: 7610: 1047: 3407:"Our study suggests that miscanthus and SRC willows, and the management associated with perennial cropping, would support significant amounts of biodiversity when compared with annual arable crops. We recommend the strategic planting of these perennial, dedicated biomass crops in arable farmland to increase landscape heterogeneity and enhance ecosystem function, and simultaneously work towards striking a balance between energy and food security." 194: 3121:"While the initial premise regarding bioenergy was that carbon recently captured from the atmosphere into plants would deliver an immediate reduction in GHG emission from fossil fuel use, the reality proved less straightforward. Studies suggested that GHG emission from energy crop production and land-use change might outweigh any CO2 mitigation (Searchinger et al., 2008; Lange, 2011). Nitrous oxide (N2O) production, with its powerful 1495: 25: 917: 2454:"The highest biomass yields as well as the highest GHG- and fossil-energy savings potentials (up to 30.6 t CO2eq/ha*a and 429 GJ/ha*a , respectively) can be achieved on non-marginal sites in Central Europe. On marginal sites limited by cold (Moscow/Russia) or drought (Adana/Turkey) savings of up to 19.2 t CO2eq/ha*a and 273 GJ/ha*a (Moscow) and 24.0 t CO2eq/ha*a and 338 GJ/ha*a (Adana) can be achieved." 2966:, p. 3916. Also, Smith et al. measured a HGI of 150 for Miscanthus pre-treated with hydrothermal carbonisation, sometimes called "wet" torrefaction: "The HGI of 150 (see Table 3) for the samples processed at 250 °C also imply that the fuel will easily pulverise and there should be limited issues with flame stability brought about though larger particle diameters encountered with untreated biomass." 2327:"The total water requirements are approximately 100 mm (4 inches) per month rainfall equivalent. The yield of Giant King Grass depends on the time between harvests. For example, a six-month harvest of tall Giant King Grass, one can expect to obtain 80 or more US tons per acre (180 metric tons per hectare) of fresh grass at approximately 70–75% moisture. For two harvests per year, double these figures." 880:, one of the largest nuclear power plants in the world, occupies a total of 932 hectares (2,300 acres) of land and has an overall thermal output of 22,656 MW. Total net electric output is 6,508 MW. The areal power density is thus 2,431 W/m (225.8 W/sq ft) for thermal output and 698.3 W/m (64.87 W/sq ft) for net electric output. Oil fields can also be very energy dense. The 2922:"Briquetting reduces electricity consumption in densification by almost 50% in respect to pelleting (Personal Communication, Wolfgang Stelte). In this case, the energy consumption advantage of the torrefaction chain versus the WWP chain almost doubles to 10,3%. The GHG advantage increases accordingly, to a 33% reduction of torrefied wood briquettes (TWB) compared to WWP, as can be seen in Figure 9." 3446:"There is also a benefit of reduced chemical inputs and nitrate leaching associated with Miscanthus, significantly improving water quality running off farmland (Christian & Riche, 1998; Curley et al., 2009). McIsaac et al. (2010) reported that inorganic N leaching was significantly lower under unfertilized Miscanthus (1.5–6.6 kg N ha yr) than a maize/soya bean rotation (34.2–45.9 kg N ha yr)." 2853:«The variation of total SOM rates of change in the first 5 years after planting Miscanthus was very high, ranging from −4 to 7 mg C ha−1 yr−1 (Fig. 4b). A similar finding was reached elsewhere for the first 2–3 years after Miscanthus planting: −6.9 to 7.7 mg C ha−1 yr−1 (Zimmerman et al., 2011). The variation of annual SOM change decreased with time and was negligible after 15 years (Fig. 4b).» 66: 2064: 2806:" it seems likely that arable land converted to Miscanthus will sequester soil carbon; of the 14 comparisons, 11 showed overall increases in SOC over their total sample depths with suggested accumulation rates ranging from 0.42 to 3.8 Mg C ha yr. Only three arable comparisons showed lower SOC stocks under Miscanthus, and these suggested insignificant losses between 0.1 and 0.26 Mg ha yr." 1972:"The planting of seed-derived plugs proved to be most successful method for miscanthus establishment on marginal soils. Covering the plants with a plastic film accelerates their growth. The film keeps the humidity in the topsoil and increases the temperature. This is beneficial for the plants, especially on light soils with a higher risk for drought stress and in cool temperatures." 1342:, above), and from the perspective of decreasing fossil fuel input to the above-ground operation. If enough carbon is stored below ground, it can compensate for the total lifecycle emissions of a particular biofuel. Likewise, if the above-ground emissions decreases, less below-ground carbon storage is needed for the biofuel to become carbon neutral or negative. 1660: 6647:"Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems. Chapter 6. Interlinkages between desertification, land degradation, food security and GHG fluxes: synergies, trade-offs and integrated response options" 788:. Other elephant grass types clearly suited to high temperatures (different napier variants) have been shown to yield up to 80 tonnes per hectare, and commercial napier grass developers advertise yields of roughly 100 dry tonnes per hectare per year, provided there is an adequate amount of rain or irrigation available (100 mm per month). 2258:«A factor of approximately two converts dry matter to carbon (Michel et al., 2006) and 10 from t ha to kg m. Figure 2 shows global predictions of Miscanthus NPP from the viability simulation. The calculated values range from 0.5 kg C m yr in boreal region to between 1 and 2 kg C m yr in mid-latitudes and 3 and 5 kg C myr in the tropics.» 1486: 650:, fertilizer is also usually not needed. Mulch film, on the other hand, helps both M. x giganteus and various seed based hybrids to grow faster and taller, with a larger number of stems per plant, effectively reducing the establishment phase from three years to two. The reason seems to be that this plastic film keeps the humidity in the 1519: 2366:«Estimates of marginal/degraded lands currently considered available for bioenergy range from 3.2–14.0 Mkm2, depending on the adopted sustainability criteria, land class definitions, soil conditions, land mapping method and environmental and economic considerations (Campbell et al. 2008; Cai et al. 2011; Lewis and Kelly 2014).» 2793: 1907:"Miscanthus crops can be established from stem nodal propagation by harvesting stems in September and sowing them immediately into a field without any need for cold storage which, in any case reduces establishment viability while increasing cost. Planted stems produce shoots and roots and, subsequently, a rhizome system." 2480:"Shoot death means that in a given year, there will be limited yield but a recovery the following year. Rhizome kill means that the crop needs to be replanted. For drought conditions, we calculate the time below the wilting point: if this exceeds 30 days, then the shoot is killed for that year, if it exceeds 60 days for 1766: is a highly productive, sterile, rhizomatous C4 perennial grass that was collected in Yokahama, Japan in 1935 by Aksel Olsen. It was taken to Denmark where it was cultivated and spread throughout Europe and into North America for planting in horticultural settings. Over time, it has been known as  1095:) the parts of the biomass that has the lowest energy content, while the parts with the highest energy content remain. That is, approximately 30% of the biomass is converted to gas during the torrefaction process (and potentially used to power the process), while 70% remains, usually in the form of compacted 1261: 597: 4981: 3068: 2559: 2531: 2041: 900: 864: 848: 755: 2792: 1395: 1268: 1054: 920: 896: 852: 759: 2669: 2063: 1143: 1134: 1032: 916: 2604:"The raw material for non-woody pellets can be herbaceous biomass, fruit biomass, aquatic biomass or biomass blends and mixtures. These blends and mixtures can also include woody biomass. They are usually manufactured in a die with total moisture content usually less than 15 % of their mass." 2568: 1555: 1518: 1485: 1325: 1260: 1182: 1178: 912: 771: 767: 2545: 1838:"Ideal biomass energy crops efficiently use available resources, are perennial, store carbon in the soil, have high water-use efficiency, are not invasive and have low fertilizer requirements. One grass that possesses all of these characteristics, as well as producing large amounts of biomass, is 1824: 1607: 1572: 1534: 1378: 1173: 908: 783: 2513: 1673: 1464: 1152: 625: 1551: 1386: 596: 4672: 2428:"Most saline soils covering 539 567 km2 in the European geographical area can be used to grow Miscanthus with up to an estimated 11% reduction in yield; a further 2717 km2 can be used with an estimated 28% reduction in yield, and only, 3607 km2 will produce a yield reduction greater that 50%." 1239: 1668: 1420: 1135: 750: 591: 1301: 1659: 1012:.) Researchers argue that the high carbon storage below miscanthus fields is because of high proportions of pre- and direct-harvest residues (e.g. dead leaves), direct humus accumulation, a well-developed and deep-reaching root system, low decomposition rates of plant residues due to high 2670: 2130: 1702: 1059:, this often leads to a situation where biomass projects have to receive subsidies to be economically viable. A number of fuel upgrading technologies are currently being explored, however, that make biomass more compatible with the existing infrastructure. The most mature of these is 1552:(0.11) in a nearby wheat field. Due to the high carbon to nitrogen ratio, it is in the field's margins and interspersed woodlands that the majority of the food resources are to be found. Miscanthus fields work as barriers against chemical leaching into these key habitats however. 