Monocotyledon - Knowledge

138: 145: 2038:(From this division of the seeds derives a general distinction amongst plants, that in my judgement is first and by far the best, into those seed plants which are bifoliate, or bilobed, and those that are analogous to the adult), that is between monocots and dicots. He illustrated this by quoting from Malpighi and including reproductions of Malpighi's drawings of cotyledons (see figure). Initially Ray did not develop a classification of flowering plants (florifera) based on a division by the number of cotyledons, but developed his ideas over successive publications, coining the terms 156: 9502:; Olmstead, Richard G.; Morgan, David; Les, Donald H.; Mishler, Brent D.; Duvall, Melvin R.; Price, Robert A.; Hills, Harold G.; Qiu, Yin-Long; Kron, Kathleen A.; Rettig, Jeffrey H.; Conti, Elena; Palmer, Jeffrey D.; Manhart, James R.; Sytsma, Kenneth J.; Michaels, Helen J.; Kress, W. John; Karol, Kenneth G.; Clark, W. Dennis; Hedren, Mikael; Gaut, Brandon S.; Jansen, Robert K.; Kim, Ki-Joong; Wimpee, Charles F.; Smith, James F.; Furnier, Glenn R.; Strauss, Steven H.; Xiang, Qui-Yun; Plunkett, Gregory M.; 127: 1538: 250: 163: 2299:, in contrast to the other historical divisions of the flowering plants, which had to be substantially reorganized. No longer could the angiosperms be simply divided into monocotyledons and dicotyledons; it was apparent that the monocotyledons were but one of a relatively large number of defined groups within the angiosperms. Correlation with morphological criteria showed that the defining feature was not cotyledon number but the separation of angiosperms into two major 1865: 716: 11713: 10957: 1739: 11682: 1304: 120: 174: 10969: 737: 10341:; Smith, S. A.; Cellinese, N.; Wurdack, K. J.; Tank, D. C.; Brockington, S. F.; Refulio-Rodriguez, N. F.; Walker, J. B.; Moore, M. J.; Carlsward, B. S.; Bell, C. D.; Latvis, M.; Crawley, S.; Black, C.; Diouf, D.; Xi, Z.; Rushworth, C. A.; Gitzendanner, M. A.; Sytsma, K. J.; Qiu, Y.-L.; Hilu, K. W.; Davis, C. C.; Sanderson, M. J.; Beaman, R. S.; Olmstead, R. G.; Judd, W. S.; Donoghue, M. J.; 3427:. Keep in mind that the "most primitive" monocot is not necessarily "the sister of everyone else". This is because the ancestral or primitive characters are inferred by means of the reconstruction of character states, with the help of the phylogenetic tree. So primitive characters of monocots may be present in some derived groups. On the other hand, the basal taxa may exhibit many 3434:. So although Acoraceae is the sister group to the remaining monocotyledons, the result does not imply that Acoraceae is "the most primitive monocot" in terms of its character states. In fact, Acoraceae is highly derived in many morphological characters, and that is precisely why Acoraceae and Alismatales occupied relatively derived positions in the trees produced by Chase 9894:; Zuluaga, Alejandro; Spalink, Daniel; Soto Gomez, Marybel; Lam, Vivienne K. Y.; Saarela, Jeffrey M.; Sass, Chodon; Iles, William J. D.; de Sousa, Danilo José Lima; Leebens-Mack, James; Chris Pires, J.; Zomlefer, Wendy B.; Gandolfo, Maria A.; Davis, Jerrold I.; Stevenson, Dennis W.; dePamphilis, Claude; Specht, Chelsea D.; Graham, Sean W.; Barrett, Craig F.; 3458:, or their origin is related to the adoption of some form of aquatic habit, it would not help much to the understanding of how it evolved to develop their distinctive anatomical features: the monocots seem so different from the rest of angiosperms and it's difficult to relate their morphology, anatomy and development and those of broad-leaved angiosperms. 1288: 3504:. Reticulate venation seems to have appeared at least 26 times in monocots, and fleshy fruits have appeared 21 times (sometimes lost later); the two characteristics, though different, showed strong signs of a tendency to be good or bad in tandem, a phenomenon described as "concerted convergence" ("coordinated convergence"). 1899:. He observed that the majority had broad leaves with net-like venation, but a smaller group were grass-like plants with long straight parallel veins. In doing so he distinguished between the dicotyledons, and the latter (grass-like) monocotyledon group, although he had no formal names for the two groups. 3441:

Some authors support the idea of an aquatic phase as the origin of monocots. The phylogenetic position of Alismatales (many water), which occupy a relationship with the rest except the Acoraceae, do not rule out the idea, because it could be 'the most primitive monocots' but not 'the most basal'. The

3374:

period. Early molecular clock studies using strict clock models had estimated the monocot crown age to 200 ± 20 million years ago or 160 ± 16 million years, while studies using relaxed clocks have obtained 135-131 million years or 133.8 to 124 million years. Bremer's estimate of 134 million years has

1103:

is of the striate type, mainly arcuate-striate or longitudinally striate (parallel), less often palmate-striate or pinnate-striate with the leaf veins emerging at the leaf base and then running together at the apices. There is usually only one leaf per node because the leaf base encompasses more than

1098:

consists of a proximal leaf base or hypophyll and a distal hyperphyll. In monocots the hypophyll tends to be the dominant part in contrast to other angiosperms. From these, considerable diversity arises. Mature monocot leaves are generally narrow and linear, forming a sheathing around the stem at its

2311:

and monosulcate-derived) and triaperturate (tricolpate and tricolpate-derived), with the monocots situated within the uniaperturate groups. The formal taxonomic ranking of Monoctyledons thus became replaced with monocots as an informal clade. This is the name that has been most commonly used since

782:

Thus monocots are distinguishable from other angiosperms both in terms of their uniformity and diversity. On the one hand, the organization of the shoots, leaf structure, and floral configuration are more uniform than in the remaining angiosperms, yet within these constraints a wealth of diversity

761:

or dicots which typically have two cotyledons; however, modern research has shown that the dicots are not a natural group, and the term can only be used to indicate all angiosperms that are not monocots and is used in that respect here. From a diagnostic point of view the number of cotyledons is

5977:

The History of the Royal Society of London for Improving of Natural Knowledge from Its First Rise, in which the Most Considerable of Those Papers Communicated to the Society, which Have Hitherto Not Been Published, are Inserted as a Supplement to the Philosophical Transactions, Volume

3478:. Recent work suggests that while these taxa are sparse in the phylogenetic tree of monocots, such as fleshy fruited taxa (excluding taxa with aril seeds dispersed by ants), the two features would be adapted to conditions that evolved together regardless. Among the taxa involved were 774:

to terrestrial habitats. Nevertheless, monocots are sufficiently distinctive that there has rarely been disagreement as to membership of this group, despite considerable diversity in terms of external morphology. However, morphological features that reliably characterise major

9598:

Davis, Jerrold I.; Stevenson, Dennis W.; Petersen, Gitte; Seberg, Ole; Campbell, Lisa M.; Freudenstein, John V.; Goldman, Douglas H.; Hardy, Christopher R.; Michelangeli, Fabian A.; Simmons, Mark P.; Specht, Chelsea D.; Vergara-Silva, Francisco; Gandolfo, María (1 July 2004).

6078:

An introduction to the natural system of botany: or, A systematic view of the organisation, natural affinities, and geographical distribution, of the whole vegetable kingdom: together with the uses of the most important species in medicine, the arts, and rural or domestic

1262:

fulfill the role of optical attraction. In some phaneranthous plants such structures may reinforce floral structures. The production of fragrances for olfactory signalling are common in monocots. The perigone also functions as a landing platform for pollinating insects.

3322:

tree could imply that the monocots are among the oldest lineages of angiosperms, which would support the theory that they are just as old as the eudicots. The pollen of the eudicots dates back 125 million years, so the lineage of monocots should be that old too.

1594:(water lilies) have reticulate veins, a single cotyledon, adventitious roots, and a monocot-like vascular bundle. These examples reflect their shared ancestry. Nevertheless, this list of traits is generally valid, especially when contrasting monocots with 9844:; Ames, Mercedes; McNeal, Joel R.; McKain, Michael R.; Steele, P. Roxanne; dePamphilis, Claude W.; Graham, Sean W.; Pires, J. Chris; Stevenson, Dennis W.; Zomlefer, Wendy B.; Briggs, Barbara G.; Duvall, Melvin R.; Moore, Michael J.; Heaney, J. Michael; 2736:

system does not assign the monocots to a taxonomic rank, instead recognizing a monocots clade. However, there has remained some uncertainty regarding the exact relationships between the major lineages, with a number of competing models (including APG).

2625:

While the monocotyledons have remained extremely stable in their outer borders as a well-defined and coherent monophylectic group, the deeper internal relationships have undergone considerable flux, with many competing classification systems over time.

6198:

Methodus plantarum emendata et aucta: In quãa notae maxime characteristicae exhibentur, quibus stirpium genera tum summa, tum infima cognoscuntur & áa se mutuo dignoscuntur, non necessariis omissis. Accedit methodus graminum, juncorum et cyperorum

3555:, where the mesocotyl elongates and pushes the coleoptile (which encloses and protects the shoot tip) toward the soil surface. Since elongation occurs above the cotyledon, it is left in place in the soil where it was planted. Many dicots have 1937:

The greatest number of plants that come of seed spring at first out of the earth with two leaves which being for the most part of a different figure from the succeeding leaves are by our gardeners not improperly called the seed leaves...

1556:. Similarly, at least one of these traits, parallel leaf veins, is far from universal among the monocots. Broad leaves and reticulate leaf veins, features typical of dicots, are found in a wide variety of monocot families: for example, 10199:

Qiu, Yin-Long; Li, Libo; Wang, Bin; Xue, Jia-Yu; Hendry, Tory A.; Li, Rui-Qi; Brown, Joseph W.; Liu, Yang; Hudson, Geordan T.; Chen, Zhi-Duan (November 2010). "Angiosperm phylogeny inferred from sequences of four mitochondrial genes".

1943:

Of seeds that spring out of the earth with leaves like the succeeding and no seed leaves I have observed two sorts. 1. Such as are congenerous to the first kind precedent that is whose pulp is divided into two lobes and a radicle...

9945:

Goremykin, Vadim V.; Hansman, Sabine; Martin, William F. (March 1997). "Evolutionary analysis of 58 proteins encoded in six completely sequenced chloroplast genomes: revised molecular estimates of two seed plant divergence times".

9506:; Swensen, Susan M.; Williams, Stephen E.; Gadek, Paul A.; Quinn, Christopher J.; Eguiarte, Luis E.; Golenberg, Edward; Learn, Gerald H.; Graham, Sean W.; Barrett, Spencer C. H.; Dayanandan, Selvadurai; Albert, Victor A. (1993). 1547:

A number of these differences are not unique to the monocots, and, while still useful, no one single feature will infallibly identify a plant as a monocot. For example, trimerous flowers and monosulcate pollen are also found in

8271:. Evolution and Classification of Higher Categories Symposium, Hamburg, September 8–12, 1976. Plant Systematics and Evolution / Entwicklungsgeschichte und Systematik der Pflanzen. Vol. Suppl. 1. Springer. pp. 77–95. 6169:

Methodus plantarum nova: brevitatis & perspicuitatis causa synoptice in tabulis exhibita, cum notis generum tum summorum tum subalternorum characteristicis, observationibus nonnullis de seminibus plantarum & indice

7435:

Diversity, phylogeny, and evolution in the Monocotyledons: proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on the Comparative Biology of the Monocotyledons and the Fifth International Symposium on Grass Systematics and

1965:(1675–1679), Ray has the priority. At the time, Ray did not fully realise the importance of his discovery but progressively developed this over successive publications. And since these were in Latin, "seed leaves" became 7597:; Graham, Sean W.; Petersen, Gitte; Pires, J. Chris; Seberg, Ole; Stevenson, Dennis W.; Leebens-Mack, Jim (2013), "Contrasting patterns of support among plastid genes and genomes for major clades of the monocotyledons", 1850:

account for half of the species diversity, accounting for 34% and 17% of all monocots respectively, and are among the largest families of angiosperms. They are also among the dominant members of many plant communities.

1316:

The traditionally listed differences between monocots and dicots are as follows. This is a broad sketch only, not invariably applicable, as there are a number of exceptions. The differences indicated are more true for

3247:

classification systems monocots were generally positioned between plants other than angiosperms and dicots, implying that monocots were more primitive. With the introduction of phyletic thinking in taxonomy (from the

1940:

In the first kind the seed leaves are nothing but the two lobes of the seed having their plain sides clapt together like the two halves of a walnut and therefore are of the just figure of the seed slit in sunder flat

762:

neither a particularly useful characteristic (as they are only present for a very short period in a plant's life), nor is it completely reliable. The single cotyledon is only one of a number of modifications of the

3279:), but this estimate may not be entirely true. At least some putative monocot fossils have been found in strata as old as the eudicots. The oldest fossils that are unequivocally monocots are pollen from the Late 2035:

Ex hac seminum divisione sumum potest generalis plantarum distinctio, eaque meo judicio omnium prima et longe optima, in eas sci. quae plantula seminali sunt bifolia aut διλόβω, et quae plantula sem. adulta

2275:

necessitated a departure from the older but widely used classifications such as Cronquist and Thorne, based largely on morphology rather than genetic data. These developments complicated discussions on

1104:

half the circumference. The evolution of this monocot characteristic has been attributed to developmental differences in early zonal differentiation rather than meristem activity (leaf base theory).

4783: 1116:

limits its ability to grow sufficiently to maintain the plant. This necessitates early development of roots derived from the shoot (adventitious roots). In addition to roots, monocots develop

10047:

Leebens-Mack, Jim; Raubeson, Linda A.; Cui, Liying; Kuehl, Jennifer V.; Fourcade, Mathew H.; Chumley, Timothy W.; Boore, Jeffrey L.; Jansen, Robert K.; dePamphilis, Claude W. (October 2005).

3423:

The aquatic monocots of Alismatales have commonly been regarded as "primitive". They have also been considered to have the most primitive foliage, which were cross-linked as Dioscoreales and

6590:

The hierarchy of life: molecules and morphology in phylogenetic analysis: proceedings from Nobel symposium 70 held at Alfred Nobel's Björkborn, Karlskoga, Sweden, August 29-September 2, 1988

4919: 10873: 1783:

inwards and phloem outwards, it is termed "anomalous secondary growth". Examples of large monocots which either exhibit secondary growth, or can reach large sizes without it, are palms (

9784:; Pires, J.Chris; Graham, Sean W.; McPherson, Marc A.; Prince, Linda M.; Patterson, Thomas B.; Rai, Hardeep S.; Roalson, Eric H.; Evans, Timothy M.; Hahn, William J; Millam, Kendra C.; 1977:. Malpighi and Ray were familiar with each other's work, and Malpighi in describing the same structures had introduced the term cotyledon, which Ray adopted in his subsequent writing. 9600: 634:. They constitute one of the major groups into which the flowering plants have traditionally been divided; the rest of the flowering plants have two cotyledons and were classified as 4748: 1144:, a short axial body bearing leaves whose bases store food. Additional outer non-storage leaves may form a protective function (Tillich, Figure 12). Other storage organs may be 3391:

and Alismatales, is about 131 million years to present, and crown group age is about 126 million years to the present. The subsequent branching in this part of the tree (i.e.