1881:"Our work is showing, depending on the hybrid type, one ha (hectare) of seed production can produce enough seed for ~1000–2000 ha of planting, depending on parental combinations, two orders of magnitude greater than rhizome propagation. n 85–95% establishment rate is achieved." 853: 1546: 4626: 1589: 1643:, because they both produce viable seeds. M. × giganteus does not produce viable seeds however, and researchers claim that " there has been no report on the threat of invasion due to rhizome growth extension from long-term commercial plantations to neighbouring arable land." 2719:. With around 120,000 km2 lost to degradation every year, and over 3.2 billion people negatively impacted by land degradation globally (IPBES 2018), practices designed to increase soil organic carbon have a large potential to address adaptation challenges (Table 6.23)." 2532: 4673: 2202:"From the second year of Miscanthus planting, crops were annually harvested on the verge of shoot in late March or the beginning of April. Mean Miscanthus yield was 15 Mg dry mass (d.m.) ha y, which remained nearly constant from the fourth year of establishment." 929:. When simply comparing the surface power production densities of biofuel, wind, hydro and solar, without regard for cost, this effectively pushes both hydro and solar power out of reach of even the highest yielding elephant grass plantations, power density wise. 564: 3211:, p. 37 (see also p. 33 regarding SOC variations). The authors note however that "he average time since transition across all studies was 5.5 years (Xmax 16, Xmin 1) for SOC" and that " the majority of studies considered SOC at the 0–30 cm profile only ." 2028:"In terms of energy production intensity, Miscanthus biomass produces more net energy per hectare than other bioenergy crops at around 200 GJ ha yr, especially arable . Felten et al. (2013) calculated similar figures, reporting 254 GJ ha yr for Miscanthus." 6141: 3271:"Perennial Miscanthus has energy output/input ratios 10 times higher (47.3 ± 2.2) than annual crops used for energy (4.7 ± 0.2 to 5.5 ± 0.2), and the total carbon cost of energy production (1.12 g CO2-C eq. MJ) is 20–30 times lower than fossil fuels." 1472: 5869: 1028: 4748: 1465: 2935: 4078: 1411: 2059:, pp. 322–323. In a willow yield meta study Fabio et al. quote willow trials in Sweden yielding 8, 13 and 14 tonnes. In the UK, the authors quote two willow trials, both yielding 10 tonnes, and one trial in Ireland yielding 8–10 tonnes. See 5438: 733: 6635:"Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems. Chapter 2. Land climate interactions" 1357: 5673: 2068:, which displayed consistently high yields over both rotations and a high resistance to rust. This parent line included the highest‐yielding single genotype, Tora, with an average yield across both rotations of 11.3 odt ha yr." 1616:. This practice offer the three-fold advantage of improving soil productivity, increasing biomass yields, and reducing costs for treatment and disposal of sewage sludge in line with the specific legislation in each country. 2591:"The raw material for wood pellets is woody biomass in accordance with Table 1 of ISO 17225‑1. Pellets are usually manufactured in a die, with total moisture content usually less than 10 % of their mass on wet basis." 4718: 1269:" in its optimisation phase ." He mentions process integration, energy and mass efficiency, mechanical compression and product quality as the variables most important to master at this point in the sector's development. 1235: 5169: 1602: 6611:"Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems. Land Degradation" 2097:, section 2.7.2 – 2.7.3. FAO provide yield estimates in cubic meters (m); 1 to 25 m globally. Cubic meters converted to dry tonnes based on the following data: Scot's pine, native to Europe and northern Asia, weighs 3219:), it seems reasonable to expect that over time, soil organic carbon will increase also on converted grasslands. The authors quote a carbon building phase of 30–50 years for perennials on converted grasslands, see 5191: 1252:." For potassium, only a 30% reduction is expected. However, potassium is dependent on chlorine to form potassium chloride; with a low level of chlorine, the potassium chloride deposits reduce proportionally. 5752: 1199: 2656:"SOC derived from crop inputs will be lower during the early years of establishment (Zimmermann et al., 2012) with disturbance losses of resident C3 carbon outpacing C4 inputs when planted into grassland." 621:(its below-ground stems) into small pieces, and then re-planting those pieces 10 cm (4 in) below ground. One hectare (2.5 acres) of miscanthus rhizomes, cut into pieces, can be used to plant 10–30 892: 6380: 1440:-related climate benefits (this excludes the climate benefits that originates from replacing fossil fuels) for different crops over a 30 year time frame on different types of grassland, and concludes that 1334: 682: 1379: 1535: 988: 2314: 6428: 4896: 5312: 1063:, basically an advanced roasting technique which—when combined with pelleting or briquetting—significantly influences handling and transport properties, grindability and combustion efficiency. 5598: 873: 1820:"In contrast to annual crops, bioenergy from dedicated perennial crops is widely perceived to have lower life‐cycle GHG emissions and other environmental cobenefits. Perennial crops such as 7095: 2775:, p. 1. In general, lower net accumulation rates for young plantations are to be expected, because of accelerated carbon decay and therefore CO2 emissions at the time of planting (see 5242: 2819:"The correlation between plantation age and SOC can be seen in Fig. 6, the trendline suggests a net accumulation rate of 1.84 Mg C ha yr with similar levels to grassland at equilibrium." 5488: 1353: 856: 2643:"Soil carbon stocks are a balance between the soil organic matter decomposition rate and the organic material input each year by vegetation, animal manure, or any other organic input." 1855: 714: 6956:"Modeling spatial and dynamic variation in growth, yield, and yield stability of the bioenergy crops Miscanthus × giganteus and Panicum virgatum across the conterminous United States" 5221: 1282: 1216: 3047:, p. 100. Saleh also found an approximate 65% reduction for straw. Likewise, Ren et al. found that " 59.1 wt%, 60.7 wt% and 77.4 wt% of the chlorine contents of olive residues, 1399: 948: 2076:, p. 529. Willow and poplar need fertilizer to achieve these yields, Fabio et al. reports 92–400 kg nitrogen per hectare per year for the yields reported in their article. See 1807: 1119: 5523: 2735:, p. 422. The authors do not quantify the above-ground dry mass yield, instead the median of McCalmont's 10–15 tonnes estimation for the whole of the UK is used here (see 2172:, p. 186. This calculation is confirmed by Roncucci et al. which found a dry mass yield decrease of 32–38% for their test crops when harvest was delayed until winter. See 1933:"C4 species characteristically demonstrate improved efficiency in nitrogen (N) and water-use . Specifically, C4 species can show N-use efficiencies twice those of C3 species." 6556: 981: 1539:." Supporting this view, other researchers argue that the flora below the canopy provides food for butterflies, other insects and their predators, and 40 species of birds. 1444: 784: 2301: 1573: 7030: 1469:-equivalents per megajoule, compared to 33 grams for coal, 22 for liquefied natural gas, 16 for North Sea gas, and 4 for wood chips imported to Britain from the USA. 5771: 5498:"Investigation into the applicability of Bond Work Index (BWI) and Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI) tests for several biomasses compared to Colombian La Loma coal" 6512:"Modeled spatial assessment of biomass productivity and technical potential of Miscanthus × giganteus , Panicum virgatum L., and Jatropha on marginal land in China" 1421: 845: 7001: 2275:«downregulates assimilate production above 28°C» and predict that yields in the tropics will be low. No estimate of an average tropical yield is provided however. 4102: 2905:"Large rectangular and round balers are capable of producing bales with a dry matter density of between 120 and 160 kg/m3 and weighing between 250 and 600kg." 6467:"Projections of global and UK bioenergy potential from Miscanthus × giganteus —Feedstock yield, carbon cycling and electricity generation in the 21st century" 1694: 1079: 6407: 742:(SRF) plantations. In the northern parts of Europe, willow and poplar approach and sometimes exceed miscanthus winter yields in the same location. Globally, 6601: 5355: 2072:, p. 363. Modelling for the future, Aust et al. estimate a mean yield of 14 tonnes for SRC willow and poplar produced on arable land in Germany, see 1452: 4860:"Establishing miscanthus x giganteus crops in Ireland through nodal propagation by harvesting stems in autumn and sowing them immediately into a field" 756: 5899: 5381: 5327: 2979:"On average, coals used in UK power stations have a HGI around 40–60; the La Loma coal tested in this work falls within this range with a HGI of 46." 6773:"Carbon sequestration and turnover in soil under the energy crop Miscanthus : repeated 13 C natural abundance approach and literature synthesis" 6623:"2019 Refinement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Volume 4: Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use. Chapter 4" 1153: 4837: 2228: 2176:, p. 1002. Clifton-Brown et al. found a mean yield reduction of 0.3% per day in the period between peak autumn yield and winter harvest, see 7487: 5019: 2135: 2101: 588:. It can be burned directly, or processed further into pellets or briquettes. It can also be used as raw material for liquid biofuels or biogas. 4794: 6017:"Influence of soil texture and crop management on the productivity of miscanthus ( Miscanthus × giganteus Greef et Deu.) in the Mediterranean" 7728: 831: 7061: 2288: 6676: 524: 7083: 6667: 1087: 4917: 7767: 5487: 38: 7492: 5822: 752: 795: 7689: 1345: 3168:, pp. 275–276. Emmerling & Pude paraphrase Felten et al. 2013. For yield, carbon sequestration and GHG calculations, see 2832: 552: 7702: 2241: 6054:"Application of the AquaCrop model to simulate the biomass of Miscanthus x giganteus under different nutrient supply conditions" 5103:"The potential of Miscanthus to sequester carbon in soils: comparing field measurements in Carlow, Ireland to model predictions" 1498: 6622: 1130: 7011: 6329: 6250: 5765: 5301: 5293: 1338: 1111: 977: 7560: 5901:"The technical potential of Great Britain to produce ligno-cellulosic biomass for bioenergy in current and future climates" 2630: 6569:"Effects of spacing, species and coppicing on leaf area, light interception and photosynthesis in short rotation forestry" 4675:"Progress on Optimizing Miscanthus Biomass Production for the European Bioeconomy: Results of the EU FP7 Project OPTIMISC" 4599: 7147: 5813: 2055: 5265:"Required Mowing Power and Bale Density of Miscanthus × Giganteus for Field Biomass Harvesting using Different Methods" 2509:(which has better water holding capacity) compared to sandy loam soil (Italy) after a relatively normal growing season 1782: (Honda) Adati. Recent classification work at the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, England has designated it as  961: 1000:(plowing, digging) and the relatively low amounts of carbon input in the establishment phase. (Tilling helps the soil 6863: 6771: 6685: 6174: 5832: 5462:"The potential for production of high quality bio-coal from early harvested Miscanthus by hydrothermal carbonisation" 5064: 2779:. The authors quote a dry mass yield of 25.6 (± 0.2) tonnes per hectare per year. Carbon content estimation 48% (see 791: 743: 694:, and its water use efficiency is among the highest of any crop. It has twice the water use efficiency of its fellow 163: 52: 4946:"The impact of soil salinity on the yield, composition and physiology of the bioenergy grass Miscanthus × giganteus" 1107: 965: 7733: 992:, and it decays in different stages. It can be divided into an active, a slow and a passive pool, with mean carbon 877: 6268: 5842: 2168: 7715: 5496: 2484: 2379: 1174: 760: 7785: 5362: 5263: 815: 76: 6114: 5760:. Agriculture and food development authority in Ireland (Teagasc), Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute (AFBI). 662: 6634: 6116:"Land availability and potential biomass production with poplar and willow short rotation coppices in Germany" 5621:"Future Perspectives of Biomass Torrefaction: Review of the Current State-Of-The-Art and Research Development" 1734: 775: 138: 44: 6089:"Effects of nitrogen fertilization in shrub willow short rotation coppice production – a quantitative review" 1050: 6955: 6909: 5021:"Potential impacts on ecosystem services of land use transitions to second-generation bioenergy crops in GB" 2467: 7244: 6910:"The impact of extensive planting of Miscanthus as an energy crop on future CO2 atmospheric concentrations" 6646: 6610: 1124: 6202:"ISO 17225-6:2014(en) Solid biofuels — Fuel specifications and classes — Part 6: Graded non-woody pellets" 4984:"Progress in upscaling Miscanthus biomass production for the European bio-economy with seed-based hybrids" 1366: 7590: 7580: 7507: 6818: 5791: 1131: 674: 7707: 7299: 2147:). The average weight of poplar species commonly grown in plantations in Europe is 335 kg/m (average of 2113:). The average weight of poplar species commonly grown in plantations in Europe is 335 kg/m (average of 7780: 6510: 5990:"Phenomics analysis of drought responses in Miscanthus collected from different geographical locations" 1262: 6718: 6295: 710:), and four times the efficiency as the C3 plant wheat. The typical UK winter harvest of 11–14 tonnes 7565: 7273: 6186:"ISO 17225-2:2014(en) Solid biofuels — Fuel specifications and classes — Part 2: Graded wood pellets" 3317: 2716: 2340: 516: 134: 129: 83: 7746: 6465: 3721: 1318: 7539: 7512: 7092: 5821: 3122: 1013: 6015: 5544: 1179: 730:(7–15 GJ/ha). In the USA, M. × giganteus has been shown to yield two times more than switchgrass. 7772: 7140: 6684: 6394:. Institute of Animal Science, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China: 95–102. 6381:"Path coefficient and cluster analyses of yield and morphological traits in Pennisetum purpureum" 5953: 5101: 1585:, extensive miscanthus rooting system and the lack of tillage disturbance improves infiltration, 739: 647: 6954: 4944: 1502: 7844: 7630: 7497: 7003: 6817: 5799:(Thesis). Technical University of Denmark, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering. 5695: 1664:. Reduced management intensity promotes earthworm diversity and abundance although poor litter 1307: 902: 735: 7053: 6772: 6568: 6201: 6185: 2759:, p. 497), together with Kahle et al.'s miscanthus carbon content estimation of 48% (see 2739:, p. 497), together with Kahle et al.'s miscanthus carbon content estimation of 48% (see 2011:"Beale et al. (1999) compared their results to the water‐use efficiency of a C3 biomass crop, 1651: 1568: 1314: 1083: 7839: 6668:"MAGIC Decision Support System – suitable industrial crops and marginal land areas in the EU" 6441: 1249: 1183: 885: 837: 324: 6318: 6317: 6238: 5291: 4528: 1123:(provided the level of various pollutants is low enough) or used to produce hydrogen in the 6872: 6270:"Yield and quality of elephant grass biomass produced in the cerrados region for bioenergy" 6164: 5073: 4751:"Economic and Environmental Assessment of Seed and Rhizome Propagated Miscanthus in the UK" 3733: 2755:, table 4, page 322, 323. Given the mean UK dry mass yield of 12.5 tonnes per hectare (see 2505: 1825: 1448: 1429: 1286: 799: 592: 569: 560: 526: 6908: 5955:"Yield and spatial supply of bioenergy poplar and willow short-rotation coppice in the UK" 1608: 1391:-equivalents per megajoule. The bars are sequential and move up and down as atmospheric CO 8: 7834: 7741: 7595: 7062:"IRENA – Global bioenergy supply and demand projections – a working paper for REmap 2030" 7028: 6052: 5346: 3324: 2836:, p. 79). 15 tonnes also explicitly quoted as the mean spring yield in Germany, see 1582: 1112: 926: 838: 510: 6876: 5077: 2488:(Clifton‐Brown and Hastings, unpublished data). This is extended to 60 and 120 days for 1686:)." They also agree that " the direct impacts of dedicated perennial bioenergy crops on 7806: 7759: 7613: 7414: 7239: 7227: 7133: 6988: 6942: 6896: 6805: 6754: 6543: 6498: 6395: 6075: 5800: 5723: 5696: 5398: 5209: 5089: 5047: 5020: 4820: 4795: 4777: 4750: 4701: 4674: 4655: 4628: 4492: 3697: 1209: 922: 703: 695: 538: 350: 201: 7461: 6584: 6450: 6364: 5928:"Introducing Miscanthus to the greening measures of the EU Common Agricultural Policy" 5824: 5234: 5183: 4103:"Waste-to-Energy and Social Acceptance: Copenhill Waste-to-Energy plant in Copenhagen" 772: 7534: 7426: 7041: 7017: 7007: 6980: 6975: 6934: 6929: 6888: 6884: 6851: 6843: 6797: 6759: 6741: 6705: 6588: 6547: 6502: 6335: 6325: 6308: 6256: 6246: 6229: 6199: 6183: 6170: 6053: 5976: 5971: 5954: 5887: 5883: 5860: 5843: 5828: 5804: 5761: 5728: 5411: 5402: 5297: 5213: 5140:"Soil carbon changes under Miscanthus driven by C 4 accumulation and C 3 de [ 5119: 5102: 5085: 5052: 4825: 4782: 4736: 4706: 4660: 3551: 3048: 2605: 2592: 2094: 1557: 747: 6992: 6946: 6900: 6809: 6686:"Yield Potential and Nitrogen Requirements of Miscanthus × giganteus on Eroded Soil" 6399: 6348: 6286: 6269: 6245:. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, The Ingram Publisher Services distributor. 6079: 5741: 5093: 4886: 4629:"Consensus, uncertainties and challenges for perennial bioenergy crops and land use" 7811: 7466: 7377: 7217: 7110: 6970: 6924: 6880: 6833: 6787: 6749: 6733: 6697: 6580: 6533: 6523: 6488: 6478: 6437: 6416: 6304: 6281: 6225: 6151: 6127: 6100: 6065: 6038: 6028: 6001: 5966: 5939: 5912: 5879: 5855: 5718: 5708: 5683: 5664: 5659: 5647: 5632: 5611: 5607: 5584: 5557: 5532: 5509: 5473: 5448: 5426: 5390: 5276: 5251: 5230: 5201: 5179: 5155: 5124: 5114: 5081: 5042: 5032: 5005: 4995: 4967: 4957: 4930: 4905: 4876: 4871: 4859: 4850: 4846: 4815: 4807: 4772: 4762: 4728: 4696: 4686: 4650: 4640: 4612: 3709: 1640: 1311: 1195: 646: 639: 553: 505: 7310: 5546:"Release of K, Cl, and S during Pyrolysis and Combustion of High-Chlorine Biomass" 5205: 4919:"Stress-Tolerant Feedstocks for Sustainable Bioenergy Production on Marginal Land" 4732: 1055: 7575: 7437: 7387: 6602:"Forest Yield: A handbook on forest growth and yield tables for British forestry" 6239: 6155: 5687: 5460: 5394: 4470: 4468: 4164: 1229: 1204: 1191: 1170: 687: 593: 5648:"Land use change to bioenergy: A meta-analysis of soil carbon and GHG emissions" 5290: 4796:"Environmental costs and benefits of growing Miscanthus for bioenergy in the UK" 4540: 4229: 4227: 3861: 3859: 3834: 3832: 3615: 3613: 1071: 7754: 7657: 7107: 6701: 5536: 5514: 5497: 5478: 5461: 5452: 5430: 5255: 4357: 4140: 3685: 3625: 3576: 3574: 2415: 1595: 1520: 1217: 1108: 993: 970: 937: 521: 7060: 7021: 6737: 6717: 6379: 5281: 5264: 4935: 4918: 4671: 4534: 4465: 4405: 4333: 3871: 3739: 3727: 3382: 3311: 3298: 2880: 2455: 2152: 2148: 2118: 2114: 1973: 1895: 1856: 1542: 1349: 7828: 7585: 7251: 6984: 6938: 6892: 6847: 6801: 6745: 6709: 6658: 6592: 6339: 6260: 5891: 4224: 3856: 3844: 3829: 3817: 3793: 3769: 3610: 2510: 1691: 1609: 1604: 1591: 1548: 1291: 1287: 1175: 1017: 1005: 1001: 808: 6819:"Biofuels on the landscape: Is "land sharing" preferable to "land sparing"?" 