10438:

Trias-Blasi, Anna; Baker, William J.; Haigh, Anna L.; Simpson, David A.; Weber, Odile; Wilkin, Paul (25 June 2015). "A genus-level phylogenetic linear sequence of monocots".

3811:

resulted in Liliatae for monocotyledons. The proposal was formally described in 1966 by Cronquist, Takhtajan and Zimmermann, from which is derived the descriptor "liliates".

3629:. Of the monocots, the grasses are of enormous economic importance as a source of animal and human food, and form the largest component of agricultural species in terms of 7981:"On the Distribution of the Monocotyledonous Orders into Primary Groups, more especially in reference to the Australian Flora, with notes on some points of Terminology" 9109:

Tang, Cuong Q.; Orme, C. David L.; Bunnefeld, Lynsey; Jones, F. Andrew; Powell, Silvana; Chase, Mark W.; Barraclough, Timothy G.; Savolainen, Vincent (October 2016).

9697:; Clark, W. Dennis; Kress, W. John; Hills, Harold G.; Eguiarte, Luis E.; Smith, James F.; Gaut, Brandon S.; Zimmer, Elizabeth A.; Learn, Gerald H. (1 January 1993). 9900:"Monocot plastid phylogenomics, timeline, net rates of species diversification, the power of multi-gene analyses, and a functional model for the origin of monocots" 4802: 3559:, in which the hypocotyl elongates and becomes arched in the soil. As the hypocotyl continues to elongate, it pulls the cotyledons upward, above the soil surface. 9802: 7401:

Monocots: Systematics and evolution (Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Comparative Biology of the Monocotyledons, Sydney, Australia 1998)

2033:

system that superseded it in the late nineteenth century, based on an understanding of the acquisition of characteristics. He also made the crucial observation

10924: 9983:

Hertweck, Kate L.; Kinney, Michael S.; Stuart, Stephanie A.; Maurin, Olivier; Mathews, Sarah; Chase, Mark W.; Gandolfo, Maria A.; Pires, J. Chris (July 2015).

7311: 4824: 2011:

In this experiment, Malpighi also showed that the cotyledons were critical to the development of the plant, proof that Ray required for his theory. In his

1634:(5 whorled) with 3 sepals, 3 petals, 2 whorls of 3 stamens each, and 3 carpels. In contrast, monosulcate pollen is considered an ancestral trait, probably 8126: 4887: 1258:(inconspicuous) flowers and still be pollinated by animals. In these the plants rely either on chemical attraction or other structures such as coloured 11820: 2021:

in order to group together taxa that have the greatest number of shared characteristics. This approach, also referred to as polythetic would last till

1989:

Mense quoque Maii, alias seminales plantulas Fabarum, & Phaseolorum, ablatis pariter binis seminalibus foliis, seu cotyledonibus, incubandas posui

1015:

Tillich, Figure 1). The limited conductivity also contributes to limited branching of the stems. Despite these limitations a wide variety of adaptive

3358:, obtained ages of 127–141 million years for the crown group of monocots. All these estimates have large error ranges (usually 15-20%), and Wikström 2637:, Epigynae, Coronariae, Nudiflorae and Glumales, based on floral characteristics. He describes the attempts to subdivide the group since the days of 8820:; Gandolfo, Maria A.; Pires, J. Chris (July 2015), "Phylogenetics, divergence times and diversification from three genomic partitions in monocots", 3375:

been used as a secondary calibration point in other analyses. Some estimates place the emergence of the monocots as far back as 150 mya in the

2129:

Monocotyledons remained in a similar position as a major division of the flowering plants throughout the nineteenth century, with minor variations.

3303:. They have also found flower fossils of Triuridaceae (Pandanales) in Upper Cretaceous rocks in New Jersey, becoming the oldest known sighting of 8569: 7461:

Tropical Trees as Living Systems (Proceedings of the fourth Cabot Symposium held at Harvard Forest, Petersham Massachusetts on April 26-30, 1976)

5992:

Regni vegetabilis systema naturale, sive Ordines, genera et species plantarum secundum methodi naturalis normas digestarum et descriptarum 2 vols

2110:(1830) followed De Candolle in using the terms Monocotyledon and Endogenae interchangeably. They considered the monocotyledons to be a group of 6006:

Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, ou exposition des principes de la classification naturelle et de l'art de décrire et d'etudier les végétaux

5897: 4871: 7699: 4855: 10124: 7518:; Duvall, M. R.; Hills, H. G.; Conran, J. G.; Cox, A. V.; Eguiarte, L. E.; Hartwell, J.; Fay, M. F.; Caddick, L. R.; Cameron, K. M.; Hoot, S. 3256:(1915), which traced the origin of all flowering plants to a Ranalean type, and reversed the sequence making dicots the more primitive group. 7694:; Pires, J.C.; Graham, S.W.; McPherson, M.A.; Prince, L.M.; Patterson, T.B.; Rai, H.S.; Roalson, E.R.; Evans, T.M.; Hahn, W.J; Millam, K.C.; 7345:

Monocotyledons: systematics and evolution (Proceedings of the International Symposium on Monocotyledons: Systematics and Evolution, Kew 1993)

7272: 3904:

development in which the cotyledon remains invisible within the seed, underground. The visible part is the first true leaf produced from the

2684:, Zingiberiflorae, Commeliniflorae and Areciflorae. With respect to the specific issue regarding Liliales and Asparagales, Dahlgren followed 8779:; Drinnan, Andrew N. (January 1995). "Fagaceous flowers, fruits, and cupules from the Campanian (Late Cretaceous) of Central Georgia, USA". 3407:

group may be in the period around 125–120 million years BC (about 111 million years so far), and stem groups of all other orders, including

9639: 2172:

Taxonomists had considerable latitude in naming this group, as the Monocotyledons were a group above the rank of family. Article 16 of the

6718:

The families and genera of vascular plants. Vol. 4. Flowering Plants. Monocotyledons: Alismatanae and Commelinanae (except Gramineae)

11001: 3411:

would have diverged about or shortly after 115 million years. These and many clades within these orders may have originated in southern

2102:(1813) which was to predominate thinking through much of the 19th century used a similar general arrangement, with two subgroups of his 8651:

Gandolfo, M. A; Nixon, K. C.; Crepet, W. L.; Stevenson, D. W.; Friis, E. M. (6 August 1998). "Oldest known fossils of monocotyledons".

3853: 5871: 11049: 10735: 10691: 10652: 10610: 10580: 10026: 9989: 9115: 8822: 8754: 8399: 8373: 4950: 1152:, swollen axes. Tubers may form at the end of underground runners and persist. Corms are short lived vertical shoots with terminal 9507: 10538: 9862: 9707: 9519: 8015: 2015:

Ray also developed and justified the "natural" or pre-evolutionary approach to classification, based on characteristics selected

7628: 7433: 4966: 6286:

Flora Carniolica exhibens plantas Carnioliae indigenas et distributas in classes, genera, species, varietates, ordine Linnaeano

5633: 10578:(2003). "An Update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group Classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II". 9454: 9164: 8284: 7862: 7806: 7473: 7448: 7381: 7353: 7251: 7111: 7046: 6955: 6734: 6639: 6542: 6470: 6408: 6369: 5423: 5391: 3252:

1875–1878 onwards) the predominant theory of monocot origins was the ranalean (ranalian) theory, particularly in the work of

10818: 10245:"Chloroplast and nuclear gene sequences indicate late Pennsylvanian time for the last common ancestor of extant seed plants" 8688:

Gandolfo, M. A.; Nixon, K. C.; Crepet, W. L. (2002). "Triuridaceae fossil flowers from the Upper Cretaceous of New Jersey".

4767: 4717: 2094:(1789), he followed Ray, arranging his Monocotyledones into three classes based on stamen position and placing them between 6125:

Anatome plantarum: Cui subjungitur appendix, iteratas & auctas ejusdem authoris de ovo incubato observationes continens

766:

of the ancestral monocotyledons, whose adaptive advantages are poorly understood, but may have been related to adaption to

8956:

Sanderson, Michael J. (1997). "A nonparametric approach to estimating divergence times in the absence of rate constancy".

8752:

Henslow, George (May 1893). "A Theoretical Origin of Endogens from Exogens, through Self-Adaptation to an Aquatic Habit".

8442: 10049:"Identifying the basal angiosperm node in chloroplast genome phylogenies: Sampling one's way out of the Felsenstein zone" 8478: 7162: 4903: 3500:

that tend to live in shaded habitats for at least part of their lives, and this fact may also relate to their shapeless

2641:

as largely unsuccessful. Like most subsequent classification systems it failed to distinguish between two major orders,

1779:. However, some monocots do have secondary growth; because this does not arise from a single vascular cambium producing 9218: 1235: 4519: 1255: 10606:"An Update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III" 9273: 9111:"Global monocot diversification: geography explains variation in species richness better than environment or biology" 7954: 7900: 7774: 7677: 7614: 7501: 7413: 7305:

Proceedings of the Third International Conference on the Comparative Biology of the Monocotyledons, 31 Mar–4 Apr 2003

7227: 7192: 7150: 7083: 7011: 6980: 6927: 6903: 6882: 6847: 6805: 6784: 6763: 6695: 6667: 6619: 6598: 6570: 6518: 6494: 6440: 6350: 6334: 10932: 10648:"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV" 3387:

The age of the core group of so-called 'nuclear monocots' or 'core monocots', which correspond to all orders except

970:), and therefore this characteristic is a basic limitation in shoot construction. Although largely herbaceous, some 11815: 10399: 1607: 1590:(herb-paris) are examples of monocots with tetramerous flowers. Other plants exhibit a mixture of characteristics. 6687:

The families and genera of vascular plants. Vol.3. Flowering plants. Monocotyledons: Lilianae (except Orchidaceae)

10994: 8719:

Hallier, Hans (31 July 1905). "Provisional scheme of the natural (phylogenetic) system of the flowering plants".

6093:

The Vegetable Kingdom: or, The structure, classification, and uses of plants, illustrated upon the natural system

2149:, following de Candolle, Monocotyledoneae. In the twentieth century, some authors used alternative names such as 9788:; Molvray, Mia; Kores, Paul J.; O'Brien, Heath E.; Hall, Jocelyn C.; Kress, W. John; Sytsma, Kenneth J. (2005). 8461: 740:

Onion slice: the cross-sectional view shows the veins that run in parallel along the length of the bulb and stem

11810: 10471:"Resolution of deep angiosperm phylogeny using conserved nuclear genes and estimates of early divergence times" 8200:"Foliar architecture of vanilloid orchids: Insights into the evolution of reticulate leaf venation in monocots" 2725:) and the number of superorders expanded to ten with the addition of Bromelianae, Cyclanthanae and Pandananae. 2071: 1238:(showy) flowers. Such optical signalling is usually a function of the tepal whorls but may also be provided by 990:. This creates challenges in water transport that monocots deal with in various ways. Some, such as species of 8420:

Dahlgren, Rolf; Rasmussen, Finn N. (1983). "Monocotyledon Evolution: Characters and Phylogenetic Estimation".

6655:

The families of flowering plants, arranged according to a new system based on their probable phylogeny. 2 vols

11028: 10191: 9289: 6240: 5941:

Tabula affinitatum regni vegetabilis, quam delineavit, et nunc ulterius adumbratam tradit A.J.G.C. Batsch ...

996:, develop anomalous secondary growth, while palm trees utilise an anomalous primary growth form described as 137: 10786: 7343: 1646:

The distinctive features of the monocots have contributed to the relative taxonomic stability of the group.

11054: 11044: 10807: 10125:"Phylogeny, concerted convergence, and phylogenetic niche conservatism in the core Liliales: insights from 7559:

Higher-level systematics of the monocotyledons: An assessment of current knowledge and a new classification

5986: 10766: 3446:

of living in the water), roots in groups instead of a single root branching (related to the nature of the

3474:

were considered "primitive" within the monocots, because of the superficial resemblance to the leaves of

1846:

Of these, the grass family (Poaceae) is the most economically important, which together with the orchids

8233: 6182: 6056:

Genera Plantarum, secundum ordines naturales disposita juxta methodum in Horto Regio Parisiensi exaratam

11716: 10987: 10643: 10601: 10575: 10529: 10347: 9904: 9750: 9567: 8983: 8690: 7465: 7038: 6825: 6649: 6315: 4661: 3784: 2733: 2654: 2313: 2200: 2179: 2083: 1946:

2. Such which neither spring out of the ground with seed leaves nor have their pulp divided into lobes

1075:) produce the longest shoots in the plant kingdom, up to 185 m long. Other monocots, particularly 9367:

Zimmermann, Martin H.; Tomlinson, P. B. (June 1972). "The vascular system of monocotyledonous stems".

9252:

Tomlinson, P. B. (1970). "Monocotyledons - towards an understanding of their morphology and anatomy".

4960: 4929: 3606:

Monocots are among the most important plants economically and culturally, and account for most of the

1162:(Asparagales). Some monocots may also produce shoots that grow directly down into the soil, these are 1136:. Rhizomes frequently have an additional storage function and rhizome producing plants are considered 10973: 10908: 10792: 8047: 7646: 7219: 6462: 4976: 4793: 3866: 3803:

In 1964, Takhtajan proposed that classes including Monocotyledons, be formally named with the suffix

3768: 3267:, but the fossil record is meagre. The earliest fossils presumed to be monocot remains date from the 249: 7712: 2657:'s (APG) subsequent modern classification of monocot families. Dahlgren who used the alternate name 1166:

shoots (Tillich, Figure 11) that help overcome the limited trunk stability of large woody monocots.

997: 664:), which are economically the most important family of monocotyledons. Often mistaken for grasses, 656:

in this group (and in the flowering plants as a whole) by number of species are the orchids (family

11039: 10469:

Zeng, Liping; Zhang, Qiang; Sun, Renran; Kong, Hongzhi; Zhang, Ning; Ma, Hong (24 September 2014).

8848: 8844: 7075: 6681: 6196: 2685: 17: 7278: 6233: 6167: 6105: 6091: 6004: 5990: 4758: 2760:(most recent common ancestor of the sampled species of the clade of interest) divergence times in 2157:'s (1966) Liliatae. Later (1981) Cronquist changed Liliatae to Liliopsida, usages also adopted by 9790:"Repeated evolution of net venation and fleshy fruits among monocots in shaded habitats confirms 7440: 6819: 6659: 6245: 6076: 5939: 3871: 652:

The monocotyledons include about 70,000 species, about a quarter of all angiosperms. The largest

10731:"The Linear Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (LAPG) III: a linear sequence of the families in APG III" 9858:"Assembling the Tree of the Monocotyledons: Plastome Sequence Phylogeny and Evolution of Poales" 6054: 5961: 4459: 11733: 9985:"Phylogenetics, divergence times and diversification from three genomic partitions in monocots" 9609:

Sequence Variation, and a Comparison of Methods for Calculating Jackknife and Bootstrap Values"

6966: 3346:, estimated the age of the monocot crown group (i.e. the time at which the ancestor of today's 2288: 1125: 144: 8816:

Hertweck, Kate L.; Kinney, Michael S.; Stuart, Stephanie A.; Maurin, Olivier; Mathews, Sarah;

7824: 7667: 7491: 7172: 5881: 5643: 4992: 4913: 4837: 4727: 4700: 4389: 1887:

or angiosperms. They have been recognized as a natural group since the sixteenth century when

1618:

habit, leaves with parallel venation and sheathed base, an embryo with a single cotyledon, an

10475: 10185: 8302: 7944: 7764: 6101: 5433: 4897: 4881: 4865: 4815: 4777: 4481: 3887: 3583: 3454:

use, are consistent with a water source. However, while monocots were sisters of the aquatic

3447: 3335: 3275:

of palm trees were believed to be the oldest monocots, first appearing 90 million years ago (

2689: 2327: 2058:(Flowering plants, can be divided, as we have said, into Monocotyledons & Dicotyledons). 1226:

opening and closing (responsive to changes in temperature). About two thirds of monocots are

227: 8565:"Araceae from the early Cretaceous of Portugal: Evidence on the emergence of monocotyledons" 7890: 4374: 3512:

The name monocotyledons is derived from the traditional botanical name "Monocotyledones" or

10593: 10484: 10408: 10256: 9955: 9298: 9186: 9031: 8660: 8631: 8578: 8493: 8443:"Key innovations, convergence, and success: macroevolutionary lessons from plant phylogeny" 8225: 8082: 5957: 4181: 3552: 3546: 3428: 2238: 2134: 2087: 8969: 7302: 7301:

Columbus, J. T.; Friar, E. A.; Porter, J. M.; Prince, L. M.; Simpson, M. G., eds. (2006).

2353:

Cladogram I: Phylogenetic position of the monocots within the angiosperms in APG IV (2016)

1254:

which have become modified to attract pollinators). However, some monocot plants may have

1195: 1156:

and shrivel once flowering has occurred. However, intermediate forms may occur such as in

8: 9508:"Phylogenetics of Seed Plants: An Analysis of Nucleotide Sequences from the Plastid Gene 8622:(2006). "Cretaceous angiosperm flowers: innovation and evolution in plant reproduction". 7927: 7550: 7063: 6815: 6432: 6211: 3824: 3579: 3556: 3542: 3471: 2749: 2669:

characterised by a single cotyledon and the presence of triangular protein bodies in the

2634: 2335: 2022: 1751:) stems showing anomalous secondary growth in monocots, with characteristic fibrous roots 922: 649:

of 2009 recognises a clade called "monocots" but does not assign it to a taxonomic rank.

10488: 10412: 10260: 10082:

Loconte, Henry; Stevenson, Dennis W. (September 1991). "Cladistics of the Magnoliidae".

9959: 9302: 9190: 9035: 8664: 8635: 8582: 8497: 8086: 6123: 11771: 11700: 11034: 10961: 10563: 10555: 10505: 10470: 10457: 10227: 10165: 10152: 10107: 10095: 9971: 9879: 9824: 9789: 9732: 9724: 9681: 9631: 9546: 9483: 9425: 9386: 9350: 9325: 9240: 9202: 9097: 9089: 9055: 9047: 8904: 8873: 8804: 8796: 8767: 8734: 8676: 8517: 8509: 8465: 8412: 8386: 8356: 8324: 8156: 8143: 8032: 7997: 7068: 6740: 6455: 6050: 3622: 3618: 3591: 3442:

Atactostele stem, the long and linear leaves, the absence of secondary growth (see the

3343: 3173: 2741: 2662: 2323: 2190: 2099: 1922:

structure in his examination of seeds. He reported his findings in a paper read to the

1611: 1011:

to internode, resulting in a typical inverted conical shape of the basal primary axis (

1008: 795: 771: 520: 437: 338: 244: 10979: 9265: 8601: 8564: 8173:"Gondwanan origin of major monocot groups inferred from dispersal-vicariance analysis" 155: 11805: 11694: 11509: 10842: 10814: 10749: 10730: 10705: 10624: 10605: 10510: 10426: 10374: 10338: 10326: 10300: 10284: 10279: 10244: 10213: 10157: 10120: 10099: 10070: 10039: 10017: 9933: 9891: 9845: 9841: 9829: 9781: 9769: 9586: 9499: 9442: 9369: 9355: 9269: 9160: 9022: 9000: 8944: 8909: 8707: 8606: 8280: 8172: 8160: 8148: 8110: 8105: 8006: 7950: 7896: 7858: 7842: 7802: 7770: 7691: 7673: 7630:

Phylogenetic studies of seed plants and angiosperms based on morphological characters

7610: 7594: 7554: 7538: 7519: 7497: 7469: 7444: 7409: 7377: 7349: 7320: 7268: 7247: 7223: 7188: 7146: 7128: 7107: 7079: 7042: 7007: 6997: 6976: 6951: 6923: 6899: 6878: 6843: 6801: 6780: 6759: 6730: 6691: 6663: 6635: 6615: 6594: 6566: 6538: 6514: 6490: 6466: 6436: 6404: 6390: 6365: 6346: 6330: 6141: 6119: 6060: 6000: 3355: 2331: 2268: 2138: 2091: 2070:(1707–1778) did not utilise Ray's discovery, basing his own classification solely on 2056:

Herbae floriferae, dividi possunt, ut diximus, in Monocotyledones & Dicotyledones

1896: 1877: 1678: 1647: 1586: 1480: 1428: 784: 720: 10567: 10461: 10231: 10169: 10111: 9883: 9736: 9685: 9635: 9390: 9244: 9206: 9101: 9059: 8808: 8521: 8469: 6744: 3926:

to the rest of the monocots, the synapomorphies do not apply to monocots as a whole.

2707:, who published a revised version of the classification in 1989. In this scheme the 2703:. Following Dahlgren's untimely death in 1987, his work was continued by his widow, 2649:, now recognised as quite separate. A major advance in this respect was the work of 1759:

in which the vascular tissue is scattered rather than arranged in concentric rings.

11706: 11291: 11120: 11090: 10782: 10744: 10700: 10661: 10629: 10619: 10589: 10547: 10500: 10492: 10449: 10416: 10364: 10356: 10342: 10316: 10296: 10274: 10264: 10217: 10209: 10147: 10091: 10060: 10035: 9998: 9975: 9963: 9923: 9913: 9871: 9849: 9819: 9811: 9759: 9716: 9671: 9623: 9576: 9558: 9536: 9528: 9503: 9495: 9475: 9450: 9446: 9417: 9378: 9345: 9337: 9311: 9306: 9284: 9261: 9230: 9214: 9194: 9174: 9152: 9130: 9120: 9081: 9039: 8992: 8965: 8934: 8899: 8891: 8882: 8831: 8788: 8763: 8743: 8738: 8730: 8699: 8680: 8668: 8639: 8596: 8586: 8545: 8501: 8457: 8429: 8408: 8382: 8368: 8348: 8336: 8316: 8294: 8272: 8245: 8211: 8184: 8138: 8100: 8090: 8024: 7992: 7850: 7794: 7760: 7602: 7590: 7542: 7534: 7515: 7136: 7132: 6913: 6722: 6480: 6450: 6249: 6244:]. translated by Henry E. F. Garnsey, revised by Isaac Bayley Balfour. Oxford: 6229: 6207: 3875: 3840: 3467: 3192: 3168: 2745: 2740:

The APG system establishes eleven orders of monocots. These form three grades, the

2704: 2700: 2421: 2339: 2224: 2220: 2204: 2162: 2154: 1809: 1772: 1768: 1726: 1422: 1403: 1371: 1308: 1276: 1203: 967: 959: 835: 823: 767: 660:), with more than 20,000 species. About 12,000 species belong to the true grasses ( 653: 540: 474: 361: 39: 9857: 7177:Система и филогения цветкорых растений (Sistema i filogeniia tsvetkovykh rastenii) 4201: 11594: 11452: 11102: 11065: 11011: 10826: 10722: 10440: 9895: 9660:"Phylogenetic tree of vascular plants reveals the origins of aquatic angiosperms" 9466: 9144: 9072: 9043: 8721: 8643: 8307: 8010: 7849:. Systematics Association Special Volumes. Vol. 20020544. pp. 431–458. 7798: 7663: 7606: 7459: 7426: 7371: 7303:"Symposium issue: Monocots: comparative biology and evolution (excluding Poales). 7241: 7237: 7213: 7209: 7140: 7101: 7032: 7001: 6970: 6945: 6917: 6893: 6872: 6862: 6837: 6795: 6774: 6753: 6716: 6685: 6653: 6629: 6609: 6588: 6560: 6532: 6508: 6484: 6426: 6400: 6394: 6359: 6324: 6309: 6284: 6267: 6145: 6032: 6018: 5975: 4186: 3701: 3595: 3455: 3339: 3264: 3212: 2677: 2519: 2277: 2234: 2111: 1884: 1756: 1743: 1659: 1619: 1570: 1440: 1436: 642: 619: 287: 10683: 10533: 9746:"Reconstructing the ancestral angiosperm flower and its initial specializations" 9156: 8433: 8276: 8067: 5963:

Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita

4534: 2291:

research confirmed on the one hand that the monocots remained as a well defined

1910:

structure in the 17th century. Ray, who is often considered the first botanical

1706: 1207: 1163: 126: 11617: 11574: 11519: 11191: 11115: 10679: 10390: 10249:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

8264: 8259:

Clifford, H T (1977). "Quantitative Studies of Inter-relationships Amongst the

8250: 8043: 7976: 7854: 7752: 7028: 6868: 6712: 6677: 6020:

Syllabus der Vorlesungen über specielle und medicinisch-pharmaceutische Botanik

6014: 5953: 4206: 3808: 3729: 3404: 3392: 3350:

diverged from the rest of the group) as 134 million years. Similarly, Wikström

3253: 3249: 2630: 2210: 2150: 2142: 2130: 2026: 1828: 1651: 1627: 1199: 1187: 1153: 1067: 1058: 934: 646: 641:

Monocotyledons have almost always been recognized as a group, but with various

508: 448: 274: 213: 10421: 10394: 9698: 9235: 8978: 8939: 8922: 8872:

Moore, John P.; Lindsey, George G.; Farrant, Jill M.; Brandt, Wolf F. (2007).

8189: 7432:

Seberg, Ole; Petersen, Gitte; Barfod, Anders; Davis, Jerrold I., eds. (2010).

6726: 6343: 3331: 1287: 1219: 11799: 11496: 11457: 11389: 11307: 11015: 10386: 9627: 9438: 9013: 8529: 8394: 8229: 7701:

Phylogeny of the monocotyledons based on the highly informative plastid gene

7698:; Molvray, M.; Kores, P.; O'Brien, H.E.; Kress, W.J.; Hall, J.; Sytsma, K.J. 7324: 6528: 6504: 6290: 5935: 3962: 3879: 3828: 3764: 3741: 3705: 3665: 3223:(rushes), and the monocots also include familiar families such as the palms ( 2861: 2650: 2466: 2304: 2254: 2194: 2067: 1923: 1635: 1272: 1100: 1042: 627: 390: 321: 71: 10269: 10065: 10048: 8921:

Petit, G.; DeClerck, F. A. J.; Carrer, M.; Anfodillo, T. (31 January 2014).

8591: 6253: 1446:

Ring of primary bundles with cambium, differentiated into cortex and stele (

11756: 11564: 11419: 11399: 11349: 11281: 11249: 11244: 11197: 10726: 10675: 10514: 10430: 10378: 10330: 10321: 10304: 10240: 10161: 10103: 10074: 9937: 9853: 9833: 9815: 9773: 9694: 9590: 9581: 9562: 9359: 9341: 9321: 9135: 9004: 8996: 8948: 8913: 8874:"An Overview of the Biology of the Desiccation-tolerant Resurrection Plant 8817: 8711: 8703: 8610: 8216: 8199: 8152: 8114: 8095: 7838: 7756: 7574: 7546: 7399: 7339: 6272: 6087: 6072: 6064: 6028: 5971: 3958: 3923: 3756: 3681: 3673: 3641: 3607: 3475: 3443: 3431: 3424: 3408: 3396: 3367: 3319: 3260: 3052: 3037: 2891: 2638: 2377: 2271:

to be constructed for the flowering plants. The establishment of major new

2146: 2107: 2095: 2017: 1692: 1591: 1575: 1500: 1223: 1133: 1054: 1046: 1016: 979: 918: 902: 886: 878: 827: 749:

The monocots or monocotyledons have, as the name implies, a single (mono-)

424: 414: 375: 162: 10369: 10288: 9928: 8397:(February 1980). "A revised system of classification of the angiosperms". 6425:

Cronk, Quentin C.B.; Bateman, Richard M.; Hawkins, Julie A., eds. (2002).

4001: 3999: 3997: 3995: 3993: 2732:

of the monocots and helped elucidate relationships within this group. The

2090:, has used Ray's distinction as a major classification characteristic. In 1447: 1388:

Broad, seldom sheathed, petiole common often with stipules. Veins usually

11765: 11632: 11627: 11556: 11472: 11394: 11336: 11325: 11226: 11215: 11185: 11157: 11084: 10222: 10013: 9785: 9541: 9405: 8895: 8776: 8619: 8560: 8234:"The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase" 8168: 8122: 8063: 7736: 7695: 7648:

Phylogenetic analysis of angiosperms and the relationships of Hamamelidae

6833: 6752:

Leck, Mary Allessio; Parker, V. Thomas; Simpson, Robert L., eds. (2008).

6386: 6305: 3860: 3697: 3614: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3200: 3196: 2976: 2963: 2837: 2757: 2722: 2681: 2666: 2646: 2399: 2364: 2308: 2250: 1911: 1864: 1847: 1843:, accounting for 22.8% and 74.2% of all angiosperm species respectively. 1832: 1788: 1776: 1760: 1631: 1580: 1486: 1413:. Primary root often persists forming strong taproot and secondary roots 1352: 1342: 1039: 1031: 971: 942: 842: 803: 758: 725: 715: 672: 657: 635: 370: 352: 46: 11782: 10825:. Madison: Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin. Archived from 10360: 9764: 9745: 9487: 9408:; Wanntorp, Hans-Erik (Aug 1978). "Phylogenetic Systematics in Botany". 7916:

Non-homology of vascular organisation in monocotyledons and dicotyledons

6034:

Führer durch den Königlich botanischen Garten der Universität zu Breslau

4157: 4127: 4095: 4053: 2074:, the term was used shortly after his classification appeared (1753) by 757:. Historically, this feature was used to contrast the monocots with the 11612: 11589: 11514: 11467: 11462: 11442: 11404: 11320: 11203: 11142: 11134: 10684:"A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III" 10634: 10559: 10496: 9967: 9728: 9550: 9429: 9198: 9093: 9051: 8800: 8513: 8360: 8328: 8036: 7570: 5536: 5534: 5162: 4555: 3990: 3733: 3685: 3587: 3312: 3296: 3288: 3276: 3268: 3216: 2907: 2761: 2697: 2670: 2451: 2316: 2216: 2123: 2079: 1993: 1869: 1840: 1764: 1755:

Monocots have a distinctive arrangement of vascular tissue known as an

1683: 1615: 1553: 1492: 1418: 1367: 1348: 1247: 1239: 1227: 1129: 1080: 1035: 1027: 906: 890: 831: 700: 496: 399: 385: 307: 91: 56: 10666: 10647: 10003: 9984: 9918: 9899: 9676: 9659: 9125: 9110: 9070:(June 1964). "The Taxa of the Higher Plants above the Rank of Order". 8836: 8550: 8533: 1891:(1571), searching for a characteristic to group plants by, decided on 1049:(Pandanales). Other forms of adaptation include the climbing vines of 11642: 11622: 11579: 11569: 11286: 11147: 11078: 9479: 9067: 8298: 7168: 3760: 3689: 3677: 3669: 3645: 3626: 3521: 3492: 3451: 3371: 3280: 3228: 3224: 3220: 2753: 2729: 2693: 2658: 2343: 2292: 2258: 2158: 1997: 1919: 1915: 1815: 1784: 1686: 1623: 1549: 1515: 1504: 1211: 1184: 1158: 1137: 1132:, run on or just below the surface of the soil and in most case bear 1083: 1020: 819: 791: 788: 763: 750: 631: 204: 96: 11727: 10904: 10874:

International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

10551: 9875: 9720: 9532: 9421: 9285:"Establishment growth in woody monocotyledons native to New Zealand" 9085: 8505: 8352: 8320: 8028: 7980: 7553:; Hahn, W. H.; Sullivan, S.; Joseph, J.; Molvray, M.; Kores, P. J.; 5531: 3520:, which refers to the fact that most members of this group have one 1926:

on 17 December 1674, entitled "A Discourse on the Seeds of Plants".