4767: 4691: 4116: 3805: 3571: 2132: 2098: 638:, and only at the beginning of its first two seasons. Afterwards the dense 7798: 7527: 7397: 7234: 7192: 7172: 7104: 7086: 6855: 6763: 5980: 5732: 5410: 5056: 4909: 4829: 4786: 4740: 4710: 4664: 4552: 4453: 4152: 3781: 1665: 1104: 1092: 1084: 1060: 945: 933: 881: 566: 532: 7668: 6420: 6216: 5697:"Dedicated biomass crops can enhance biodiversity in the arable landscape" 5356:"Biomass pre-treatment for bioenergy – Case study 1: Biomass Torrefaction" 2144: 2140: 2110: 2106: 1115: 116: 7570: 7522: 7517: 7502: 7288: 7261: 7222: 7207: 7182: 7113: 5619: 4381: 4345: 4048: 3052: 1786: (Greef & Deuter ex Hodkinson & Renvoize), a hybrid of  1687: 1362: 1161: 1096: 982: 842: 812: 561: 284: 248: 224: 6719:"Carbon Sequestration by Perennial Energy Crops: Is the Jury Still Out?" 5988: 5868: 5841: 5313:"Torrefied biomass: The perfect CO2 neutral coal substitute is maturing" 5129: 4128: 2493: 2380: 2169: 2136: 2102: 2043: 7694: 7431: 7367: 7212: 7177: 6792: 6528: 6511: 6483: 6466: 6132: 6115: 6105: 6088: 6070: 6043: 6033: 6016: 6014: 6006: 5989: 5944: 5927: 5917: 5900: 5713: 5637: 5620: 5589: 5572: 5160: 5139: 5037: 5000: 4983: 4962: 4945: 4811: 4645: 4480: 3703: 3637: 2547: 2515: 2173: 1613: 1586: 1403:"Miscanthus is one of the very few crops worldwide that reaches true CO 1396: 1370: 1080: 1046: 941: 764: 727: 557: 297: 6838: 6538: 6493: 5562: 5545: 4617: 4601:"Growth and agronomy of Miscanthus x giganteus for biomass production" 4600: 3907: 1232:, sticks to the bottom of the boiler, and increase maintenance costs. 7676: 7555: 7471: 7372: 7197: 7156: 6677:"MAGIC spreadsheet with EU marginal land classes and expected yields" 5010: 4972: 1670: 1515: 1430: 1205: 1201: 1196: 1100: 1056: 940: 635: 193: 7720: 7624: 6464: 5412:"An investigation of the grindability of two torrefied energy crops" 3715: 2276: 7793: 7651: 7455: 7420: 7345: 7335: 7278: 7116: 6451:"Electric power transmission and distribution losses (% of output)" 6166: 5573:"Combustion of Miscanthus: Composition of the Ash by Particle Size" 3649: 2095:"The global outlook for future wood supply from forest plantations" 1683: 1679: 1661: 1482: 1425: 1240: 1192: 824: 820: 816: 719: 711: 236: 7681: 7119: 7029: 4858: 3550:"In the rush to pursue climate change mitigation strategies, the ' 2565: 1523:(formerly proteobacteria) group almost doubles in the presence of 1494: 1224: 7362: 7356: 7305: 7187: 7164: 7089: 6816: 5751: 5220: 4980: 4885: 4498: 4284: 4282: 4280: 4278: 4212: 3877: 2794: 1599: 1569: 1543: 1528: 1507: 1322: 1283: 1245: 1120: 997: 861: 691: 651: 622: 618: 585: 272: 212: 6051: 5543: 5486: 4793: 4598: 4546: 4411: 4363: 4188: 3757: 3691: 3673: 3631: 3486: 3473: 3447: 3369: 3353: 3285: 3272: 3126: 3070: 2833: 2820: 2807: 2756: 2736: 2687: 2657: 2644: 2561: 2533: 2519: 2190: 2029: 2016: 1999: 1986: 1947: 1934: 1843: 1795: 1075: 7408: 7340: 7256: 7202: 6509: 5495: 4576: 4516: 4200: 3787: 2980: 1536: 1241: 1213: 1116: 868: 260: 6659:"CEEDS – Plant technology for crops that do not produce seeds" 6427: 6200: 6184: 4943: 4717: 4441: 4321: 4275: 3865: 3850: 3838: 3823: 3775: 3619: 3580: 3325: 2617: 2579: 2442: 2429: 2315: 1724: 7382: 7325: 7315: 7268: 6320: 5898: 5814:"The breakthrough fiber that's revolutionizing pet nutrition" 5746:. Iowa State University Extension and Outreach Establishment. 5409: 5018: 4857: 4836: 4339: 4233: 4122: 3512: 3499: 3195: 3109: 2963: 2752: 2081: 1908: 1675: 1478: 989: 723: 715: 699: 643: 7125: 7101: 5241: 4417: 4393: 4082: 3883: 3661: 3598: 1244: 7350: 7320: 6907: 4625: 4558: 3555: 3538: 3525: 3460: 3337: 3182: 3152: 3139: 3096: 2671: 2506: 2259: 1826: 1732:, with an estimated plant height of only 0.7 to 1.2 meters. 1426: 1225: 1144: 857: 6406: 6267: 6113: 5190: 5168: 5144:]compostion - toward a default sequestration function" 4747: 4504: 4429: 4176: 4054: 3259: 3233: 2841: 2780: 2772: 2760: 2740: 2606: 2593: 2302: 2216: 2073: 1960: 1921: 1882: 1869: 751: 7330: 6732:(3). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 1057–1080. 6140: 5694: 5437: 4564: 4387: 4369: 4351: 4294: 3408: 3169: 1221: 823:, toxic elements, poor texture, shallow soil depth, poor 91: 6953: 6862: 6683: 5987: 5952: 5618: 5459: 5100: 5063: 4459: 4239: 4170: 4134: 3811: 3799: 3643: 3083: 3032: 3019: 2993: 2967: 2950: 2913:, p. 2098 quotes 250 kg/m3 for high density balers. 2732: 2177: 2069: 1514: 87: 1212:, condensates on relatively cooler surfaces inside the 1138: 6770: 6716: 4884: 4486: 4474: 4311: 4309: 4158: 4146: 4036: 3997: 3963: 3961: 3655: 2854: 2709: 1036: 5646: 4014: 4012: 3936: 3934: 1169: 1066: 6674: 4060: 3763: 3745: 3586: 3055:, respectively, were released during torrefaction". 2246: 4306: 4263: 4251: 3985: 3958: 3946: 3895: 3740: 3728: 3216: 2252: 1697: 1330: 6566: 6087:Fabio, Eric S.; Smart, Lawrence B. (August 2018). 5820: 5750: 4916: 4582: 4218: 4024: 4009: 3973: 3931: 3919: 3434: 3421: 3395: 2906: 2893: 2867: 2416: 2354: 2265: 2056: 1387:poplar production pathways, represented in gram CO 1220:mechanism. Chlorine and potassium also lowers the 5844:"Future energy potential of Miscanthus in Europe" 5645: 5345: 4288: 4194: 3246: 3220: 3212: 3208: 3155:, p. 156. For calculations, see appendix S1 1023: 901:soybean). Furthermore conversion losses occur in 7826: 6656: 6378: 3604: 2847: 2611: 2308: 2289: 1594:activity and diversity, which are important for 1477:emissions per hectare per year in the UK, while 905:(an exothermic process) of sugars into ethanol. 7488:Bioconversion of biomass to mixed alcohol fuels 7098:Research on Miscanthus breeding and agronomics. 6599: 6237:Ghose, Mrinal K. (2011). Speight, James (ed.). 5672: 5262: 4895: 4891:. Iowa State University Extension and Outreach. 4522: 4206: 3679: 3364: 3362: 3348: 3346: 2837: 2682: 2680: 2203: 2124: 2035: 1147: 6448: 5489:"Status overview of torrefaction technologies" 5380: 4447: 4327: 2618: 2222: 1801: 1016:, and absence of tillage (which leads to less 7141: 6215: 5925: 5740:Wilson, Danielle; Heaton, Emily (June 2013). 5570: 5522: 5354:Wild, Michael; Visser, Lotte (October 2018). 5349:. International Biomass Torrefaction Council. 5138:Poeplau, Christopher; Don, Axel (July 2014). 4423: 4399: 4088: 3401: 3165: 3062: 3056: 3006: 2956: 2776: 2698: 2696: 2360: 2042:its relatively high yields and low inputs ». 876:Nuclear power has very high power densities. 807:In general, yield expectations are lower for 686:Miscanthus is unusually efficient at turning 86:. Consider transferring direct quotations to 6567:Proe, M.F; Griffiths, J.H; Craig, J (2002). 5793:Torrefaction of biomass for power production 5739: 4570: 3544: 3531: 3518: 3505: 3492: 3479: 3466: 3453: 3440: 3359: 3343: 3330: 3278: 3265: 3188: 3175: 3158: 3145: 3132: 3115: 3102: 3089: 3076: 3038: 3025: 3012: 2986: 2973: 2943: 2813: 2800: 2786: 2746: 2726: 2677: 2663: 2650: 2560:yields (20–25 tonnes per hectare per year). 2553: 2539: 2525: 2499: 2474: 2316:Vicente‐Chandler, Silva & Figarella 1959 2235: 1758: 1756: 1383:for net lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions. 869:Yield – comparison with other energy sources 6324:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. 4898:Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science 3427: 3414: 3388: 3375: 3291: 3252: 3239: 3201: 2929: 2916: 2899: 2886: 2860: 2637: 2572: 2435: 2196: 2162: 2049: 2022: 2005: 1992: 1940: 956: 53:Learn how and when to remove these messages 7148: 7134: 6086: 5597: 5571:Lanzerstorfer, Christof (7 January 2019). 5353: 5137: 4510: 4435: 4375: 4300: 4182: 3304: 3226: 2999: 2923: 2873: 2826: 2766: 2693: 2448: 2422: 2183: 2087: 2077: 2060: 1979: 1966: 1927: 1901: 1888: 1598:and rehabilitation processes. On a former 344:J.M.Greef , Deuter ex Hodk., Renvoize 2001 192: 7493:Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage 6974: 6928: 6837: 6791: 6753: 6557:"Statistical Review of World Energy 2020" 6537: 6527: 6492: 6482: 6285: 6131: 6104: 6069: 6042: 6032: 6005: 5970: 5943: 5926:Emmerling, Christoph; Pude, Ralf (2017). 5916: 5859: 5811: 5722: 5712: 5663: 5636: 5588: 5561: 5513: 5477: 5280: 5159: 5128: 5118: 5046: 5036: 5009: 4999: 4971: 4961: 4934: 4875: 4819: 4776: 4766: 4700: 4690: 4654: 4644: 4616: 3592: 2624: 2373: 2347: 2209: 1953: 1914: 1875: 1862: 1849: 1832: 1814: 1753: 1339: 1186: 584:is mainly used as raw material for solid 164:Learn how and when to remove this message 6665: 6442:10.2134/agronj1959.00021962005100040006x 6346: 3751: 2328: 2321: 2303:Hoshino, Ono & Sirikiratayanond 1979 1735:"Miscanthus × longiberbis (Hack.) Nakai" 1650: 1501: 1493: 1365: 1352: 1344: 1272: 1160: 1070: 1045: 960: 798: 790: 673: 661: 7122:Institution for research on Miscanthus. 6294: 5289: 4888:Giant Miscanthus for Biomass Production 4245: 4042: 2910: 2840:, p. 662. 48% carbon content; see 2295: 1909:O'Loughlin, McDonnell & Finnan 2017 1772:M. giganteus, Miscanthus ogiformis 1265:, sometimes called "wet" torrefaction. 1127:if simply burning it is not desirable. 951: 7827: 6362: 4135:Clifton‐Brown, Breuer & Jones 2007 3800:Clifton-Brown, Breuer & Jones 2007 3565: 2461: 2341: 2334: 2178:Clifton‐Brown, Breuer & Jones 2007 1711: 7629: 7628: 7129: 7069:International Renewable Energy Agency 6999: 6644: 6632: 6620: 6608: 6409:Japanese Journal of Grassland Science 6349:"Giant King® Grass: Grow and Harvest" 6236: 5789: 4066: 3667: 3044: 2720: 2703: 2598: 2367: 2282: 1808: 1436:Researchers have ranked the specific 763:In Europe the peak (autumn) dry mass 678:Computer modelled yield estimate for 666:Computer modelled yield estimate for 77:too many or overly lengthy quotations 7561:Cellulosic ethanol commercialization 6600:Forest Research (14 February 2019). 6315: 6162: 5310: 4487:Agostini, Gregory & Richter 2015 4315: 4269: 4257: 4147:Agostini, Gregory & Richter 2015 4030: 4018: 4003: 3991: 3979: 3967: 3952: 3940: 3925: 3913: 3901: 3889: 3656:Heaton, Hartzler & Barnhart 2010 2937: 2631: 2585: 2229: 2156: 1277: 1139:Water absorption and transport costs 973:, a sunlight-driven process where CO 542:, it is also called elephant grass. 