1389: 1383: 1234:. These plants need to advertise to pollinators and do so by way of 11750: 11637: 11546: 11541: 11529: 11477: 11447: 11371: 11268: 11234: 11209: 11152: 10956: 10453: 9382: 9016:(1 January 1975). "Host Tree Location Behavior of a Tropical Vine ( 8849:"Die Samenmerkmale und Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse der Liliiflorae" 8792: 7820: 6192: 6178: 6163: 5582: 5468: 5466: 3905: 3901: 3820: 3752: 3737: 3661: 3657: 3649: 3571: 3486: 3412: 3400: 3388: 3376: 3244: 3232: 2991: 2939: 2815: 2673: 2642: 2534: 2230: 2030: 1974: 1958: 1903: 1888: 1873: 1836: 1792: 1748: 1738: 1716: 1698: 1662: 1558: 1537: 1461: 1375: 1322: 1318: 1251: 1215: 1180: 1121: 1072: 938: 926: 894: 815: 729: 605: 516: 488: 462: 409: 380: 347: 86: 81: 66: 61: 51: 11681: 8672: 5451: 5095: 5093: 958:

The most important distinction is their growth pattern, lacking a

783:

exists, indicating a high degree of evolutionary success. Monocot

11604: 11584: 11434: 11424: 11414: 11409: 11296: 10846: 10395:"Ancient WGD events as drivers of key innovations in angiosperms" 9699:"Phylogenetic Hypotheses for the Monocotyledons Constructed from 9177:(1992a). "Classification and geography of the flowering plants". 6396:

Evolution, Systematics, and Fossil History of Hamamelidae. vol. I

6280: 3713: 3693: 3630: 3575: 3501: 3363: 3204: 3188: 2075: 1654:(shared characteristics that unite monophyletic groups of taxa); 1595: 1455: 1432: 1410: 1379: 1303: 1231: 1222:(short lived). Some of the more persistent perigones demonstrate 1050: 1023: 987: 983: 974:

monocots reach great height, length and mass. The latter include

963: 910: 870: 799: 679:

produced comes from monocotyledons. These include not only major

676: 661: 482: 119: 101: 76: 10888: 10534:"An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants" 9219:"An updated phylogenetic classification of the flowering plants" 7187:, Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1969. Moscow: Наука. p. 473. 5793: 5463: 4829: 4827: 1763:

is absent in monocot stems, roots and leaves. Many monocots are

173: 11647: 11381: 11359: 11239: 11179: 10968: 6892:

Radosevich, Steven R.; Holt, Jodie S.; Ghersa, Claudio (1997).

6839:

The naming of names the search for order in the world of plants

5945: 5594: 5490: 5478: 5090: 5017: 5015: 4666: 4584: 4582: 3941: 3918: 3748: 3725: 3653: 3611: 3480: 3362:

used only a single calibration point, namely the split between

3291:

period, about 120-110 million years ago, and are assignable to

3284: 3272: 3208: 3014: 2708: 2300: 2272: 2249:

Over the 1980s, a more general review of the classification of

1671: 1564: 1476: 1362: 1296: 1259: 1243: 1191: 1145: 1117: 1076: 1007:). The axis undergoes primary thickening, that progresses from 975: 930: 914: 898: 882: 866: 854: 839: 811: 807: 776: 704: 696: 680: 665: 500: 478: 466: 419: 315: 232: 218: 10869: 6326:

Plant Form. An illustrated guide to flowering plant morphology

5849: 5847: 5834: 5832: 3935:

Scopoli, in his treatment of Linnaeus' scheme comments in the

1552:, and exclusively adventitious roots are found in some of the 736: 579: 9147:(1976). "A Phylogenetic Classification of the Angiospermae". 8339:(April 1969). "Broad Features of the System of Angiosperms". 8127:"Gondwanan evolution of the grass alliance families (Poales)" 7405: 7103:

Plant Taxonomy: The Systematic Evaluation of Comparative Data

6358:

Bewley, J.Derek; Black, Michael; Halmer, Peter, eds. (2006).

5817: 5769: 5623: 5621: 3772: 3744: 3721: 3637: 3517: 3315:

plants and among the oldest known fossils of monocotyledons.

3292: 3033: 3010: 2987: 2857: 2811: 2296: 2253:

was undertaken. The 1990s saw considerable progress in plant

1797: 1780: 1767:

and do not have the ability to increase the width of a stem (

1292: 1149: 1141: 992: 874: 846: 692: 688: 615: 610: 261: 188: 10437: 10345:(8 April 2011). "Angiosperm phylogeny: 17 genes, 640 taxa". 8293: 6776:

Flowering plant embryology with emphasis on economic species

6489:(2nd ed.). Bronx, N.Y., US: New York Botanical Garden. 5859: 5558: 5357: 5012: 4678: 4641: 4639: 4637: 4635: 4633: 4579: 4162: 4005: 3843:

attributes this term to De Candolle as DC. 1818 Syst. 1: 122

3415:, i.e. Antarctica, Australasia, and southern South America. 2752:

by order of branching, from early to late. In the following

2118:) whose vascular bundles were thought to arise from within ( 966:) that allows for continual growth in diameter with height ( 10865: 10850: 10337: 9326:"Evolution of the angiosperms: calibrating the family tree" 8462:

10.1666/0094-8373(2005)031[0077:KICASM]2.0.CO;2

7569: 7342:; Cribb, P.J.; Cutler, D.F.; Humphries, C.J., eds. (1995). 5844: 5829: 5439: 5411: 5168: 3717: 3709: 3568: 3525: 3497: 2692:

approach, in contrast to the longstanding tendency to view

2263: 2174: 2166: 1957:

Since this paper appeared a year before the publication of

1907: 1892: 1831:(core angiosperms), which in themselves form 99.95% of all 1803: 1508: 1397: 1113: 1095: 862: 850: 754: 684: 623: 585: 570: 555: 196: 7921: 7883: 7746: 7583: 7527: 7338: 6457:

An integrated system of classification of flowering plants

5649: 5618: 5369: 5345: 5299: 5297: 5150: 5110: 5108: 4567: 4406: 4238: 4236: 4234: 3211:) about 11,000. Other well known groups within the Poales 564: 549: 7729: 7300: 6587:

Fernholm, Bo; Bremer, Kåre; Jörnvall, Hans, eds. (1989).

5570: 5333: 4630: 4594: 4306: 4304: 4302: 4263: 4033: 4031: 2786: 2771:

Cladogram 2: The phylogenetic composition of the monocots

2284: 858: 456: 8981:(2004). "Molecular evidence on plant divergence times". 6922:(2nd ed.). Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. 5606: 5080: 5078: 4328: 4287: 1992:

In the month of May, also, I incubated two seed plants,

11009: 9840: 9803:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

9319: 8477:

Doyle, James A; Donoghue, Michael J (April–June 1992).

8068:"Early Cretaceous lineages of monocot flowering plants" 7589:

Davis, Jerrold I.; Mcneal, Joel R.; Barrett, Craig F.;

6361:

The encyclopedia of seeds: science, technology and uses

5902: 5685: 5540: 5321: 5309: 5294: 5198: 5105: 4807: 4805: 4394: 4231: 4063: 4061: 3858: 2185:

In summary they have been variously named, as follows:

1598:, rather than non-monocot flowering plants in general. 9944: 9437:

Cantino, Philip D.; Doyle, James A.; Graham, Sean W.;

7639: 7319:(1). Claremont, Ca.: Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden. 6586: 5805: 5721: 5709: 5697: 5588: 5546: 5509: 5507: 5505: 5140: 5138: 4545: 4543: 4418: 4352: 4299: 4221: 4219: 4217: 4137: 4135: 4107: 4105: 4103: 4028: 2182:

or a name formed from the name of an included family.

1614:

rather than inherited from an ancestral form) include

953: 9692: 8774: 8371:(July 1989). "An updated angiosperm classification". 5733: 5457: 5401: 5399: 5219: 5217: 5215: 5213: 5075: 5051: 4509: 4430: 4340: 2342:(mesangiosperms) with five lineages, as shown in the 591: 588: 561: 558: 552: 543: 10018:"The age of major monocot groups inferred from 800+ 8305:(April 1966). "On the Higher Taxa of Embryobionta". 7789:

Panis, Bart (2008). "Cryopreservation of monocots".

6486:

The evolution and classification of flowering plants

5781: 5757: 5661: 5282: 5258: 4738: 4736: 4618: 4507: 4505: 4503: 4501: 4499: 4497: 4495: 4493: 4491: 4489: 4482:

A brief history of monocot classification p. 23

4316: 4275: 4253: 4251: 4073: 4058: 4018: 4016: 4014: 3961:'s review of classification systems up to 1853, and 3299:-Monstereae Araceae; being Araceae, sister to other 2000:, after removing the two seed leaves, or cotyledons 582: 576: 567: 9366: 8687: 8075:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA

7870: 7751: 7070:

Flowering plants: evolution above the species level

6800:(6th ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett. 6631:

The Development of Natural History in Tudor England

6527: 6424: 6235:

Geschichte der Botanik vom 16. Jahrhundert bis 1860

6213:

Geschichte der Botanik vom 16. Jahrhundert bis 1860

5799: 5745: 5519: 5502: 5472: 5229: 5186: 5135: 5099: 5039: 5027: 5000: 4606: 4540: 4526: 4524: 4522: 4477: 4451: 4449: 4447: 4445: 4214: 4132: 4100: 3191:, by far the largest number (65%) are found in two 2633:(1877), considered the monocots to consist of four 2267:gene sequencing and cladistic analysis, enabling a 1883:The monocots are one of the major divisions of the 707:, and many other common food and decorative crops. 573: 546: 10046: 9283:Tomlinson, P. B.; Esler, A. E. (1 December 1973). 8617: 8558: 7685: 7458:Tomlinson, P. B.; Zimmerman, Martin, eds. (1978). 7457: 7067: 6867: 6454: 5952: 5673: 5600: 5496: 5484: 5396: 5248: 5246: 5244: 5210: 5174: 5125: 5123: 5063: 4705: 4473: 4471: 4469: 4467: 3859: 3496:(Dioscoreales), etc. A number of these plants are 2280:and necessitated a major taxonomic restructuring. 8419: 6357: 5270: 4833: 4795:De plantula seminali reliquisque femine contentis 4733: 4486: 4248: 4011: 1275:consists of a single cotyledon, usually with two 11797: 10118: 10081: 8224: 7985:Journal of the Linnean Society of London, Botany 7875: 7705:F: evidence for widespread concerted convergence 7672:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 247–268. 6891: 6627: 6503: 5985: 5898:Red List summary: All plant classes and families 5877: 5823: 5775: 5021: 4684: 4588: 4442: 4168: 3203:) contain about 25,000 species and the grasses ( 2078:and who is credited for its introduction. Every 1839:are the largest and most diversified angiosperm 1827:The monocots form one of five major lineages of 10305:"The origin and diversification of angiosperms" 9744:Endress, P. K.; Doyle, J. A. (8 January 2009). 9601:"A Phylogeny of the Monocots, as Inferred from 8977:Sanderson, M. J.; Thorne, J. L.; Wikström, N.; 8976: 8923:"Axial vessel widening in arborescent monocots" 8815: 8570:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 8197: 8011:"The phylogenetic taxonomy of flowering plants" 7932:Robert Morison 1620–1683 and John Ray 1627–1705 7489: 6628:Hoeniger, F. David; Hoeniger, J. F. M. (1969). 6184:De Variis Plantarum Methodis Dissertatio Brevis 5865: 5564: 5363: 5241: 5120: 4938: 4843: 4464: 1107: 1053:(Alismatales) which use negative phototropism ( 10172:. Archived from the original on April 21, 2004 9982: 9780: 9404: 9282: 8650: 7734: 7690: 7657: 7645:Donoghue, Michael J.; Doyle, James A. (1989). 7644: 7627:Donoghue, Michael J.; Doyle, James A. (1989). 7564: 7397: 6608:Hedges, S. Blair; Kumar, Sudhir, eds. (2009), 6385: 6096:(3rd. ed.). London: Bradbury & Evans. 5853: 5838: 5445: 5417: 5156: 4573: 4412: 3747:, plants cultivated for their blooms, such as 1210:(pollinated by animals) taxa, both whorls are 1140:(Tillich, Figure 11). Other geophytes develop 10995: 10011: 9890: 9856:; Leebens-Mack, James H. (27 December 2010). 9436: 8479:"Fossils and seed plant phylogeny reanalyzed" 8476: 8167: 7962: 7908: 7782: 7626: 7398:Wilson, K. L.; Morrison, D. A., eds. (2000), 7127: 6676: 5655: 5627: 5375: 5351: 4982: 4645: 4600: 4561: 4269: 4085: 4043: 2680:, Alismatiflorae, Ariflorae, Triuridiflorae, 1406:roots forming fibrous or fleshy root systems 10385: 10295: 10238: 10198: 9743: 9330:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 7588: 7431: 6871:; Evert, Ray F.; Eichhorn, Susan E. (2013). 5576: 5339: 4898:The development of plant taxonomy p. 17 4334: 4293: 3326: 2322:Within the angiosperms, there are two major 1402:Primary root of short duration, replaced by 1065:the darkest area), while some palms such as 10674: 9658:Du, Zhi-Yuan; Wang, Qing-Feng (July 2016). 9597: 9494: 8920: 8871: 7837: 7533: 7514: 7509: 6996: 6972:A primer of botanical Latin with vocabulary 6964: 6607: 6173:(in Latin). London: Faithorne & Kersey. 6037:(in German). J.U. Kerns Verlag (Max Müller) 5999: 5639: 5612: 5429: 5327: 5315: 5303: 5204: 5114: 4773: 4690: 4651: 4400: 4364: 4242: 4117: 4037: 3636:Other economically important monocotyledon 3370:, which was set to 84 Ma, in the late 2137:(1862–1883) used Monocotyledones, as would 1471:Fours (tetramerous) or fives (pentamerous) 1435:rarely present, no differentiation between 1124:, which are creeping shoots. Runners serve 11002: 10988: 10819:"Assembling the phylogeny of the monocots" 10468: 9108: 7847:Developmental Genetics and Plant Evolution 7843:"Evolutionary history of the monocot leaf" 7662: 7621: 7370:Wilkin, Paul; Mayo, Simon J, eds. (2013). 7369: 7274:Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik 2 vols 6751: 6648: 6428:Developmental genetics and plant evolution 6100: 5908: 5691: 4657: 4424: 4390:Anomalous forms of growth pp. 211–219 4379: 4358: 4310: 4147: 4006:Cronquist, Takhtajan & Zimmermann 1966 3263:group arising early in the history of the 2728:Molecular studies have both confirmed the 2653:(1980), which would form the basis of the 2054:), as a primary method for dividing them, 1370:oblong or linear, often sheathed at base, 1218:(the period of flower opening) is usually 1099:base, although there are many exceptions. 11821:Extant Early Cretaceous first appearances 10870:"The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species" 10758: 10748: 10704: 10665: 10633: 10623: 10504: 10420: 10368: 10320: 10278: 10268: 10221: 10151: 10064: 10002: 9927: 9917: 9823: 9763: 9675: 9580: 9540: 9349: 9310: 9251: 9234: 9134: 9124: 9066: 9011: 8955: 8938: 8903: 8835: 8742: 8600: 8590: 8549: 8335: 8249: 8215: 8188: 8142: 8104: 8094: 7996: 7913: 7791:Plant Cryopreservation: A Practical Guide 7376:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7267: 7236: 7208: 7183:] (in Russian). trans. C Jeffrey, as 7167: 6895:Weed ecology: implications for management 6758:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6479: 6449: 5811: 5727: 5715: 5703: 5552: 5084: 5057: 4455: 4436: 4346: 4079: 4067: 1282: 1094:The cotyledon, the primordial Angiosperm 10903: 10736:Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 10692:Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 10653:Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 10611:Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 10581:Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 10027:Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 9990:Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 9657: 9455:"Towards a phylogenetic nomenclature of 9116:Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 8823:Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 8755:Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 8538:Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 8440: 8400:Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 8393: 8374:Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 8367: 8258: 8198:Cameron, K. M.; Dickison, W. C. (1998). 7741:The fossil history of the monocotyledons 7578:Monocot systematics: A combined analysis 7062: 6975:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 6947:Plant cryopreservation a practical guide 6919:John Ray, naturalist: his life and works 6877:(8th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. 6797:Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology 6711: 6202:(in Latin). London: Smith & Walford. 6187:(in Latin). London: Smith & Walford. 6140: 6118: 5887: 5739: 5288: 5264: 4811: 4624: 4322: 4281: 4153: 4123: 4091: 4049: 3195:, the orchids and grasses. The orchids ( 2169:(1985) also used Liliidae as a synonym. 1863: 1737: 1725:Diffuse vascular bundles and absence of 1302: 1286: 735: 714: 10781: 10721:Haston, Elspeth; Richardson, James E.; 10720: 10600: 10539:Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 10243:; Michaud, M.; Bosquet, J. (May 1994). 9863:Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 9708:Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 9520:Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 9320:Wikström, Niklas; Savolainen, Vincent; 9213: 9173: 8781:International Journal of Plant Sciences 8751: 8718: 8016:Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 7975: 7888: 7490:Anderson, CL; Janssen, T (2009-04-23). 7215:Evolutionary trends in flowering plants 7099: 6793: 6772: 6565:(4 ed.). New Delhi: New Age Intl. 6513:. London and New York: Academic Press. 6510:The monocotyledons: A comparative study 6279: 6086: 6071: 6049: 6013: 5787: 5763: 5667: 5235: 5192: 5144: 5045: 5033: 5006: 4988: 4861: 4612: 4549: 4385: 4370: 4225: 4141: 4111: 2338:and a larger late branching grade, the 2046:in 1703, in the revised version of his 1299:) sprouting (left) with a dicot (right) 645:and under several different names. The 14: 11798: 10642: 10594:10.1046/j.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x 10574: 9693:Duvall, Melvin R.; Clegg, Michael T.; 9143: 8121: 8062: 8005: 7937: 7878:Cladistic analysis of monocot families 7640:Fernholm, Bremer & Jörnvall (1989) 7593:; Cohen, James I.; Duvall, Melvin R.; 7185:Flowering plants: Origin and dispersal 7181:Systema et Phylogemia Magnoliophytorum 7142:Phylogeny and evolution of angiosperms 6832: 6814: 6721:. Berlin: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. 6027: 5934: 5751: 5525: 5513: 5223: 5180: 5069: 4931:De foliis plantarum seminalibus dictis 4760:De foliis plantarum seminalibus dictis 4711: 4696: 4022: 3403:clades appeared), including the crown 3356:non-parametric rate smoothing approach 1019:has resulted (Tillich, Figure 2) from 11732: 11731: 10983: 10889:"National Botanic Gardens of Ireland" 9557: 8970:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025731 8843: 7942: 7926: 7832: 7788: 7027: 6912: 6558: 6311:Monocotyledons: a morphological study 6304: 6228: 6206: 5970: 5966:(in Latin). London: L Reeve & Co. 5679: 5541:Wikström, Savolainen & Chase 2001 5405: 5276: 4909: 4893: 4877: 4742: 4672: 4513: 4257: 3551:Some monocots, such as grasses, have 2676:. He divided the monocots into seven 2433: 2319:in 1998 and regularly updated since. 187:Diversity of monocots which includes 10887: 10864: 10764: 10202:Journal of Systematics and Evolution 9664:Journal of Systematics and Evolution 9563:"Monocot relationships: an overview" 7814: 6943: 6898:(2nd ed.). New York: J. Wiley. 6690:. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag. 6531:; Clifford, H.T.; Yeo, P.F. (1985). 6322: 6023:(4th ed.). Berlin: Borntraeger. 5893: 5589:Goremykin, Hansman & Martin 1997 5381: 4882:Systems of classification p. 21 4838:History of seed research p. 334 4530: 3888:participating institution membership 2006:Marcello Malpighi (1679), p. 18 1004: 925:, as well as both emergent (Poales, 626:of which typically contain only one 10925:"Class: Monocotyledoneae - Monocot" 10841: 10813: 10528: 8528: 7871:Cronk, Bateman & Hawkins (2002) 7819: 7521:Molecular phylogenetics of Lilianae 6614:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 6191: 6177: 6162: 6150:(in Latin). London: Johannis Martyn 6128:(in Latin). London: Johannis Martyn 5458:Herendeen, Crane & Drinnan 1995 5387: 5252: 5129: 4972: 4956: 4944: 4925: 4849: 4789: 4754: 4723: 3418: 1626:growth, and trimerous (3 parts per 1112:The lack of cambium in the primary 954:Organisation, growth and life forms 933:, as well as floating or submerged 24: 10153:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2002.tb01334.x 10096:10.1111/j.1096-0031.1991.tb00038.x 9256:. Advances in Botanical Research. 8768:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1893.tb02273.x 8735:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1905.tb05894.x 8624:Palaeogeog. Palaeoclim. Palaeoecol 8413:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1980.tb01661.x 8387:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1989.tb01717.x 8144:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2002.tb01451.x 7998:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1877.tb00261.x 7826:A discourse on the seeds of plants 6534:The families of the monocotyledons 3582:, 626 as possibly extinct, 423 as 1952:John Ray (1674), pp. 164, 166 1931:A Discourse on the Seeds of Plants 1733: 1198:, without differentiation between 728:), an onion, with typical monocot 25: 11832: 10949: 7669:Growth forms of rain forest palms 7599:Early Events in Monocot Evolution 7373:Early events in monocot evolution 7034:Plant taxonomy and biosystematics 7006:. New York, NY: Garland Science. 5473:Gandolfo, Nixon & Crepet 2002 5100:Dahlgren, Clifford & Yeo 1985 4866:Natural classification p. 47 4478:Kubitzki, Rudall & Chase 1998 3621:, and palms, orchids and lilies, 1641: 1530:Comparison of monocots and dicots 1521:Two, endosperm present or absent 1266: 11712: 11711: 11680: 10967: 10955: 10750:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.01000.x 10706:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.01002.x 10625:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x 10400:Current Opinion in Plant Biology 10214:10.1111/j.1759-6831.2010.00097.x 10040:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2004.00345.x 9398: 9151:. Vol. 9. pp. 35–106. 7711:. pp. 28–51. Archived from 7686:Tomlinson & Zimmerman (1978) 7580:. Vol. 2. pp. 685–730. 7573:; Stevenson, D. W.; Wilkin, P.; 7496:. OUP Oxford. pp. 203–212. 6114:]. London: Thomae Purfoetii. 6082:(1st ed.). London: Longman. 5936:Batsch, August Johann Georg Karl 5497:Friis, Pedersen & Crane 2006 5485:Friis, Pedersen & Crane 2004 3598:of 4,492 whose status is known. 1854: 1610:(characteristics derived during 1536: 539: 248: 172: 161: 154: 143: 136: 125: 118: 44: 8958:Molecular Biology and Evolution 8618:Friis, E. M.; Pedersen, K. R.; 8559:Friis, E. M.; Pedersen, K. R.; 6559:Datta, Subhash Chandra (1988). 6293:(Vienna): Ioannis Pauli Krauss. 6216:(in German). Munich: Oldenbourg 5917: 5800:Zimmermann & Tomlinson 1972 4834:Bewley, Black & Halmer 2006 4194: 4174: 3977:(ενδον within + γεναω I create) 3968: 3951: 3929: 3910: 3894: 3846: 3834: 3562: 2061: 1622:, numerous adventitious roots, 1169: 9794:predictions: evidence from an 9312:10.1080/0028825X.1973.10430305 8244:(3). Magnolia Press: 201–217. 7557:; Sytsma, K. J.; Pires, J. C. 7348:. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens. 7277:(3rd ed.). Archived from 6755:Seedling ecology and evolution 6593:. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica. 6147:Anatome plantarum: Pars altera 4187:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary 3814: 3797: 3524:, or embryonic leaf, in their 3271:period. For a very long time, 2620: 2189:class Monocotyledoneae in the 2072:floral reproductive morphology 1902:Formal description dates from 1859: 1601: 1427:Numerous scattered bundles in 753:, or embryonic leaf, in their 710: 13: 1: 9290:New Zealand Journal of Botany 9266:10.1016/S0065-2296(08)60321-3 8441:Donoghue, Michael J. (2005). 7889:Tillich, H.-J. (2013-06-29). 7876:Stevenson, D.W.; Loconte, H. 7106:. Columbia University Press. 6779:. Ames, Iowa: Blackwell Pub. 6268:History of botany (1530-1860) 6241:History of botany (1530-1860) 5987:de Candolle, Augustin Pyramus 5928: 3461: 3382: 2661:considered the monocots as a 2244: 2199:class Monocotyledones in the 1650:and others identify thirteen 948: 10808:Angiosperm Phylogeny Website 10788:Angiosperm Phylogeny Website 10239:Savard, L.; Strauss, S. H.; 9044:10.1126/science.190.4216.804 8644:10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.07.006 7949:. Springer. pp. 34–48. 7892:Development and Organization 7799:10.1007/978-0-387-72276-4_11 7769:. Springer. pp. 23–33. 7658:Crane & Blackmore (1989) 7607:10.1017/CBO9781139002950.015 7565:Wilson & Morrison (2000) 7037:(2nd. ed.). Cambridge: 5948:: Landes-Industrie-Comptoir. 5824:Patterson & Givnish 2002 5776:Stevenson & Loconte 1995 5022:Dahlgren & Clifford 1982 4685:Hoeniger & Hoeniger 1969 4589:Loconte & Stevenson 1991 3984: 3536: 3507: 3466:In the past, taxa which had 3238: 2153:'s (1915) Alternifoliae and 1667:Absence of vessels in leaves 1489:(single aperture or colpus) 1183:consists of two alternating 1108:Roots and underground organs 7: 10729:; Harris, David J. (2009). 9157:10.1007/978-1-4615-6950-3_2 8434:10.1007/978-1-4615-6971-8_7 8277:10.1007/978-3-7091-7076-2_6 7969: 7963:Kubitzki & Huber (1998) 7909:Kubitzki & Huber (1998) 7895:. Springer. pp. 1–19. 7783:Kubitzki & Huber (1998) 7483: 7294: 7145:. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer. 6944:Reed, Barbara, ed. (2008). 6794:Mauseth, James D. (2017) . 6537:. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. 6329:. Oxford University Press. 6051:Jussieu, Antoine Laurent de 5995:. Paris: Treuttel et Würtz. 5866:Cameron & Dickison 1998 4460:Liliopsida pp. 589–750 3922:, so that if this genus is 3807:, so that the principle of 3778: 3318:Topology of the angiosperm 2773: 2355: 2261:theory, initially based on 2201:Bentham & Hooker system 2052:Methodus plantarum emendata 1822: 1518:frequently present in seed 1312:(Joshua Tree: Asparagales) 599:), commonly referred to as 10: 11837: 10769:. Tree of Life web project 10348:American Journal of Botany 10309:American Journal of Botany 9905:American Journal of Botany 9751:American Journal of Botany 9568:American Journal of Botany 8984:American Journal of Botany 8691:American Journal of Botany 8251:10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1 8171:; Janssen, Thomas (2006). 7855:10.1201/9781420024982.ch23 7466:Cambridge University Press 7404:, Collingwood, Australia: 7238:Takhtajan, Armen Leonovich 7169:Takhtajan, Armen Leonovich 7039:Cambridge University Press 6826:Cambridge University Press 6507:; Clifford, H. T. (1982). 6316:Cambridge University Press 5446:Herendeen & Crane 1995 5157:Bremer & Wanntorp 1978 4574:Donoghue & Doyle 1989b 4413:Tomlinson & Esler 1973 3785:Monocotyledon reproduction 3648:), bananas and plantains ( 3574:describes four species as 3540: 3531: 2655:Angiosperm Phylogeny Group 2326:, a small early branching 2314:Angiosperm Phylogeny Group 2209:class Monocotyleae in the 2180:descriptive botanical name 2082:since then, starting with 1357:Herbaceous or arboraceous 1242:(other structures such as 1174: 744: 732:and parallel leaf venation 11740: 11689: 11678: 11603: 11555: 11537: 11528: 11505: 11494: 11433: 11380: 11367: 11358: 11345: 11334: 11316: 11305: 11277: 11266: 11225: 11175: 11166: 11133: 11129: 11111: 11100: 11074: 11063: 11023: 10909:Missouri Botanical Garden 10793:Missouri Botanical Garden 10765:Hahn, William J. (1997). 10422:10.1016/j.pbi.2016.03.015 10190:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 9236:10.5642/aliso.19921302.08 8876:Myrothamnus flabellifolia 8190:10.5642/aliso.20062201.03 8048:Missouri Botanical Garden 7914:Tomlinson, P. B. (1995). 7766:Systematics and evolution 7510:Hedges & Kumar (2009) 7220:Columbia University Press 6773:Lersten, Nels R. (2004). 6727:10.1007/978-3-662-03531-3 6463:Columbia University Press 6323:Bell, Adrian D. (2008) . 6298: 6281:Scopoli, Giovanni Antonio 5656:Bremer & Janssen 2006 5628:Janssen & Bremer 2004 4601:Doyle & Donoghue 1992 4270:Kubitzki & Huber 1998 4207:Dictionary.com Unabridged 3867:Oxford English Dictionary 3854:Anglo-Latin pronunciation 3327:Molecular clock estimates 3050: 3035: 3027: 3012: 3004: 2989: 2981: 2961: 2954: 2937: 2930: 2905: 2889: 2882: 2874: 2859: 2851: 2835: 2828: 2813: 2805: 2798: 2791: 2532: 2517: 2510: 2495: 2488: 2464: 2449: 2442: 2435: 2419: 2412: 2397: 2390: 2375: 2368: 1464:) or multiples of three ( 1291:Comparison of a monocot ( 1089: 818:); rosette and succulent 443: 436: 333: 328: 313: 306: 245:Scientific classification 243: 186: 111: 32: 27:Clade of flowering plants 9628:10.1600/0363644041744365 9441:; Olmstead, Richard G.; 8226:Christenhusz, Maarten JM 7841:; Buzgo, Matyas (2002). 7622:Wilkin & Mayo (2013) 7100:Stuessy, Tod F. (2009). 7076:Harvard University Press 6842:. New York: Bloomsbury. 6821:Makers of British Botany 6658:(3rd ed.). Oxford: 6112:A new notebook of plants 6107:Stirpium adversaria nova 5923: 5340:Soltis & Soltis 2004 4335:Soltis & Soltis 2016 3790: 3227:, Arecales) and lilies ( 2145:used Mononocotyleae and 1179:In nearly all cases the 614:Chase & Reveal) are 11816:Early Cretaceous plants 10270:10.1073/pnas.91.11.5163 8940:10.1093/treephys/tpt118 8853:Mitt. Bot. Staatssamml. 8775:Herendeen, Patrick S.; 8744:2027/hvd.32044107266454 8592:10.1073/pnas.0407174101 7441:Aarhus University Press 6660:Oxford University Press 6254:10.5962/bhl.title.30585 6246:Oxford University Press 5640:Hedges & Kumar 2009 5601:Leebens-Mack et al 2005 5205:Chase & Reveal 2009 4774:Short & George 2013 4243:Rudall & Buzgo 2002 3872:Oxford University Press 3601: 3340:mean path length method 2334:(ANA grade) with three 2312:the publication of the 2013:Methodus plantarum nova 1835:. The monocots and the 1771:) via the same kind of 1034:(including the reduced 10759:Websites and databases 10522: 10322:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1614 9816:10.1098/rspb.2005.3067 9582:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1645 9342:10.1098/rspb.2001.1782 8997:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1656 8704:10.3732/ajb.89.12.1940 8217:10.1006/bojl.1998.0183 8096:10.1073/pnas.080421597 7730:Columbus et al. (2006) 7000:; et al. (2010). 6950:. New York: Springer. 4817:De seminum vegetatione 4535:Monocots versus Dicots 3880:10.1093/OED/6968478296 3775:, are monocotyledons. 3610:of the world, such as 2289:molecular phylogenetic 2003: 1982:De seminum vegetatione 1949: 1880: 1752: 1313: 1300: 1283:Comparison with dicots 1126:vegetative propagation 1030:(Poales) to submarine 881:; and forage grasses ( 741: 733: 11811:Plant unranked clades 10476:Nature Communications 10066:10.1093/molbev/msi191 6364:. Wallingford: CABI. 5878:Radosevich et al 1997 4347:Strong & Ray 1975 4169:de Candolle 1818–1821 3656:and their relatives, 3584:critically endangered 2979: (118 MYA) 2764:(million years ago). 2688:(1969) in adopting a 1985: 1934: 1867: 1775:found in non-monocot 1741: 1712:Open cotyledon sheath 1574:(an orchid), and the 1392:(pinnate or palmate) 1306: 1290: 739: 718: 228:Pandanus heterocarpus 10976:at Wikimedia Commons 10829:on 14 September 2006 10823:Monocot AToL Project 9451:Donoghue, Michael J. 9179:The Botanical Review 9149:Evolutionary Biology 9020:) by Skototropism". 8422:Evolutionary Biology 7928:Vines, Sydney Howard 7922:Rudall et al. (1995) 7884:Rudall et al. (1995) 7793:. pp. 241–280. 7747:Rudall et al. (1995) 7601:, pp. 315–349, 7584:Rudall et al. (1995) 7528:Rudall et al. (1995) 7074:. Cambridge, Mass.: 7064:Stebbins, G. Ledyard 6611:The timetree of life 6433:Taylor & Francis 5565:Sanderson et al 2004 5364:Hertwick et al. 2015 3547:Hypogeal germination 3354:, using Sanderson's 3259:The monocots form a 2215:class Liliatae then 2106:(Monocotyledoneae). 2100:De Candolle's system 998:establishment growth 675:the majority of the 10847:"Catalogue of Life" 10489:2014NatCo...5.4956Z 10413:2016COPB...30..159S 10361:10.3732/ajb.1000404 10261:1994PNAS...91.5163S 9960:1997PSyEv.206..337G 9810:(1571): 1481–1490. 9765:10.3732/ajb.0800047 9336:(1482): 2211–2220. 9303:1973NZJB...11..627T 9191:1992BotRv..58..225T 9036:1975Sci...190..804S 9012:Strong, Donald R.; 8665:1998Natur.394..532G 8636:2006PPP...232..251F 8583:2004PNAS..10116565F 8577:(47): 16565–16570. 8498:1992Britt..44...89D 8087:2000PNAS...97.4707B 7918:. pp. 589–622. 7880:. pp. 543–578. 7829:. pp. 162–169. 7636:. pp. 181–193. 7524:. pp. 109–137. 7281:on 18 February 2015 6102:l'Obel, Matthias de 5854:Givnish et al. 2006 5839:Givnish et al. 2005 5418:Ganfolfo et al 1998 3945:is a member of the 3937:Hexandria polygynia 3870:(Online ed.). 3580:extinct in the wild 3543:Epigeal germination 3472:reticulate venation 2750:commelinid monocots 2098:and Dicotyledones. 2092:De Jussieu's system 2023:evolutionary theory 1630:) flowers that are 1483:(furrows or pores) 1230:, predominantly by 923:commelinid monocots 668:are also monocots. 622:(angiosperms), the 237:Zingiber officinale 209:Phoenix dactylifera 201:Colocasia esculenta 10935:on 13 January 2010 10497:10.1038/ncomms5956 10119:Patterson, T. B.; 9968:10.1007/bf00987956 9892:Givnish, Thomas J. 9846:Soltis, Douglas E. 9842:Givnish, Thomas J. 9782:Givnish, Thomas J. 9645:on 23 October 2020 9500:Soltis, Douglas E. 9443:Soltis, Douglas E. 9199:10.1007/BF02858611 8896:10.1093/aob/mcl269 8395:Dahlgren, R. M. T. 8303:Zimmermann, Walter 8007:Bessey, Charles E. 7735:Herendeen, P. S.; 7718:on 16 January 2014 7595:Givnish, Thomas J. 7269:Wettstein, Richard 7163:Excerpts at Amazon 6816:Oliver, Francis W. 6391:Blackmore, Stephen 6142:Malpighi, Marcello 6120:Malpighi, Marcello 6015:Eichler, August W. 5376:Givnish et al 2018 5352:Cantino et al 2007 5169:Chase et al. 1995b 4646:Soltis et al. 2005 4562:Soltis et al. 2005 4190:. Merriam-Webster. 3947:Gens monocotyledon 3736:are monocotyledon 3623:building materials 3619:starchy root crops 3553:hypogeal emergence 3338:sequences and the 3174:Alismatid monocots 2742:alismatid monocots 2714:was replaced with 2191:de Candolle system 1881: 1753: 1703:Persistent radicle 1468:3, 6 or 9 petals) 1409:Develops from the 1374:seldom developed, 1314: 1301: 1045:(Dioscreales) and 1026:(Asparagales) and 796:ornamental flowers 742: 734: 695:, etc.), but also 339:alismatid monocots 11793: 11792: 11734:Taxon identifiers 11725: 11724: 11695:Basal angiosperms 11676: 11675: 11672: 11671: 11668: 11667: 11664: 11663: 11660: 11659: 11656: 11655: 11510:Berberidopsidales 11490: 11489: 11486: 11485: 11262: 11261: 11258: 11257: 10972:Media related to 10723:Stevens, Peter F. 10667:10.1111/boj.12385 10391:Soltis, Douglas E 10315:(10): 1614–1626. 10301:Soltis, Douglas E 10255:(11): 5163–5167. 10059:(10): 1948–1963. 