110: 59: 18: 5754:Miscanthus best practice guidelines 4721:Journal of Environmental Management 4100: 1407:neutrality and may function as a CO 1302:combustion—first, a plant absorb CO 1037:Transport and combustion challenges 13: 7786:urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:20001216-1 6675:EU MAGIC spreadsheet (June 2021). 6554: 2468: 1416:‐eq mitigation potential of 117%". 1294:the available carbon, producing CO 1255: 1091:density. Torrefaction removes (by 1067:Energy density and transport costs 1008:the available carbon, producing CO 626:halving of the cost is predicted. 14: 7856: 7077: 5269:Journal of Biosystems Engineering 3916:, p. 2095 (kindle location). 1646: 1481:for heating and power saved 6.3. 634:The plant requires little if any 34:This article has multiple issues. 7609: 7608: 6976:10.1111/j.1757-1707.2011.01150.x 6930:10.1111/j.1757-1707.2010.01042.x 6885:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01438.x 5972:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02396.x 5884:10.1111/j.1757-1707.2009.01007.x 5861:10.1111/j.1757-1707.2009.01012.x 5812:Lackowski, Vincent (June 2019). 5600:Energy Conversion and Management 5120:10.1111/j.1757-1707.2010.01033.x 5086:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01438.x 4583:Caslin, Finnan & Easson 2010 4219:Nunes, Matias & Catalão 2017 3435:Caslin, Finnan & Easson 2010 3422:Caslin, Finnan & Easson 2010 3396:Caslin, Finnan & Easson 2010 2907:Caslin, Finnan & Easson 2010 2894:Caslin, Finnan & Easson 2010 2868:Caslin, Finnan & Easson 2010 2419:, pp. 4, 5, 8, 10, 11, 14. 2057:Proe, Griffiths & Craig 2002 1698:Practical farming considerations 1655:Miscanthus test crop in England. 1563: 969:Plants sequester carbon through 878:Bruce Nuclear Generating Station 405:(Y.N.Lee) Ibaragi & H.Ohashi 115: 64: 23: 6287:10.1590/s0100-69162012000500003 5701:Global Change Biology Bioenergy 5361:. IAE Bioenergy. Archived from 4591: 4195:Harris, Spake & Taylor 2015 4094: 4072: 3247:Harris, Spake & Taylor 2015 3221:Harris, Spake & Taylor 2015 3213:Harris, Spake & Taylor 2015 3209:Harris, Spake & Taylor 2015 1619: 1576: 1560:connecting different habitats. 1489: 1156: 654:and increases the temperature. 42:or discuss these issues on the 6657:New Energy Farms (June 2021). 5790:Saleh, Suriyati Binti (2013). 5743:Giant Miscanthus Establishment 5665:10.1016/j.biombioe.2015.05.008 5612:10.1016/j.enconman.2015.08.031 5296:. Earthscan. pp. 2097–9. 4877:10.1016/j.biombioe.2017.08.010 4851:10.1016/j.biombioe.2017.03.003 3217:Net annual carbon accumulation 2093:For yield estimates see FAO's 1718: 1459: 1456:grassland have a value of 72. 1024:Net annual carbon accumulation 702:, twice the efficiency as the 605: 1: 7155: 6585:10.1016/s0961-9534(02)00060-0 5235:10.1016/S0961-9534(03)00102-8 5206:10.1080/17583004.2018.1518106 5184:10.1016/S1161-0301(01)00102-2 4733:10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.04.027 4499:Anderson-Teixeira et al. 2012 3073:, pp. 4961, 4962, 4968. 2292:, pp. 96, 98 (table 1). 1706: 629: 617:is propagated by cutting the 600: 6309:10.1016/0961-9534(93)90036-4 6230:10.1016/0961-9534(96)00033-5 6156:10.1016/j.renene.2012.12.004 5688:10.1016/j.apsoil.2011.06.001 5395:10.1016/j.energy.2018.08.117 5172:European Journal of Agronomy 1374:It is the total amount of CO 1148:Uniformity and customization 572: 7: 7591:Issues relating to biofuels 7581:Energy return on investment 6579:(5). Elsevier BV: 315–326. 4523:Felten & Emmerling 2011 4207:Felten & Emmerling 2012 2909:, p. 22. In addition, 2838:Felten & Emmerling 2012 2204:Felten & Emmerling 2012 2066:S. vimanlis × S. schwerinii 1506:Researchers found breeding 1041: 128:to comply with Knowledge's 10: 7861: 7031:"Biomass Policy Statement" 6702:10.2134/agronj2016.10.0582 5537:10.1016/j.fuel.2017.03.040 5515:10.1016/j.fuel.2015.05.027 5479:10.1016/j.fuel.2018.01.143 5453:10.1016/j.fuel.2015.04.017 5431:10.1016/j.fuel.2010.06.043 5326:(7): 72–75. Archived from 5256:10.1016/j.fuel.2007.05.041 4755:Frontiers in Plant Science 4679:Frontiers in Plant Science 3172:, pp. 160, 166, 168. 2723:, pp. 591, 572, 591. 2305:, pp. 310, 311, 315. 2271:Sheperd et al. argue that 1739:Plants of the World Online 1263:hydrothermal carbonization 670:in Europe (no irrigation). 7637: 7604: 7566:Energy content of biofuel 7548: 7480: 7396: 7287: 7163: 6738:10.1007/s12155-014-9571-0 5282:10.5307/JBE.2014.39.4.253 4936:10.1007/s12155-014-9557-y 3878:Clifton-Brown et al. 2017 3866:Nsanganwimana et al. 2014 3851:Nsanganwimana et al. 2014 3839:Nsanganwimana et al. 2014 3824:Nsanganwimana et al. 2014 3776:Nsanganwimana et al. 2014 3764:EU MAGIC spreadsheet 2021 3620:Nsanganwimana et al. 2014 3581:Nsanganwimana et al. 2014 3166:Emmerling & Pude 2017 2717:climate change adaptation 2580:Nsanganwimana et al. 2014 2247:EU MAGIC spreadsheet 2021 1776:Miscanthus sacchariflorus 1596:soil particle aggregation 1014:carbon to nitrogen ratios 517:Miscanthus sacchariflorus 469:Miscanthus sacchariflorus 356: 349: 330: 323: 202:Scientific classification 200: 191: 180: 7540:Thermal depolymerization 7513:Industrial biotechnology 6871:(11). Wiley: 2296–2307. 4571:Wilson & Heaton 2013 4173:, pp. 414, 419–420. 3123:global warming potential 2777:Soil carbon input/output 2550:, pp. 1005–1006, . 2245:is between 8 and 45 °C. 1963:, pp. 1, 9, 14–15. 1790: Anderss. and  1784:M. x giganteus 1770: ‘Giganteus’,  1764:M. x giganteus 1125:water–gas shift reaction 957:Soil carbon input/output 657: 141:may contain suggestions. 126:may need to be rewritten 84:summarize the quotations 7508:Fischer–Tropsch process 7498:Biomass heating systems 7000:Jones, Michael (2019). 6832:(8). Wiley: 2035–2048. 6826:Ecological Applications 6449:The World Bank (2010). 5347:"Torrefaction Benefits" 4768:10.3389/fpls.2017.01058 4692:10.3389/fpls.2016.01620 4535:Lewandowski et al. 2016 4149:, p. 1058, fig. 1. 4101:Edo, Mar (March 2021). 3892:, p. 211, box 7.1. 3383:Lewandowski et al. 2016 3312:Lewandowski et al. 2016 3299:Lewandowski et al. 2016 2881:Lewandowski et al. 2016 2456:Lewandowski et al. 2016 1974:Lewandowski et al. 2016 1896:Lewandowski et al. 2016 1857:Lewandowski et al. 2016 1639:, are both potentially 1631:parents on both sides, 860:content and 19% of the 819:storage capacity, high 740:short rotation forestry 648:nitrogen use efficiency 7747:Miscanthus x giganteus 7120:University of Illinois 7096:Aberystwyth University 6666:EU MAGIC (June 2021). 5311:Wild, Michael (2015). 4910:10.1002/jpln.201100250 4511:Poeplau & Don 2014 4477:, p. 269, fig. 6. 4436:Kambo & Dutta 2015 4376:Wild & Visser 2018 4301:Wild & Visser 2018 4183:Poeplau & Don 2014 3670:, p. 4.34 – 4.41. 2924:Wild & Visser 2018 2783:, table 3, page 176). 2243:Miscanthus × giganteus 2078:Fabio & Smart 2018 2061:Fabio & Smart 2018 1840:Miscanthus x giganteus 1794: (Maxim.) Hack." 1774: Honda, and  1656: 1511: 1499: 1418: 1371: 1363: 1350: 1187:Chlorine and corrosion 1166: 1076: 1051: 966: 903:alcoholic fermentation 888:7.955 exajoules (2.210 835:Miscanthus × giganteus 829:Miscanthus × giganteus 804: 796: 736:short rotation coppice 683: 680:Miscanthus × giganteus 671: 668:Miscanthus x giganteus 6969:(5). Wiley: 509–520. 6865:Global Change Biology 6786:(4). Wiley: 262–271. 6696:(2). Wiley: 684–695. 6573:Biomass and Bioenergy 6421:10.14941/grass.24.310 6316:Smil, Vaclav (2015). 6297:Biomass and Bioenergy 6241:The Biofuels Handbook 6218:Biomass and Bioenergy 6163:Smil, Vaclav (2008). 5652:Biomass and Bioenergy 5223:Biomass and Bioenergy 5066:Global Change Biology 4864:Biomass and Bioenergy 4839:Biomass and Bioenergy 4547:McCalmont et al. 2017 4501:, pp. 2039–2040. 4340:Bridgeman et al. 2010 4289:Torrefaction benefits 4234:Bridgeman et al. 2010 3730:, p. 9, table 2. 3692:McCalmont et al. 2017 3632:McCalmont et al. 2017 3605:New Energy Farms 2021 3515:, pp. 317, 320. 3487:McCalmont et al. 2017 3474:McCalmont et al. 2017 3448:McCalmont et al. 2017 3370:McCalmont et al. 2017 3354:McCalmont et al. 2017 3286:McCalmont et al. 2017 3273:McCalmont et al. 2017 3185:, pp. 156, 160. 3127:McCalmont et al. 2017 3086:, pp. 547, 556. 2996:, pp. 554, 556. 2964:Bridgeman et al. 2010 2844:, table 3, page 176. 2821:McCalmont et al. 2017 2808:McCalmont et al. 2017 2763:, table 3, page 176. 2757:McCalmont et al. 2017 2743:, table 3, page 176. 2737:McCalmont et al. 2017 2688:McCalmont et al. 2017 2674:, pp. 152, 154. 2658:McCalmont et al. 2017 2645:McCalmont et al. 2017 2562:Stričević et al. 2015 2534:Stričević et al. 2015 2520:Stričević et al. 2015 2494:Hastings et al. 2009b 2443:Stavridou et al. 2017 2430:Stavridou et al. 2017 2381:Hastings et al. 2009b 2273:Micanthus × giganteus 2170:Hastings et al. 2009a 2084:, pp. 108, 119. 2044:Hastings et al. 2009a 2030:McCalmont et al. 2017 2017:McCalmont et al. 2017 2000:McCalmont et al. 2017 1948:McCalmont et al. 2017 1654: 1505: 1497: 1401: 1381:more than compensates 1369: 1356: 1348: 1273:Environmental impacts 1164: 1074: 1049: 964: 803:Steep, marginal land. 802: 794: 677: 665: 5676:Applied Soil Ecology 4559:Whitaker et al. 2018 4412:Johansen et al. 2011 3814:, pp. 684, 688. 3802:, p. 2296–2297. 3716:Shepherd et al. 2020 3704:Roncucci et al. 2015 3680:Forest Research 2019 3556:Whitaker et al. 2018 3539:Whitaker et al. 2018 3526:Whitaker et al. 2018 3502:, pp. 328–329. 3463:, pp. 157–158. 3461:Whitaker et al. 2018 3409:Haughton et al. 2016 3372:, pp. 502–503. 3338:Whitaker et al. 2018 3260:Hastings et al. 2017 3234:Hastings et al. 2017 3183:Whitaker et al. 2018 3153:Whitaker et al. 2018 3142:, pp. 156–157. 3140:Whitaker et al. 2018 3112:, pp. 317–318. 3097:Whitaker et al. 2018 3071:Johansen et al. 2011 2981:Williams et al. 2015 2834:Anderson et al. 2014 2797:, pp. 102–103. 2773:Nakajima et al. 2018 2672:Whitaker et al. 2018 2548:Roncucci et al. 2015 2516:Roncucci et al. 2015 2409:Robinia pseudoacacia 2279:, pp. 295, 298. 2277:Shepherd et al. 2020 2217:Hastings et al. 2017 2191:Anderson et al. 2014 2174:Roncucci et al. 2015 2082:Hastings et al. 2014 1987:Anderson et al. 2014 1961:Hastings et al. 2017 1935:Anderson et al. 2014 1922:Hastings et al. 2017 1883:Hastings et al. 2017 1870:Hastings et al. 2017 1844:Anderson et al. 2014 1827:Whitaker et al. 2018 1796:Anderson et al. 2014 1510:in miscanthus crops. 1340:Carbon sequestration 1310:it as carbon in its 952:Carbon sequestration 927:thermal power plants 925:) is only 30–40% in 706:energy crop willow ( 554:carbon sequestration 527:Pennisetum purpureum 500:, also known as the 7596:Sustainable biofuel 7108:Miscanthus Breeding 6923:(2). Wiley: 79–88. 6877:2007GCBio..13.2296C 6388:Tropical Grasslands 6365:"Mackay Bana Grass" 6274:Engenharia Agrícola 5078:2007GCBio..13.2296C 4460:Ribeiro et al. 2018 4364:Cremers et al. 2015 4171:Dondini et al. 2009 4161:, p. 262, 269. 3566:Shortened footnotes 2940:, pp. 72, 74. 2896:, pp. 31, 33. 2870:, pp. 31, 32. 2733:Dondini et al. 2009 2619:The World Bank 2010 2385:Andropogon gerardii 1768:Miscanthus sinensis 1712:Quotes and comments 1113:peaking power plant 786:Miscanthus Sinensis 511:Miscanthus sinensis 481:Miscanthus sinensis 7052:has generic name ( 6793:10.1111/gcbb.12485 6726:BioEnergy Research 6529:10.1111/gcbb.12673 6484:10.1111/gcbb.12671 6133:10.1111/gcbb.12083 6106:10.1111/gcbb.12507 6071:10.1111/gcbb.12206 6034:10.1111/gcbb.12202 6007:10.1111/gcbb.12350 5945:10.1111/gcbb.12409 5918:10.1111/gcbb.12103 5714:10.1111/gcbb.12312 5638:10.3390/su10072323 5590:10.3390/en12010178 5550:Energy & Fuels 5161:10.1111/gcbb.12043 5038:10.1111/gcbb.12263 5001:10.1111/gcbb.12357 4963:10.1111/gcbb.12351 4923:BioEnergy Research 4812:10.1111/gcbb.12294 4646:10.1111/gcbb.12488 4462:, pp. 12, 13. 4123:Milner et al. 2016 4089:van den Broek 1996 4055:Flores et al. 2012 4006:, pp. 80, 89. 3644:Miguez et al. 2011 3513:Milner et al. 2016 3500:Milner et al. 2016 3327:, pp. 15–16. 3301:, pp. 19–20. 3262:, pp. 12–13. 3196:Milner et al. 2016 3170:Felten et al. 2013 3110:Milner et al. 2016 3007:Lanzerstorfer 2019 2926:, pp. 16–17. 2795:Hansen et al. 2004 2753:Milner et al. 2016 2413:Spartina pectinata 2262:, pp. 82–83. 2260:Hughes et al. 2010 2070:Aylott et al. 2008 1657: 1512: 1500: 1372: 1364: 1351: 1210:potassium chloride 1167: 1077: 1052: 967: 923:thermal efficiency 805: 797: 684: 672: 539:Saccharum ravennae 7822: 7821: 7631:Taxon identifiers 7622: 7621: 7535:Sabatier reaction 7013:978-0-367-78757-8 6839:10.1890/12-0711.1 6347:Viaspace (2020). 6331:978-0-262-02914-8 6252:978-1-84973-026-6 6169:. The MIT Press. 5777:on 10 August 2019 5767:978-1-84170-574-3 5563:10.1021/ef201098n 5556:(11): 4961–4971. 5425:(12): 3911–3918. 5303:978-1-902916-15-6 5194:Carbon Management 5072:(11): 2296–2307. 4618:10.4155/bfs.10.80 4388:Ndibe et al. 2015 4352:Ndibe et al. 2015 3788:Zhang et al. 2020 3682:, pp. 69–71. 3552:carbon neutrality 3314:, pp. 2, 7. 3084:Smith et al. 2018 3033:Smith et al. 2018 3020:Smith et al. 2018 2994:Smith et al. 2018 2968:Smith et al. 2018 2951:Smith et al. 2018 2842:Kahle et al. 2001 2781:Kahle et al. 2001 2761:Kahle et al. 2001 2741:Kahle et al. 2001 2536:, pp. 1207. 2522:, pp. 1205. 2417:Quinn et al. 2015 2355:Quinn et al. 2015 2290:Zhang et al. 2010 2159:, pp. 75–76. 1924:, pp. 1, 8. 1792:M. sacchariflorus 1637:M. sacchariflorus 1558:wildlife corridor 1278:Carbon neutrality 1248:and corrosion in 748:forest plantation 489: 488: 477: 465: 450: 438: 423: 406: 400:longiberbis var. 392: 380: 368: 174: 173: 166: 156: 155: 130:quality standards 109: 108: 57: 7852: 7815: 7814: 7802: 7801: 7789: 7788: 7776: 7775: 7763: 7762: 7750: 7749: 7737: 7736: 7724: 7723: 7711: 7710: 7698: 7697: 7685: 7684: 7672: 7671: 7662: 7661: 7660: 7642: 7626: 7625: 7612: 7611: 7456:Pongamia pinnata 7150: 7143: 7136: 7127: 7126: 7072: 7066: 7057: 7051: 7047: 7045: 7037: 7035: 7025: 6996: 6978: 6960: 6950: 6932: 6914: 6904: 6859: 6841: 6823: 6813: 6795: 6777: 6767: 6757: 6723: 6713: 6690:Agronomy Journal 6680: 6671: 6662: 6653: 6651: 6641: 6639: 6629: 6627: 6617: 6615: 6605: 6596: 6563: 6561: 6551: 6541: 6531: 6506: 6496: 6486: 6461: 6459: 6457: 6445: 6430:Agronomy Journal 6424: 6403: 6385: 6375: 6373: 6371: 6359: 6357: 6355: 6343: 6323: 6312: 6291: 6289: 6264: 6244: 6233: 6212: 6210: 6208: 6196: 6194: 6192: 6180: 6159: 6144:Renewable Energy 6137: 6135: 6110: 6108: 6083: 6073: 6064:(6): 1203–1210. 6048: 6046: 6036: 6011: 6009: 5984: 5974: 5949: 5947: 5922: 5920: 5895: 5865: 5863: 5838: 5817: 5808: 5798: 5786: 5784: 5782: 5776: 5770:. Archived from 5759: 5747: 5736: 5726: 5716: 5707:(6): 1071–1081. 5691: 5669: 5667: 5642: 5640: 5615: 5594: 5592: 5567: 5565: 5540: 5519: 5517: 5492: 5491:. IEA Bioenergy. 5483: 5481: 5456: 5434: 5416: 5406: 5377: 5375: 5373: 5367: 5360: 5350: 5342: 5340: 5338: 5332: 5317: 5307: 5286: 5284: 5259: 5238: 5217: 5187: 5165: 5163: 5134: 5132: 5122: 5097: 5060: 5050: 5040: 5015: 5013: 5003: 4977: 4975: 4965: 4940: 4938: 4929:(3): 1081–1100. 4913: 4892: 4881: 4879: 4854: 4833: 4823: 4790: 4780: 4770: 4744: 4714: 4704: 4694: 4668: 4658: 4648: 4622: 4620: 4586: 4580: 4574: 4568: 4562: 4556: 4550: 4544: 4538: 4532: 4526: 4520: 4514: 4508: 4502: 4496: 4490: 4484: 4478: 4475:Zang et al. 2017 4472: 4463: 4457: 4451: 4445: 4439: 4433: 4427: 4421: 4415: 4409: 4403: 4397: 4391: 4385: 4379: 4373: 4367: 4361: 4355: 4349: 4343: 4337: 4331: 4325: 4319: 4313: 4304: 4298: 4292: 4286: 4273: 4267: 4261: 4255: 4249: 4243: 4237: 4231: 4222: 4216: 4210: 4204: 4198: 4192: 4186: 4180: 4174: 4168: 4162: 4159:Zang et al. 2017 4156: 4150: 4144: 4138: 4132: 4126: 4120: 4114: 4113: 4107: 4098: 4092: 4086: 4080: 4076: 4070: 4064: 4058: 4052: 4046: 4040: 4034: 4028: 4022: 4016: 4007: 4001: 3995: 3989: 3983: 3977: 3971: 3965: 3956: 3950: 3944: 3938: 3929: 3923: 3917: 3911: 3905: 3899: 3893: 3887: 3881: 3875: 3869: 3863: 3854: 3848: 3842: 3836: 3827: 3821: 3815: 3812:Yost et al. 2017 3809: 3803: 3797: 3791: 3785: 3779: 3773: 3767: 3761: 3755: 3749: 3743: 3737: 3731: 3725: 3719: 3713: 3707: 3701: 3695: 3689: 3683: 3677: 3671: 3665: 3659: 3653: 3647: 3641: 3635: 3629: 3623: 3617: 3608: 3602: 3596: 3590: 3584: 3578: 3559: 3548: 3542: 3535: 3529: 3522: 3516: 3509: 3503: 3496: 3490: 3483: 3477: 3470: 3464: 3457: 3451: 3444: 3438: 3431: 3425: 3418: 3412: 3411:, p. 1071. 3405: 3399: 3392: 3386: 3379: 3373: 3366: 3357: 3350: 3341: 3334: 3328: 3321: 3315: 3308: 3302: 3295: 3289: 3282: 3276: 3269: 3263: 3256: 3250: 3243: 3237: 3230: 3224: 3205: 3199: 3192: 3186: 3179: 3173: 3162: 3156: 3149: 3143: 3136: 3130: 3119: 3113: 3106: 3100: 3093: 3087: 3080: 3074: 3066: 3060: 3042: 3036: 3029: 3023: 3016: 3010: 3009:, pp. 1–2. 3003: 2997: 2990: 2984: 2977: 2971: 2960: 2954: 2947: 2941: 2933: 2927: 2920: 2914: 2903: 2897: 2890: 2884: 2877: 2871: 2864: 2858: 2857:, p. 267. 2855:Zang et al. 2017 2851: 2845: 2830: 2824: 2817: 2811: 2804: 2798: 2790: 2784: 2770: 2764: 2750: 2744: 2730: 2724: 2713: 2707: 2700: 2691: 2684: 2675: 2667: 2661: 2654: 2648: 2641: 2635: 2628: 2622: 2615: 2609: 2602: 2596: 2589: 2583: 2576: 2570: 2557: 2551: 2543: 2537: 2529: 2523: 2503: 2497: 2478: 2472: 2465: 2459: 2452: 2446: 2439: 2433: 2426: 2420: 2397:Panicum virgatum 2377: 2371: 2364: 2358: 2357:, pp. 1–2. 2351: 2345: 2338: 2332: 2325: 2319: 2312: 2306: 2299: 2293: 2286: 2280: 2269: 2263: 2256: 2250: 2239: 2233: 2226: 2220: 2213: 2207: 2200: 2194: 2187: 2181: 2180:, p. 2305. 2166: 2160: 2128: 2122: 2091: 2085: 2074:Aust et al. 2014 2053: 2047: 2039: 2033: 2026: 2020: 2009: 2003: 1996: 1990: 1983: 1977: 1970: 1964: 1957: 1951: 1944: 1938: 1931: 1925: 1918: 1912: 1905: 1899: 1892: 1886: 1879: 1873: 1872:, pp. 5–6. 1866: 1860: 1853: 1847: 1836: 1830: 1818: 1812: 1805: 1799: 1778: var.  1760: 1751: 1749: 1747: 1745: 1722: 1641:invasive species 985:over the years. 891: 882:Ghawar Oil Field 722:(25 GJ/ha), and 502:giant miscanthus 475: 464:(Hack.) T.Koyama 463: 448: 433: 421: 404: 390: 378: 366: 340: 196: 178: 177: 169: 162: 151: 148: 142: 119: 111: 104: 101: 95: 68: 67: 60: 49: 27: 26: 19: 16:Species of grass 7860: 7859: 7855: 7854: 7853: 7851: 7850: 7849: 7825: 7824: 7823: 7818: 7810: 7805: 7797: 7792: 7784: 7779: 7771: 7766: 7758: 7753: 7745: 7740: 7732: 7727: 7719: 7714: 7706: 7701: 7693: 7688: 7680: 7675: 7667: 7665: 7656: 7655: 7650: 7640: 7633: 7623: 7618: 7600: 7576:Energy forestry 7544: 7476: 7438:Jatropha curcas 7399: 7392: 7300:Camelina sativa 7290: 7283: 7159: 7154: 7080: 7075: 7064: 7049: 7048: 7039: 7038: 7033: 7014: 6958: 6912: 6821: 6775: 6721: 6649: 6637: 6625: 6613: 6559: 6455: 6453: 6383: 6369: 6367: 6363:Mackay (2020). 6353: 6351: 6332: 6253: 6206: 6204: 6190: 6188: 6177: 6027:(5): 998–1008. 5959:New Phytologist 5835: 5816:. Pet Business. 5796: 5780: 5778: 5774: 5768: 5757: 5414: 5371: 5369: 5368:on 2 March 2019 5365: 5358: 5336: 5334: 5333:on 2 March 2019 5330: 5315: 5304: 4594: 4589: 4581: 4577: 4569: 4565: 4557: 4553: 4545: 4541: 4533: 4529: 4521: 4517: 4509: 4505: 4497: 4493: 4489:, p. 1068. 4485: 4481: 4473: 4466: 4458: 4454: 4446: 4442: 4434: 4430: 4424:Ren et al. 2017 4422: 4418: 4410: 4406: 4400:Ren et al. 2017 4398: 4394: 4386: 4382: 4374: 4370: 4362: 4358: 4350: 4346: 4342:, p. 3912. 4338: 4334: 4326: 4322: 4314: 4307: 4299: 4295: 4287: 4276: 4268: 4264: 4256: 4252: 4248:, p. 2098. 4244: 4240: 4232: 4225: 4217: 4213: 4205: 4201: 4193: 4189: 4181: 4177: 4169: 4165: 4157: 4153: 4145: 4141: 4137:, p. 2297. 4133: 4129: 4121: 4117: 4105: 4099: 4095: 4087: 4083: 4077: 4073: 4065: 4061: 4053: 4049: 4041: 4037: 4029: 4025: 4017: 4010: 4002: 3998: 3990: 3986: 3978: 3974: 3966: 3959: 3951: 3947: 3939: 3932: 3924: 3920: 3912: 3908: 3900: 3896: 3888: 3884: 3876: 3872: 3864: 3857: 3849: 3845: 3837: 3830: 3822: 3818: 3810: 3806: 3798: 3794: 3786: 3782: 3774: 3770: 3762: 3758: 3750: 3746: 3738: 3734: 3726: 3722: 3714: 3710: 3706:, p. 1004. 3702: 3698: 3690: 3686: 3678: 3674: 3666: 3662: 3654: 3650: 3642: 3638: 3630: 3626: 3618: 3611: 3603: 3599: 3591: 3587: 3579: 3572: 3568: 3563: 3562: 3558:, p. 160. 