10016:(December 2004). 10012:Janssen, Thomas; 10004:10.1111/boj.12260 9919:10.1002/ajb2.1178 9912:(11): 1888–1910. 9898:(November 2018). 9850:Soltis, Pamela S. 9677:10.1111/jse.12182 9616:Systematic Botany 9575:(10): 1645–1655. 9504:Soltis, Pamela S. 9447:Soltis, Pamela S. 9370:Botanical Gazette 9166:978-1-4615-6952-7 9145:Thorne, Robert F. 9126:10.1111/boj.12497 9030:(4216): 804–806. 9018:Monstera gigantea 8991:(10): 1656–1665. 8964:(12): 1218–1231. 8837:10.1111/boj.12260 8698:(12): 1940–1957. 8659:(6693): 532–533. 8551:10.1111/boj.12052 8369:Dahlgren, Gertrud 8337:Cronquist, Arthur 8295:Cronquist, Arthur 8286:978-3-211-81434-5 8204:Bot. J. Linn. Soc 7979:(February 1877). 7943:Vogel, S (1998). 7864:978-0-415-25790-9 7808:978-0-387-72275-7 7654:. pp. 17–45. 7475:978-0-521-14247-2 7450:978-87-7934-398-6 7383:978-1-107-01276-9 7355:978-0-947643-85-0 7253:978-1-4020-9609-9 7135:; Endress, P.K.; 7113:978-0-231-14712-5 7048:978-0-521-42785-2 6957:978-0-387-72276-4 6914:Raven, Charles E. 6874:Biology of plants 6736:978-3-662-03531-3 6641:978-0-918016-29-4 6562:Systematic Botany 6544:978-3-642-64903-5 6481:Cronquist, Arthur 6472:978-0-231-03880-5 6451:Cronquist, Arthur 6410:978-0-19-857711-9 6371:978-0-85199-723-0 6230:Sachs, Julius von 6208:Sachs, Julius von 5981:. London: Millar. 5577:Savard et al 1994 4728:pp. 164, 166 4294:Davis et al. 2013 4158:Monocotylondoneae 3965:'s from 1853–1982 3939:on the fact that 3886:(Subscription or 3823:gives an earlier 3557:epigeal emergence 3399:+ Pandanales and 3250:system of Eichler 3185: 3184: 3181: 3180: 3162: 3161: 3153: 3152: 3144: 3143: 3135: 3134: 3126: 3125: 3117: 3116: 3108: 3107: 3099: 3098: 3090: 3089: 3081: 3080: 3072: 3071: 3063: 3062: 2919: 2918: 2756:numbers indicate 2618: 2617: 2614: 2613: 2605:basal angiosperms 2599: 2598: 2590: 2589: 2581: 2580: 2572: 2571: 2563: 2562: 2554: 2553: 2545: 2544: 2477: 2476: 2332:basal angiosperms 2269:phylogenetic tree 2161:simultaneously. 1963:Anatome Plantarum 1868:Illustrations of 1697:Monocotyledonous 1679:microsporogenesis 1670:Monocotyledonous 1648:Douglas E. Soltis 1587:Paris quadrifolia 1525: 1524: 1460:Parts in threes ( 1429:ground parenchyma 1128:, have elongated 1079:, have adopted a 721:Allium crenulatum 532: 531: 523: 511: 503: 493: 485: 469: 459: 451: 16:(Redirected from 11828: 11786: 11785: 11776: 11775: 11774: 11761: 11760: 11759: 11729: 11728: 11715: 11714: 11684: 11535: 11534: 11503: 11502: 11365: 11364: 11343: 11342: 11314: 11313: 11275: 11274: 11173: 11172: 11131: 11130: 11109: 11108: 11091:Austrobaileyales 11072: 11071: 11050:Acrogymnospermae 11012:flowering plants 11004: 10997: 10990: 10981: 10980: 10971: 10960:Data related to 10959: 10944: 10942: 10940: 10931:. Archived from 10929:Plant Life Forms 10920: 10918: 10916: 10900: 10898: 10896: 10884: 10882: 10880: 10861: 10859: 10857: 10838: 10836: 10834: 10802: 10801: 10799: 10778: 10776: 10774: 10767:"Monocotyledons" 10754: 10752: 10717: 10715: 10713: 10708: 10688: 10671: 10669: 10639: 10637: 10627: 10597: 10571: 10518: 10508: 10465: 10434: 10424: 10387:Soltis, Pamela S 10382: 10372: 10334: 10324: 10297:Soltis, Pamela S 10292: 10282: 10272: 10235: 10225: 10195: 10189: 10181: 10179: 10177: 10155: 10137: 10115: 10078: 10068: 10043: 10008: 10006: 9979: 9948:Plant Syst. Evol 9941: 9931: 9921: 9887: 9837: 9827: 9777: 9767: 9740: 9703:L Sequence Data" 9689: 9679: 9654: 9652: 9650: 9644: 9638:. Archived from 9613: 9594: 9584: 9554: 9544: 9516: 9491: 9480:10.2307/25065865 9463: 9433: 9394: 9363: 9353: 9316: 9314: 9279: 9248: 9238: 9210: 9170: 9140: 9138: 9128: 9105: 9063: 9008: 8973: 8952: 8942: 8917: 8907: 8883:Annals of Botany 8868: 8866: 8864: 8840: 8839: 8812: 8771: 8762:(204): 485–528. 8748: 8746: 8715: 8684: 8647: 8630:(2–4): 251–293. 8614: 8604: 8594: 8555: 8553: 8525: 8483: 8473: 8447: 8437: 8416: 8390: 8364: 8332: 8299:Takhtajan, Armen 8290: 8269:Flowering Plants 8255: 8253: 8221: 8219: 8194: 8192: 8164: 8146: 8137:(7): 1374–1387. 8118: 8108: 8098: 8081:(9): 4707–4711. 8072: 8058: 8056: 8054: 8040: 8023:(1/2): 109–164. 8002: 8000: 7960: 7935: 7934:. pp. 8–43. 7919: 7906: 7881: 7868: 7839:Rudall, Paula J. 7830: 7812: 7780: 7744: 7743:. pp. 1–21. 7727: 7725: 7723: 7717: 7710: 7683: 7664:Dransfield, John 7655: 7653: 7637: 7635: 7619: 7581: 7562: 7561:. pp. 3–16. 7525: 7507: 7479: 7454: 7425: 7424: 7422: 7394: 7392: 7390: 7366: 7364: 7362: 7335: 7333: 7331: 7290: 7288: 7286: 7264: 7262: 7260: 7243:Flowering Plants 7233: 7210:Takhtajan, Armen 7205: 7203: 7201: 7156: 7124: 7122: 7120: 7096: 7094: 7092: 7073: 7059: 7057: 7055: 7024: 7022: 7020: 6993: 6991: 6989: 6961: 6940: 6938: 6936: 6909: 6888: 6860: 6858: 6856: 6829: 6811: 6790: 6769: 6748: 6708: 6706: 6704: 6673: 6650:Hutchinson, John 6645: 6624: 6604: 6583: 6581: 6579: 6555: 6553: 6551: 6524: 6500: 6476: 6460: 6446: 6421: 6419: 6417: 6382: 6380: 6378: 6340: 6319: 6294: 6264: 6262: 6260: 6225: 6223: 6221: 6203: 6188: 6174: 6159: 6157: 6155: 6137: 6135: 6133: 6115: 6097: 6083: 6068: 6046: 6044: 6042: 6024: 6010: 5996: 5982: 5967: 5949: 5912: 5906: 5900: 5891: 5885: 5875: 5869: 5863: 5857: 5851: 5842: 5836: 5827: 5821: 5815: 5809: 5803: 5797: 5791: 5785: 5779: 5773: 5767: 5761: 5755: 5749: 5743: 5737: 5731: 5725: 5719: 5713: 5707: 5701: 5695: 5689: 5683: 5677: 5671: 5665: 5659: 5653: 5647: 5637: 5631: 5625: 5616: 5613:Moore et al 2007 5610: 5604: 5598: 5592: 5586: 5580: 5574: 5568: 5562: 5556: 5550: 5544: 5538: 5529: 5523: 5517: 5511: 5500: 5494: 5488: 5482: 5476: 5470: 5461: 5455: 5449: 5443: 5437: 5430:Smith et al 2010 5427: 5421: 5415: 5409: 5403: 5394: 5385: 5379: 5373: 5367: 5361: 5355: 5349: 5343: 5337: 5331: 5328:Davis et al 2004 5325: 5319: 5316:Chase et al 2000 5313: 5307: 5304:Chase et al 1995 5301: 5292: 5286: 5280: 5274: 5268: 5262: 5256: 5250: 5239: 5233: 5227: 5221: 5208: 5202: 5196: 5190: 5184: 5178: 5172: 5166: 5160: 5154: 5148: 5142: 5133: 5127: 5118: 5115:Chase et al 1993 5112: 5103: 5097: 5088: 5082: 5073: 5067: 5061: 5055: 5049: 5043: 5037: 5031: 5025: 5019: 5010: 5004: 4998: 4996:pp. 266–267 4986: 4980: 4970: 4964: 4954: 4948: 4942: 4936: 4923: 4917: 4907: 4901: 4891: 4885: 4875: 4869: 4859: 4853: 4847: 4841: 4831: 4822: 4809: 4800: 4787: 4781: 4771: 4765: 4752: 4746: 4740: 4731: 4721: 4715: 4709: 4703: 4694: 4688: 4682: 4676: 4670: 4664: 4655: 4649: 4643: 4628: 4622: 4616: 4610: 4604: 4598: 4592: 4586: 4577: 4571: 4565: 4559: 4553: 4547: 4538: 4528: 4517: 4511: 4484: 4475: 4462: 4453: 4440: 4434: 4428: 4422: 4416: 4410: 4404: 4401:Petit et al 2014 4398: 4392: 4383: 4377: 4368: 4362: 4356: 4350: 4344: 4338: 4332: 4326: 4320: 4314: 4308: 4297: 4291: 4285: 4279: 4273: 4267: 4261: 4255: 4246: 4240: 4229: 4223: 4212: 4211: 4198: 4192: 4191: 4178: 4172: 4166: 4160: 4151: 4145: 4139: 4130: 4121: 4115: 4109: 4098: 4089: 4083: 4077: 4071: 4065: 4056: 4047: 4041: 4038:de Candolle 1819 4035: 4026: 4020: 4009: 4003: 3978: 3972: 3966: 3955: 3949: 3933: 3927: 3914: 3908: 3898: 3892: 3891: 3883: 3863: 3850: 3844: 3838: 3832: 3818: 3812: 3801: 3640:include various 3514:Monocotyledoneae 3419:Aquatic monocots 3344:divergence times 3269:early Cretaceous 3265:flowering plants 3169:Lilioid monocots 3030: 3029: 3007: 3006: 2984: 2983: 2957: 2956: 2933: 2932: 2885: 2884: 2877: 2876: 2854: 2853: 2831: 2830: 2808: 2807: 2801: 2800: 2794: 2793: 2785: (131 2779: 2778: 2774: 2767: 2766: 2746:lilioid monocots 2705:Gertrud Dahlgren 2696:as a very broad 2608:core angiosperms 2513: 2512: 2491: 2490: 2445: 2444: 2438: 2437: 2422:Austrobaileyales 2415: 2414: 2393: 2392: 2371: 2370: 2361: 2360: 2356: 2349: 2348: 2340:core angiosperms 2225:Cronquist system 2221:Takhtajan system 2205:Wettstein system 2178:allows either a 2007: 1953: 1885:flowering plants 1773:vascular cambium 1769:secondary growth 1727:secondary growth 1722:Fly pollination* 1540: 1423:Vascular bundles 1328: 1327: 1309:Yucca brevifolia 1277:vascular bundles 968:secondary growth 960:lateral meristem 836:lilioid monocots 824:mycoheterotrophs 768:aquatic habitats 620:flowering plants 598: 597: 594: 593: 590: 587: 584: 581: 578: 575: 572: 569: 566: 563: 560: 557: 554: 551: 548: 545: 515: 514:Monocotyledonae 507: 499: 491: 473: 465: 455: 447: 362:lilioid monocots 253: 252: 176: 165: 158: 147: 140: 129: 122: 106: 43: 40:Early Cretaceous 36:Temporal range: 30: 29: 21: 11836: 11835: 11831: 11830: 11829: 11827: 11826: 11825: 11796: 11795: 11794: 11789: 11781: 11779: 11770: 11769: 11764: 11755: 11754: 11749: 11736: 11726: 11721: 11685: 11652: 11599: 11551: 11524: 11499: 11482: 11453:Crossosomatales 11429: 11376: 11354: 11339: 11330: 11310: 11301: 11292:Trochodendrales 11271: 11254: 11221: 11162: 11125: 11121:Ceratophyllales 11105: 11096: 11068: 11059: 11040:Marchantiophyta 11019: 11008: 10952: 10947: 10938: 10936: 10923: 10914: 10912: 10894: 10892: 10878: 10876: 10855: 10853: 10832: 10830: 10815:Givnish, Thomas 10797: 10795: 10772: 10770: 10761: 10711: 10709: 10686: 10680:Reveal, James L 10552:10.2307/2992015 10525: 10183: 10182: 10175: 10173: 10135: 10053:Mol. Biol. Evol 9876:10.3417/2010023 9721:10.2307/2399849 9648: 9646: 9642: 9611: 9533:10.2307/2399846 9514: 9461: 9439:Judd, Walter S. 9422:10.2307/1220367 9401: 9276: 9167: 9086:10.2307/1216134 8927:Tree Physiology 8862: 8860: 8777:Crane, Peter R. 8722:New Phytologist 8530:Fay, Michael F. 8506:10.2307/2806826 8481: 8445: 8353:10.2307/1218676 8321:10.2307/1217531 8287: 8070: 8052: 8050: 8044:"Botanicus.org" 8042: 8029:10.2307/2990030 7991:(88): 490–520. 7977:Bentham, George 7972: 7957: 7903: 7865: 7809: 7777: 7721: 7719: 7715: 7708: 7680: 7651: 7633: 7617: 7504: 7486: 7476: 7451: 7420: 7418: 7416: 7388: 7386: 7384: 7360: 7358: 7356: 7329: 7327: 7297: 7284: 7282: 7258: 7256: 7254: 7230: 7199: 7197: 7195: 7153: 7118: 7116: 7114: 7090: 7088: 7086: 7053: 7051: 7049: 7029:Stace, Clive A. 7018: 7016: 7014: 6998:Smith, Alison M 6987: 6985: 6983: 6958: 6934: 6932: 6930: 6906: 6885: 6869:Raven, Peter H. 6854: 6852: 6850: 6808: 6787: 6766: 6737: 6713:Kubitzki, Klaus 6702: 6700: 6698: 6684:, eds. (1998). 6678:Kubitzki, Klaus 6670: 6642: 6622: 6601: 6577: 6575: 6573: 6549: 6547: 6545: 6521: 6497: 6473: 6443: 6415: 6413: 6411: 6401:Clarendon Press 6393:, eds. (1989). 6387:Crane, Peter R. 6376: 6374: 6372: 6337: 6301: 6258: 6256: 6219: 6217: 6153: 6151: 6131: 6129: 6040: 6038: 6009:(2nd ed.). 6001:de Candolle, AP 5931: 5926: 5920: 5915: 5909:Tang et al 2016 5907: 5903: 5892: 5888: 5876: 5872: 5864: 5860: 5852: 5845: 5837: 5830: 5822: 5818: 5810: 5806: 5798: 5794: 5786: 5782: 5774: 5770: 5762: 5758: 5750: 5746: 5738: 5734: 5726: 5722: 5714: 5710: 5702: 5698: 5692:Hutchinson 1973 5690: 5686: 5678: 5674: 5666: 5662: 5654: 5650: 5638: 5634: 5626: 5619: 5611: 5607: 5599: 5595: 5587: 5583: 5575: 5571: 5563: 5559: 5551: 5547: 5539: 5532: 5524: 5520: 5512: 5503: 5495: 5491: 5483: 5479: 5471: 5464: 5456: 5452: 5444: 5440: 5428: 5424: 5416: 5412: 5404: 5397: 5386: 5382: 5374: 5370: 5362: 5358: 5350: 5346: 5338: 5334: 5326: 5322: 5314: 5310: 5302: 5295: 5287: 5283: 5275: 5271: 5263: 5259: 5251: 5242: 5234: 5230: 5222: 5211: 5203: 5199: 5191: 5187: 5179: 5175: 5167: 5163: 5155: 5151: 5143: 5136: 5128: 5121: 5113: 5106: 5098: 5091: 5083: 5076: 5068: 5064: 5056: 5052: 5044: 5040: 5032: 5028: 5020: 5013: 5005: 5001: 4987: 4983: 4971: 4967: 4955: 4951: 4943: 4939: 4924: 4920: 4908: 4904: 4892: 4888: 4876: 4872: 4860: 4856: 4848: 4844: 4832: 4825: 4810: 4803: 4788: 4784: 4772: 4768: 4753: 4749: 4741: 4734: 4722: 4718: 4710: 4706: 4695: 4691: 4683: 4679: 4671: 4667: 4656: 4652: 4644: 4631: 4623: 4619: 4611: 4607: 4599: 4595: 4587: 4580: 4572: 4568: 4560: 4556: 4548: 4541: 4529: 4520: 4512: 4487: 4476: 4465: 4454: 4443: 4435: 4431: 4425:Leck et al 2008 4423: 4419: 4411: 4407: 4399: 4395: 4384: 4380: 4369: 4365: 4359:Dransfield 1978 4357: 4353: 4345: 4341: 4333: 4329: 4321: 4317: 4311:Zeng et al 2014 4309: 4300: 4292: 4288: 4280: 4276: 4268: 4264: 4256: 4249: 4241: 4232: 4224: 4215: 4202:"monocotyledon" 4200: 4199: 4195: 4182:"monocotyledon" 4180: 4179: 4175: 4167: 4163: 4152: 4148: 4140: 4133: 4122: 4118: 4110: 4101: 4090: 4086: 4078: 4074: 4066: 4059: 4048: 4044: 4036: 4029: 4021: 4012: 4004: 3991: 3987: 3982: 3981: 3973: 3969: 3956: 3952: 3934: 3930: 3915: 3911: 3899: 3895: 3885: 3861:"monocotyledon" 3857: 3851: 3847: 3839: 3835: 3819: 3815: 3802: 3798: 3793: 3781: 3604: 3596:near threatened 3565: 3549: 3541:Main articles: 3539: 3534: 3510: 3464: 3456:Ceratophyllales 3421: 3385: 3342:for estimating 3329: 3241: 3187:Of some 70,000 3177: 3176: 3171: 3163: 3154: 3145: 3136: 3127: 3118: 3109: 3100: 3091: 3082: 3073: 3064: 2920: 2623: 2610: 2609: 2606: 2600: 2591: 2582: 2573: 2564: 2555: 2546: 2520:Ceratophyllales 2478: 2278:plant evolution 2247: 2235:Dahlgren system 2112:vascular plants 2104:Monocotylédonés 2064: 2040:Monocotyledones 2029:to develop