3549: 3545: 3541:, p. 151. 3536: 3532: 3528:, p. 157. 3523: 3519: 3510: 3506: 3497: 3493: 3489:, p. 504. 3484: 3480: 3476:, p. 501. 3471: 3467: 3458: 3454: 3450:, p. 501. 3445: 3441: 3432: 3428: 3419: 3415: 3406: 3402: 3393: 3389: 3380: 3376: 3367: 3360: 3356:, p. 502. 3351: 3344: 3340:, p. 150. 3335: 3331: 3322: 3318: 3309: 3305: 3296: 3292: 3288:, p. 500. 3283: 3279: 3275:, p. 489. 3270: 3266: 3257: 3253: 3244: 3240: 3231: 3227: 3206: 3202: 3198:, p. 123. 3193: 3189: 3180: 3176: 3163: 3159: 3150: 3146: 3137: 3133: 3129:, p. 490. 3120: 3116: 3107: 3103: 3099:, p. 151. 3094: 3090: 3081: 3077: 3067: 3063: 3057:Ren et al. 2017 3043: 3039: 3035:, p. 546. 3030: 3026: 3022:, p. 554. 3017: 3013: 3004: 3000: 2991: 2987: 2983:, p. 382. 2978: 2974: 2970:, p. 554. 2961: 2957: 2953:, p. 551. 2948: 2944: 2934: 2930: 2921: 2917: 2904: 2900: 2891: 2887: 2878: 2874: 2865: 2861: 2852: 2848: 2831: 2827: 2823:, p. 496. 2818: 2814: 2810:, p. 493. 2805: 2801: 2791: 2787: 2771: 2767: 2751: 2747: 2731: 2727: 2714: 2710: 2706:, p. 393. 2701: 2694: 2690:, p. 493. 2685: 2678: 2668: 2664: 2660:, p. 496. 2655: 2651: 2647:, p. 496. 2642: 2638: 2634:, p. 191. 2629: 2625: 2616: 2612: 2603: 2599: 2590: 2586: 2582:, p. 129. 2577: 2573: 2558: 2554: 2544: 2540: 2530: 2526: 2504: 2500: 2496:, p. 161. 2479: 2475: 2466: 2462: 2453: 2449: 2445:, p. 100. 2440: 2436: 2427: 2423: 2378: 2374: 2365: 2361: 2352: 2348: 2339: 2335: 2326: 2322: 2318:, p. 202. 2313: 2309: 2300: 2296: 2287: 2283: 2270: 2266: 2257: 2253: 2240: 2236: 2232:, p. 81 . 2227: 2223: 2214: 2210: 2206:, p. 662. 2201: 2197: 2188: 2184: 2167: 2163: 2129: 2125: 2092: 2088: 2054: 2050: 2040: 2036: 2032:, p. 493. 2027: 2023: 2019:, p. 501. 2013:Salix viminalis 2010: 2006: 2002:, p. 504. 1997: 1993: 1984: 1980: 1971: 1967: 1958: 1954: 1950:, p. 503. 1945: 1941: 1932: 1928: 1919: 1915: 1911:, p. 345. 1906: 1902: 1893: 1889: 1880: 1876: 1867: 1863: 1854: 1850: 1837: 1833: 1829:, p. 151. 1819: 1815: 1806: 1802: 1761: 1754: 1743: 1741: 1733: 1723: 1719: 1714: 1709: 1700: 1649: 1622: 1579: 1566: 1492: 1476: 1468: 1462: 1438:land-use-change 1424: 1415: 1410: 1406: 1394: 1390: 1377: 1361: 1333: 1329: 1321: 1317: 1305: 1297: 1290:populations to 1280: 1275: 1258: 1256:Coal similarity 1189: 1159: 1150: 1141: 1069: 1044: 1039: 1026: 1011: 1004:populations to 994:residence times 980: 976: 959: 954: 889: 871: 746:estimates that 708:Salix viminalis 688:solar radiation 660: 632: 608: 603: 594:methylcellulose 575: 504:, is a sterile 422:(Honda) Ibaragi 345: 342: 332: 319: 301: 287: 275: 263: 251: 239: 227: 215: 170: 159: 158: 157: 152: 146: 143: 133: 120: 105: 99: 96: 90:or excerpts to 81: 69: 65: 28: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7858: 7848: 7847: 7842: 7837: 7820: 7819: 7817: 7816: 7812:wfo-0000880228 7803: 7790: 7777: 7764: 7751: 7738: 7725: 7712: 7699: 7686: 7673: 7663: 7647: 7645: 7635: 7634: 7620: 7619: 7617: 7616: 7605: 7602: 7601: 7599: 7598: 7593: 7588: 7583: 7578: 7573: 7568: 7563: 7558: 7552: 7550: 7546: 7545: 7543: 7542: 7537: 7532: 7531: 7530: 7525: 7515: 7510: 7505: 7500: 7495: 7490: 7484: 7482: 7478: 7477: 7475: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7459: 7452: 7441: 7434: 7429: 7427:Chinese tallow 7424: 7417: 7412: 7404: 7402: 7394: 7393: 7391: 7390: 7385: 7380: 7375: 7370: 7365: 7360: 7353: 7348: 7343: 7338: 7333: 7328: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7308: 7303: 7295: 7293: 7285: 7284: 7282: 7281: 7276: 7274:Water hyacinth 7271: 7266: 7265: 7264: 7254: 7249: 7248: 7247: 7242: 7232: 7231: 7230: 7220: 7215: 7210: 7205: 7200: 7195: 7190: 7185: 7180: 7175: 7169: 7167: 7161: 7160: 7153: 7152: 7145: 7138: 7130: 7124: 7123: 7117: 7111: 7105: 7099: 7093: 7087: 7079: 7078:External links 7076: 7074: 7073: 7058: 7026: 7012: 6997: 6951: 6905: 6860: 6814: 6768: 6714: 6681: 6672: 6663: 6654: 6645:IPCC (2019d). 6642: 6633:IPCC (2019c). 6630: 6621:IPCC (2019b). 6618: 6609:IPCC (2019a). 6606: 6597: 6564: 6552: 6522:(5): 328–345. 6507: 6477:(4): 287–305. 6462: 6446: 6436:(4): 202–206. 6425: 6404: 6376: 6360: 6344: 6330: 6313: 6303:(6): 413–419. 6292: 6280:(5): 831–839. 6265: 6251: 6234: 6224:(4): 271–281. 6213: 6197: 6181: 6175: 6160: 6138: 6126:(5): 521–533. 6111: 6099:(8): 548–564. 6084: 6049: 6012: 5985: 5965:(2): 358–370. 5950: 5938:(2): 274–279. 5923: 5911:(2): 108–122. 5896: 5878:(2): 154–170. 5866: 5854:(2): 180–196. 5839: 5833: 5818: 5809: 5787: 5766: 5748: 5737: 5692: 5670: 5643: 5625:Sustainability 5616: 5595: 5568: 5541: 5520: 5493: 5484: 5457: 5435: 5407: 5378: 5351: 5343: 5308: 5302: 5287: 5275:(4): 253–260. 5260: 5250:(6): 844–856. 5239: 5218: 5200:(4): 415–423. 5188: 5178:(3): 171–184. 5166: 5154:(4): 327–338. 5135: 5113:(6): 413–425. 5098: 5061: 5031:(2): 317–333. 5016: 4978: 4941: 4914: 4904:(5): 661–670. 4893: 4882: 4855: 4834: 4806:(3): 489–507. 4791: 4745: 4715: 4669: 4639:(3): 150–164. 4623: 4595: 4593: 4590: 4588: 4587: 4575: 4563: 4561:, p. 160. 4551: 4549:, p. 489. 4539: 4527: 4525:, p. 167. 4515: 4513:, p. 327. 4503: 4491: 4479: 4464: 4452: 4450:, p. 182. 4448:Li et al. 2018 4440: 4438:, p. 752. 4428: 4416: 4404: 4392: 4390:, p. 189. 4380: 4368: 4356: 4354:, p. 177. 4344: 4332: 4330:, p. 181. 4328:Li et al. 2018 4320: 4305: 4293: 4274: 4262: 4250: 4238: 4236:, p. 845. 4223: 4211: 4209:, p. 661. 4199: 4187: 4185:, p. 335. 4175: 4163: 4151: 4139: 4127: 4125:, p. 320. 4115: 4093: 4091:, p. 271. 4081: 4071: 4069:, p. 263. 4059: 4057:, p. 831. 4047: 4045:, p. 413. 4035: 4023: 4008: 3996: 3994:, p. 229. 3984: 3972: 3970:, p. 227. 3957: 3955:, p. 228. 3945: 3930: 3918: 3906: 3904:, p. 170. 3894: 3882: 3870: 3868:, p. 131. 3855: 3853:, p. 129. 3843: 3841:, p. 128. 3828: 3826:, p. 126. 3816: 3804: 3792: 3780: 3778:, p. 124. 3768: 3756: 3744: 3732: 3720: 3718:, p. 295. 3708: 3696: 3694:, p. 497. 3684: 3672: 3660: 3648: 3646:, p. 516. 3636: 3634:, p. 503. 3624: 3622:, p. 130. 3609: 3597: 3593:Lackowski 2019 3585: 3583:, p. 125. 3569: 3567: 3564: 3561: 3560: 3543: 3530: 3517: 3504: 3491: 3478: 3465: 3452: 3439: 3437:, p. 36. 3426: 3424:, p. 36. 3413: 3400: 3398:, p. 37. 3387: 3385:, p. 15. 3374: 3358: 3342: 3329: 3316: 3303: 3290: 3277: 3264: 3251: 3249:, p. 27. 3238: 3225: 3223:, p. 31. 3200: 3187: 3174: 3157: 3144: 3131: 3114: 3101: 3088: 3075: 3061: 3059:, p. 40. 3037: 3024: 3011: 2998: 2985: 2972: 2955: 2942: 2928: 2915: 2898: 2885: 2872: 2859: 2846: 2825: 2812: 2799: 2785: 2765: 2745: 2725: 2708: 2692: 2676: 2662: 2649: 2636: 2623: 2610: 2597: 2584: 2571: 2552: 2538: 2524: 2498: 2486:M. × giganteus 2482:M. × giganteus 2473: 2460: 2458:, p. 19. 2447: 2434: 2432:, p. 99. 2421: 2372: 2359: 2346: 2333: 2320: 2307: 2294: 2281: 2264: 2251: 2234: 2221: 2208: 2195: 2193:, p. 79. 2182: 2161: 2123: 2086: 2048: 2046:, p. 180. 2034: 2021: 2004: 1991: 1989:, p. 73. 1978: 1976:, p. 14. 1965: 1952: 1939: 1937:, p. 73. 1926: 1913: 1900: 1898:, p. 15. 1887: 1874: 1861: 1859:, p. 20. 1848: 1846:, p. 71. 1831: 1813: 1811:, p. 22. 1800: 1798:, p. 71. 1752: 1716: 1715: 1713: 1710: 1708: 1705: 1699: 1696: 1669:biodiversity, 1648: 1647:Sustainability 1645: 1621: 1618: 1578: 1575: 1565: 1562: 1556:habitat and a 1525:M. × giganteus 1521:Pseudomonadota 1491: 1488: 1474: 1466: 1461: 1458: 1422: 1413: 1408: 1404: 1392: 1388: 1375: 1359: 1331: 1327: 1319: 1315: 1303: 1295: 1279: 1276: 1274: 1271: 1257: 1254: 1188: 1185: 1176:hemi-cellulose 1158: 1155: 1149: 1146: 1140: 1137: 1109:energy storage 1068: 1065: 1043: 1040: 1038: 1035: 1025: 1022: 1009: 978: 974: 971:photosynthesis 958: 955: 953: 950: 938:combined cycle 870: 867: 659: 656: 631: 628: 607: 604: 602: 599: 574: 571: 487: 486: 485: 484: 478: 466: 451: 439: 424: 408: 393: 381: 369: 354: 353: 347: 346: 343: 328: 327: 321: 320: 309: 307: 303: 302: 295: 293: 289: 288: 283: 281: 277: 276: 271: 269: 265: 264: 259: 257: 253: 252: 247: 245: 241: 240: 235: 233: 229: 228: 223: 221: 217: 216: 211: 209: 205: 204: 198: 197: 189: 188: 172: 171: 154: 153: 123: 121: 114: 107: 106: 72: 70: 63: 58: 32: 31: 29: 22: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7857: 7846: 7845:Hybrid plants 7843: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7833: 7832: 7830: 7813: 7808: 7804: 7800: 7795: 7791: 7787: 7782: 7778: 7774: 7769: 7765: 7761: 7756: 7752: 7748: 7743: 7739: 7735: 7730: 7726: 7722: 7717: 7713: 7709: 7704: 7700: 7696: 7691: 7687: 7683: 7678: 7674: 7670: 7664: 7659: 7653: 7649: 7648: 7646: 7644: 7636: 7632: 7627: 7615: 7607: 7606: 7603: 7597: 7594: 7592: 7589: 7587: 7586:Food vs. fuel 7584: 7582: 7579: 7577: 7574: 7572: 7569: 7567: 7564: 7562: 7559: 7557: 7554: 7553: 7551: 7547: 7541: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7529: 7526: 7524: 7521: 7520: 7519: 7516: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7506: 7504: 7501: 7499: 7496: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7486: 7485: 7483: 7479: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7457: 7453: 7451: 7450: 7446: 7442: 7440: 7439: 7435: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7422: 7418: 7416: 7413: 7411: 7410: 7406: 7405: 7403: 7401: 7395: 7389: 7386: 7384: 7381: 7379: 7376: 7374: 7371: 7369: 7366: 7364: 7361: 7359: 7358: 7354: 7352: 7349: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7339: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7301: 7297: 7296: 7294: 7292: 7286: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7272: 7270: 7267: 7263: 7260: 7259: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7246: 7243: 7241: 7238: 7237: 7236: 7233: 7229: 7228:vegetable oil 7226: 7225: 7224: 7221: 7219: 7216: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7196: 7194: 7191: 7189: 7186: 7184: 7181: 7179: 7176: 7174: 7171: 7170: 7168: 7166: 7162: 7158: 7151: 7146: 7144: 7139: 7137: 7132: 7131: 7128: 7121: 7118: 7115: 7112: 7109: 7106: 7103: 7100: 7097: 7094: 7091: 7088: 7085: 7082: 7081: 7070: 7063: 7059: 7055: 7050:|author= 7043: 7032: 7027: 7023: 7019: 7015: 7009: 7006:. Routledge. 7005: 7004: 6998: 6994: 6990: 6986: 6982: 6977: 6972: 6968: 6964: 6963:GCB Bioenergy 6957: 6952: 6948: 6944: 6940: 6936: 6931: 6926: 6922: 6918: 6917:GCB Bioenergy 6911: 6906: 6902: 6898: 6894: 6890: 6886: 6882: 6878: 6874: 6870: 6866: 6861: 6857: 6853: 6849: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6831: 6827: 6820: 6815: 6811: 6807: 6803: 6799: 6794: 6789: 6785: 6781: 6780:GCB Bioenergy 6774: 6769: 6765: 6761: 6756: 6751: 6747: 6743: 6739: 6735: 6731: 6727: 6720: 6715: 6711: 6707: 6703: 6699: 6695: 6691: 6687: 6682: 6678: 6673: 6669: 6664: 6660: 6655: 6648: 6643: 6636: 6631: 6624: 6619: 6612: 6607: 6603: 6598: 6594: 6590: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6574: 6570: 6565: 6558: 6553: 6549: 6545: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6521: 6517: 6516:GCB Bioenergy 6513: 6508: 6504: 6500: 6495: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6476: 6472: 6471:GCB Bioenergy 6468: 6463: 6452: 6447: 6443: 6439: 6435: 6431: 6426: 6422: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6405: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6382: 6377: 6366: 6361: 6350: 6345: 6341: 6337: 6333: 6327: 6322: 6321: 6314: 6310: 6306: 6302: 6298: 6293: 6288: 6283: 6279: 6275: 6271: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6248: 6243: 6242: 6235: 6231: 6227: 6223: 6219: 6214: 6203: 6198: 6187: 6182: 6178: 6176:9780262195652 6172: 6168: 6167: 6161: 6157: 6153: 6149: 6145: 6139: 6134: 6129: 6125: 6121: 6120:GCB Bioenergy 6117: 6112: 6107: 6102: 6098: 6094: 6093:GCB Bioenergy 6090: 6085: 6081: 6077: 6072: 6067: 6063: 6059: 6058:GCB Bioenergy 6055: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6035: 6030: 6026: 6022: 6021:GCB Bioenergy 6018: 6013: 6008: 6003: 5999: 5995: 5994:GCB Bioenergy 5991: 5986: 5982: 5978: 5973: 5968: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5951: 5946: 5941: 5937: 5933: 5932:GCB Bioenergy 5929: 5924: 5919: 5914: 5910: 5906: 5905:GCB Bioenergy 5902: 5897: 5893: 5889: 5885: 5881: 5877: 5873: 5872:GCB Bioenergy 5867: 5862: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5848:GCB Bioenergy 5845: 5840: 5836: 5834:9780128096970 5830: 5826: 5825: 5819: 5815: 5810: 5806: 5802: 5795: 5794: 5788: 5773: 5769: 5763: 5756: 5755: 5749: 5745: 5744: 5738: 5734: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5622: 5617: 5613: 5609: 5605: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5582: 5578: 5574: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5521: 5516: 5511: 5507: 5503: 5499: 5494: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5475: 5471: 5467: 5463: 5458: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5442: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5413: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5379: 5364: 5357: 5352: 5348: 5344: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5320:VGB PowerTech 5314: 5309: 5305: 5299: 5295: 5294: 5288: 5283: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5261: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5245: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5229:(2): 97–105. 5228: 5224: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5195: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5167: 5162: 5157: 5153: 5149: 5148:GCB Bioenergy 5145: 5143: 5136: 5131: 5126: 5121: 5116: 5112: 5108: 5107:GCB Bioenergy 5104: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5025:GCB Bioenergy 5022: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5002: 4997: 4993: 4989: 4988:GCB Bioenergy 4985: 4979: 4974: 4969: 4964: 4959: 4956:(1): 92–104. 4955: 4951: 4950:GCB Bioenergy 4947: 4942: 4937: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4894: 4890: 4889: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4869: 4865: 4861: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4822: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4800:GCB Bioenergy 4797: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4657: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4633:GCB Bioenergy 4630: 4624: 4619: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4597: 4596: 4584: 4579: 4572: 4567: 4560: 4555: 4548: 4543: 4536: 4531: 4524: 4519: 4512: 4507: 4500: 4495: 4488: 4483: 4476: 4471: 4469: 4461: 4456: 4449: 4444: 4437: 4432: 4426:, p. 45. 4425: 4420: 4413: 4408: 4402:, p. 38. 4401: 4396: 4389: 4384: 4378:, p. 17. 4377: 4372: 4366:, p. 11. 4365: 4360: 4353: 4348: 4341: 4336: 4329: 4324: 4318:, p. 73. 4317: 4312: 4310: 4303:, p. 13. 4302: 4297: 4290: 4285: 4283: 4281: 4279: 4272:, p. 13. 4271: 4266: 4260:, p. 72. 4259: 4254: 4247: 4242: 4235: 4230: 4228: 4221:, p. 27. 4220: 4215: 4208: 4203: 4197:, p. 31. 4196: 4191: 4184: 4179: 4172: 4167: 4160: 4155: 4148: 4143: 4136: 4131: 4124: 4119: 4111: 4110:IEA Bioenergy 4104: 4097: 4090: 4085: 4075: 4068: 4063: 4056: 4051: 4044: 4039: 4033:, p. 86. 4032: 4027: 4021:, p. 85. 4020: 4015: 4013: 4005: 4000: 3993: 3988: 3982:, p. 90. 3981: 3976: 3969: 3964: 3962: 3954: 3949: 3943:, p. 89. 3942: 3937: 3935: 3928:, p. 91. 3927: 3922: 3915: 3910: 3903: 3898: 3891: 3886: 3879: 3874: 3867: 3862: 3860: 3852: 3847: 3840: 3835: 3833: 3825: 3820: 3813: 3808: 3801: 3796: 3789: 3784: 3777: 3772: 3765: 3760: 3753: 3752:EU MAGIC 2021 3748: 3741: 3736: 3729: 3724: 3717: 3712: 3705: 3700: 3693: 3688: 3681: 3676: 3669: 3664: 3657: 3652: 3645: 3640: 3633: 3628: 3621: 3616: 3614: 3606: 3601: 3594: 3589: 3582: 3577: 3575: 3570: 3557: 3553: 3547: 3540: 3534: 3527: 3521: 3514: 3508: 3501: 3495: 3488: 3482: 3475: 3469: 3462: 3456: 3449: 3443: 3436: 3430: 3423: 3417: 3410: 3404: 3397: 3391: 3384: 3378: 3371: 3365: 3363: 3355: 3349: 3347: 3339: 3333: 3326: 3320: 3313: 3307: 3300: 3294: 3287: 3281: 3274: 3268: 3261: 3255: 3248: 3242: 3236:, p. 2. 3235: 3229: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3204: 3197: 3191: 3184: 3178: 3171: 3167: 3161: 3154: 3148: 3141: 3135: 3128: 3124: 3118: 3111: 3105: 3098: 3092: 3085: 3079: 3072: 3065: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3041: 3034: 3028: 3021: 3015: 3008: 3002: 2995: 2989: 2982: 2976: 2969: 2965: 2959: 2952: 2946: 2939: 2932: 2925: 2919: 2912: 2908: 2902: 2895: 2889: 2883:, p. 2. 2882: 2876: 2869: 2863: 2856: 2850: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2829: 2822: 2816: 2809: 2803: 2796: 2789: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2769: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2749: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2729: 2722: 2718: 2712: 2705: 2699: 2697: 2689: 2683: 2681: 2673: 2666: 2659: 2653: 2646: 2640: 2633: 2627: 2620: 2614: 2607: 2601: 2594: 2588: 2581: 2575: 2567: 2563: 2556: 2549: 2542: 2535: 2528: 2521: 2517: 2512: 2511:precipitation 2508: 2502: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2477: 2470: 2464: 2457: 2451: 2444: 2438: 2431: 2425: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2376: 2369: 2363: 2356: 2350: 2343: 2337: 2330: 2329:Viaspace 2020 2324: 2317: 2311: 2304: 2298: 2291: 2285: 2278: 2274: 2268: 2261: 2255: 2248: 2244: 2238: 2231: 2225: 2219:, p. 4. 2218: 2212: 2205: 2199: 2192: 2186: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2165: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2127: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2090: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2062: 2058: 2052: 2045: 2038: 2031: 2025: 2018: 2014: 2008: 2001: 1995: 1988: 1982: 1975: 1969: 1962: 1956: 1949: 1943: 1936: 1930: 1923: 1917: 1910: 1904: 1897: 1891: 1884: 1878: 1871: 1865: 1858: 1852: 1845: 1841: 1835: 1828: 1823: 1817: 1810: 1804: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1759: 1757: 1740: 1736: 1731: 1727: 1721: 1717: 1704: 1695: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1672: 1667: 1663: 1653: 1644: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1617: 1615: 1611: 1610:sewage sludge 1606: 1605:nitrification 1601: 1597: 1593: 1592:microorganism 1588: 1584: 1574: 1571: 1564:Water quality 1561: 1559: 1553: 1550: 1549:heterogeneity 1545: 1540: 1538: 1532: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1517: 1509: 1504: 1496: 1487: 1484: 1480: 1470: 1457: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1434: 1432: 1428: 1417: 1400: 1397: 1384: 1382: 1368: 1355: 1347: 1343: 1341: 1336: 1323: 1313: 1309: 1299: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1270: 1266: 1264: 1253: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1237: 1233: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1218:heat exchange 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1198: 1194: 1184: 1180: 1177: 1172: 1165:Coal grinders 1163: 1154: 1145: 1136: 1133: 1128: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1073: 1064: 1062: 1058: 1048: 1034: 1030: 1021: 1019: 1018:soil aeration 1015: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 986: 984: 972: 963: 949: 947: 943: 939: 935: 930: 928: 924: 918: 914: 910: 906: 904: 898: 894: 887: 886:equivalent to 884:produces oil 883: 879: 874: 866: 863: 859: 854: 850: 846: 844: 840: 836: 832: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 809:marginal land 801: 793: 789: 787: 782: 778: 773: 769: 766: 761: 757: 754: 749: 745: 741: 737: 731: 729: 725: 721: 720:oil seed rape 717: 713: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 681: 676: 669: 664: 655: 653: 649: 645: 641: 637: 627: 624: 620: 616: 612: 598: 595: 589: 587: 583: 579: 570: 568: 563: 559: 555: 551: 547: 543: 541: 540: 535: 534: 529: 528: 523: 519: 518: 513: 512: 507: 503: 499: 498: 494: 482: 479: 476:(Honda) Adati 474: 470: 467: 462: 458: 457:oligostachyus 455: 452: 447: 443: 440: 436: 431: 428: 425: 420: 416: 412: 409: 407: 401: 397: 394: 391:(Hack.) 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