the 2009: 2005: 2002: 1991: 1984: 1967:folia seminalia 1955: 1951: 1948: 1945: 1942: 1939: 1933: 1914:, observed the 1895:form and their 1862: 1857: 1825: 1787:), screwpines ( 1744:Roystonea regia 1736: 1734:Vascular system 1731: 1674:wall formation* 1660:Calcium oxalate 1644: 1604: 1545: 1544: 1543: 1542: 1541: 1532: 1531: 1507:(leaves in the 1351:, occasionally 1285: 1269: 1196:homochlamydeous 1177: 1172: 1110: 1092: 1005:Vascular system 956: 951: 822:(Asparagales); 747: 713: 643:taxonomic ranks 618:and grass-like 542: 538: 526:Monocotyledones 324: 319: 247: 182: 181: 180: 179: 178: 177: 168: 167: 166: 159: 150: 149: 148: 141: 132: 131: 130: 123: 107: 105: 104: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 59: 54: 49: 38: 37: 34: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 11834: 11824: 11823: 11818: 11813: 11808: 11791: 11790: 11788: 11787: 11777: 11762: 11746: 11744: 11738: 11737: 11723: 11722: 11720: 11719: 11709: 11703: 11697: 11690: 11687: 11686: 11679: 11677: 11674: 11673: 11670: 11669: 11666: 11665: 11662: 11661: 11658: 11657: 11654: 11653: 11651: 11650: 11645: 11640: 11635: 11630: 11625: 11620: 11615: 11609: 11607: 11601: 11600: 11598: 11597: 11595:Paracryphiales 11592: 11587: 11582: 11577: 11572: 11567: 11561: 11559: 11553: 11552: 11550: 11549: 11544: 11538: 11532: 11526: 11525: 11523: 11522: 11520:Caryophyllales 11517: 11512: 11506: 11500: 11495: 11492: 11491: 11488: 11487: 11484: 11483: 11481: 11480: 11475: 11470: 11465: 11460: 11455: 11450: 11445: 11439: 11437: 11431: 11430: 11428: 11427: 11422: 11417: 11412: 11407: 11402: 11397: 11392: 11386: 11384: 11378: 11377: 11375: 11374: 11368: 11362: 11356: 11355: 11353: 11352: 11346: 11340: 11335: 11332: 11331: 11329: 11328: 11323: 11317: 11311: 11306: 11303: 11302: 11300: 11299: 11294: 11289: 11284: 11278: 11272: 11267: 11264: 11263: 11260: 11259: 11256: 11255: 11253: 11252: 11247: 11242: 11237: 11231: 11229: 11223: 11222: 11220: 11219: 11213: 11207: 11201: 11195: 11189: 11183: 11176: 11170: 11164: 11163: 11161: 11160: 11155: 11150: 11145: 11139: 11137: 11127: 11126: 11124: 11123: 11118: 11112: 11106: 11103:Mesangiosperms 11101: 11098: 11097: 11095: 11094: 11088: 11082: 11075: 11069: 11064: 11061: 11060: 11058: 11057: 11052: 11047: 11045:Polypodiophyta 11042: 11037: 11032: 11024: 11021: 11020: 11007: 11006: 10999: 10992: 10984: 10978: 10977: 10965: 10964:at Wikispecies 10951: 10950:External links 10948: 10946: 10945: 10921: 10901: 10885: 10862: 10839: 10811: 10779: 10760: 10757: 10756: 10755: 10743:(2): 128–131. 10727:Chase, Mark W. 10718: 10699:(2): 122–127. 10672: 10640: 10618:(2): 105–121. 10598: 10588:(4): 399–436. 10572: 10546:(4): 531–553. 10524: 10521: 10520: 10519: 10483:(4956): 4956. 10466: 10454:10.12705/643.9 10448:(3): 552–581. 10435: 10393:(April 2016). 10383: 10370:2027.42/142064 10355:(4): 704–730. 10335: 10293: 10236: 10208:(6): 391–425. 10196: 10146:(2): 233–252. 10133:sequence data" 10121:Givnish, T. J. 10116: 10090:(3): 267–296. 10079: 10044: 10034:(4): 385–398. 10009: 9997:(3): 375–393. 9980: 9954:(1): 337–351. 9942: 9929:2027.42/146610 9888: 9870:(4): 584–616. 9838: 9786:Meerow, Alan W 9778: 9741: 9715:(3): 607–619. 9695:Chase, Mark W. 9690: 9670:(4): 342–348. 9655: 9622:(3): 467–510. 9595: 9559:Chase, Mark W. 9555: 9496:Chase, Mark W. 9492: 9474:(3): 822–846. 9434: 9416:(4): 317–329. 9400: 9397: 9396: 9395: 9383:10.1086/336628 9377:(2): 141–155. 9364: 9322:Chase, Mark W. 9317: 9297:(4): 627–644. 9280: 9274: 9249: 9229:(2): 365–389. 9211: 9185:(3): 225–348. 9171: 9165: 9141: 9106: 9080:(5): 160–164. 9064: 9014:Ray, Thomas S. 9009: 8974: 8953: 8933:(2): 137–145. 8918: 8890:(2): 211–217. 8869: 8841: 8830:(3): 375–393, 8818:Chase, Mark W. 8813: 8793:10.1086/297231 8772: 8749: 8729:(7): 151–162. 8716: 8685: 8648: 8615: 8556: 8526: 8474: 8438: 8417: 8391: 8381:(3): 197–203. 8365: 8347:(2): 188–193. 8333: 8315:(4): 129–134. 8291: 8285: 8265:Klaus Kubitzki 8256: 8222: 8195: 8165: 8119: 8060: 8003: 7971: 7968: 7967: 7966: 7955: 7946:Floral biology 7940: 7924: 7911: 7901: 7886: 7873: 7863: 7835: 7817: 7807: 7786: 7775: 7749: 7732: 7688: 7678: 7666:(2010-06-10). 7660: 7642: 7624: 7615: 7591:Chase, Mark W. 7586: 7567: 7555:Givnish, T. J. 7531: 7512: 7502: 7485: 7482: 7481: 7480: 7474: 7455: 7449: 7429: 7414: 7395: 7382: 7367: 7354: 7336: 7296: 7293: 7292: 7291: 7265: 7252: 7234: 7228: 7206: 7193: 7165: 7151: 7125: 7112: 7097: 7084: 7060: 7047: 7025: 7012: 6994: 6981: 6962: 6956: 6941: 6928: 6910: 6904: 6889: 6883: 6865: 6848: 6830: 6818:, ed. (1913). 6812: 6806: 6791: 6785: 6770: 6764: 6749: 6735: 6715:, ed. (1998). 6709: 6696: 6682:Huber, Herbert 6674: 6668: 6646: 6640: 6625: 6620: 6605: 6599: 6584: 6571: 6556: 6543: 6529:Dahlgren, R.M. 6525: 6519: 6505:Dahlgren, Rolf 6501: 6495: 6477: 6471: 6447: 6441: 6422: 6409: 6383: 6370: 6355: 6354: 6353: 6335: 6320: 6300: 6297: 6296: 6295: 6277: 6276: 6275: 6204: 6189: 6175: 6160: 6138: 6116: 6098: 6084: 6069: 6047: 6025: 6011: 5997: 5983: 5974:, ed. (1757). 5968: 5950: 5930: 5927: 5925: 5922: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5914: 5913: 5901: 5886: 5870: 5858: 5843: 5828: 5816: 5812:Tomlinson 1995 5804: 5792: 5780: 5768: 5756: 5744: 5732: 5728:Takhtajan 1991 5720: 5716:Takhtajan 2009 5708: 5704:Cronquist 1988 5696: 5684: 5672: 5660: 5648: 5632: 5617: 5605: 5593: 5581: 5569: 5557: 5553:Sanderson 1997 5545: 5530: 5518: 5501: 5489: 5477: 5462: 5450: 5438: 5422: 5410: 5395: 5380: 5368: 5356: 5344: 5332: 5320: 5308: 5293: 5281: 5269: 5257: 5240: 5228: 5209: 5197: 5185: 5173: 5161: 5149: 5134: 5119: 5104: 5089: 5085:Cronquist 1981 5074: 5062: 5058:Wettstein 1924 5050: 5038: 5026: 5011: 4999: 4981: 4965: 4949: 4937: 4918: 4902: 4886: 4870: 4854: 4842: 4823: 4801: 4782: 4766: 4747: 4732: 4716: 4704: 4689: 4677: 4665: 4650: 4629: 4617: 4605: 4593: 4578: 4566: 4554: 4539: 4518: 4485: 4463: 4456:Takhtajan 2009 4441: 4437:Tomlinson 1970 4429: 4417: 4405: 4393: 4378: 4363: 4351: 4339: 4327: 4315: 4298: 4286: 4274: 4262: 4247: 4230: 4213: 4210:(Online). n.d. 4193: 4173: 4161: 4146: 4131: 4116: 4099: 4084: 4080:Takhtajan 1964 4072: 4068:Takhtajan 1966 4057: 4042: 4027: 4010: 3988: 3986: 3983: 3980: 3979: 3967: 3950: 3928: 3909: 3900:Monocots show 3893: 3845: 3833: 3813: 3795: 3794: 3792: 3789: 3788: 3787: 3780: 3777: 3740:. Most of the 3730:Amaryllidaceae 3688:) and rushes ( 3603: 3600: 3564: 3561: 3538: 3535: 3533: 3530: 3509: 3506: 3463: 3460: 3432:autapomorphies 3420: 3417: 3405:Petrosaviaceae 3393:Petrosaviaceae 3384: 3381: 3328: 3325: 3240: 3237: 3183: 3182: 3179: 3178: 3172: 3167: 3166: 3164: 3160: 3159: 3156: 3155: 3151: 3150: 3147: 3146: 3142: 3141: 3138: 3137: 3133: 3132: 3129: 3128: 3124: 3123: 3120: 3119: 3115: 3114: 3111: 3110: 3106: 3105: 3102: 3101: 3097: 3096: 3093: 3092: 3088: 3087: 3084: 3083: 3079: 3078: 3075: 3074: 3070: 3069: 3066: 3065: 3061: 3060: 3057: 3056: 3049: 3046: 3045: 3042: 3041: 3034: 3028: 3026: 3023: 3022: 3019: 3018: 3011: 3005: 3003: 3000: 2999: 2996: 2995: 2988: 2982: 2980: 2973: 2972: 2969: 2968: 2960: 2955: 2953: 2949: 2948: 2945: 2944: 2936: 2931: 2929: 2926: 2925: 2922: 2921: 2917: 2916: 2913: 2912: 2904: 2901: 2900: 2897: 2896: 2888: 2883: 2881: 2875: 2873: 2870: 2869: 2866: 2865: 2858: 2852: 2850: 2846: 2845: 2842: 2841: 2834: 2829: 2827: 2824: 2823: 2820: 2819: 2812: 2806: 2804: 2799: 2797: 2792: 2790: 2777: 2629:Historically, 2622: 2619: 2616: 2615: 2612: 2611: 2607: 2604: 2603: 2601: 2597: 2596: 2593: 2592: 2588: 2587: 2584: 2583: 2579: 2578: 2575: 2574: 2570: 2569: 2566: 2565: 2561: 2560: 2557: 2556: 2552: 2551: 2548: 2547: 2543: 2542: 2539: 2538: 2531: 2528: 2527: 2524: 2523: 2516: 2511: 2509: 2506: 2505: 2502: 2501: 2494: 2489: 2487: 2484: 2483: 2480: 2479: 2475: 2474: 2471: 2470: 2463: 2460: 2459: 2456: 2455: 2448: 2443: 2441: 2436: 2434: 2430: 2429: 2426: 2425: 2418: 2413: 2411: 2408: 2407: 2404: 2403: 2396: 2391: 2389: 2386: 2385: 2382: 2381: 2374: 2369: 2367: 2359: 2246: 2243: 2242: 2241: 2227: 2213: 2211:Eichler system 2207: 2197: 2143:August Eichler 2131:George Bentham 2063: 2060: 1986: 1980: 1979: 1935: 1929: 1928: 1906:'s studies of 1861: 1858: 1856: 1853: 1829:mesangiosperms 1824: 1821: 1735: 1732: 1730: 1729: 1723: 1720: 1713: 1710: 1704: 1701: 1695: 1689: 1681: 1675: 1668: 1665: 1656: 1652:synapomorphies 1643: 1642:Synapomorphies 1640: 1603: 1600: 1568:(greenbriar), 1535: 1534: 1533: 1529: 1528: 1527: 1526: 1523: 1522: 1519: 1512: 1497: 1496: 1490: 1484: 1473: 1472: 1469: 1458: 1452: 1451: 1444: 1425: 1415: 1414: 1407: 1400: 1394: 1393: 1386: 1378:absent. Major 1365: 1359: 1358: 1355: 1345: 1339: 1338: 1335: 1332: 1284: 1281: 1268: 1267:Fruit and seed 1265: 1214:(petal-like). 1176: 1173: 1171: 1168: 1154:inflorescences 1109: 1106: 1091: 1088: 955: 952: 950: 947: 935:aquatic plants 834:), all in the 746: 743: 712: 709: 647:APG III system 535:Monocotyledons 530: 529: 528: 527: 524: 512: 504: 494: 486: 470: 460: 452: 446:Alternifoliae 441: 440: 434: 433: 432: 431: 430: 429: 428: 427: 422: 417: 412: 404: 403: 396: 395: 394: 393: 388: 383: 378: 373: 365: 364: 358: 357: 356: 355: 350: 342: 341: 331: 330: 326: 325: 320: 311: 310: 304: 303: 298: 291: 290: 285: 278: 277: 272: 265: 264: 259: 255: 254: 241: 240: 214:Zostera marina 184: 183: 171: 170: 169: 160: 153: 152: 151: 142: 135: 134: 133: 124: 117: 116: 115: 114: 113: 112: 109: 108: 100: 95: 90: 85: 80: 75: 70: 65: 60: 55: 50: 45: 35: 33:Monocotyledons 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11833: 11822: 11819: 11817: 11814: 11812: 11809: 11807: 11804: 11803: 11801: 11784: 11778: 11773: 11767: 11763: 11758: 11752: 11748: 11747: 11745: 11743: 11739: 11735: 11730: 11718: 11710: 11708: 11704: 11702: 11698: 11696: 11692: 11691: 11688: 11683: 11649: 11646: 11644: 11641: 11639: 11636: 11634: 11631: 11629: 11626: 11624: 11621: 11619: 11618:Metteniusales 11616: 11614: 11611: 11610: 11608: 11606: 11602: 11596: 11593: 11591: 11588: 11586: 11583: 11581: 11578: 11576: 11575:Escalloniales 11573: 11571: 11568: 11566: 11563: 11562: 11560: 11558: 11554: 11548: 11545: 11543: 11540: 11539: 11536: 11533: 11531: 11527: 11521: 11518: 11516: 11513: 11511: 11508: 11507: 11504: 11501: 11498: 11497:Superasterids 11493: 11479: 11476: 11474: 11471: 11469: 11466: 11464: 11461: 11459: 11456: 11454: 11451: 11449: 11446: 11444: 11441: 11440: 11438: 11436: 11432: 11426: 11423: 11421: 11418: 11416: 11413: 11411: 11408: 11406: 11403: 11401: 11398: 11396: 11393: 11391: 11390:Zygophyllales 11388: 11387: 11385: 11383: 11379: 11373: 11370: 11369: 11366: 11363: 11361: 11357: 11351: 11348: 11347: 11344: 11341: 11338: 11333: 11327: 11324: 11322: 11319: 11318: 11315: 11312: 11309: 11308:Core eudicots 11304: 11298: 11295: 11293: 11290: 11288: 11285: 11283: 11280: 11279: 11276: 11273: 11270: 11265: 11251: 11248: 11246: 11243: 11241: 11238: 11236: 11233: 11232: 11230: 11228: 11224: 11217: 11214: 11211: 11208: 11205: 11202: 11199: 11196: 11193: 11192:Petrosaviales 11190: 11187: 11184: 11181: 11178: 11177: 11174: 11171: 11169: 11165: 11159: 11156: 11154: 11151: 11149: 11146: 11144: 11141: 11140: 11138: 11136: 11132: 11128: 11122: 11119: 11117: 11116:Chloranthales 11114: 11113: 11110: 11107: 11104: 11099: 11092: 11089: 11086: 11083: 11080: 11077: 11076: 11073: 11070: 11067: 11062: 11056: 11053: 11051: 11048: 11046: 11043: 11041: 11038: 11036: 11033: 11030: 11026: 11025: 11022: 11017: 11013: 11005: 11000: 10998: 10993: 10991: 10986: 10985: 10982: 10975: 10970: 10966: 10963: 10958: 10954: 10953: 10934: 10930: 10926: 10922: 10910: 10906: 10902: 10890: 10886: 10875: 10871: 10867: 10863: 10852: 10848: 10844: 10840: 10828: 10824: 10820: 10816: 10812: 10809: 10806: 10794: 10790: 10789: 10784: 10783:Stevens, P.F. 10780: 10768: 10763: 10762: 10751: 10746: 10742: 10738: 10737: 10732: 10728: 10724: 10719: 10707: 10702: 10698: 10694: 10693: 10685: 10681: 10677: 10676:Chase, Mark W 10673: 10668: 10663: 10659: 10655: 10654: 10649: 10645: 10641: 10636: 10631: 10626: 10621: 10617: 10613: 10612: 10607: 10603: 10599: 10595: 10591: 10587: 10583: 10582: 10577: 10573: 10569: 10565: 10561: 10557: 10553: 10549: 10545: 10541: 10540: 10535: 10531: 10527: 10526: 10516: 10512: 10507: 10502: 10498: 10494: 10490: 10486: 10482: 10478: 10477: 10472: 10467: 10463: 10459: 10455: 10451: 10447: 10443: 10442: 10436: 10432: 10428: 10423: 10418: 10414: 10410: 10406: 10402: 10401: 10396: 10392: 10388: 10384: 10380: 10376: 10371: 10366: 10362: 10358: 10354: 10350: 10349: 10344: 10343:Soltis, P. S. 10340: 10339:Soltis, D. E. 10336: 10332: 10328: 10323: 10318: 10314: 10310: 10306: 10302: 10298: 10294: 10290: 10286: 10281: 10276: 10271: 10266: 10262: 10258: 10254: 10250: 10246: 10242: 10237: 10233: 10229: 10224: 10223:2027.42/79100 10219: 10215: 10211: 10207: 10203: 10197: 10193: 10187: 10171: 10167: 10163: 10159: 10154: 10149: 10145: 10141: 10134: 10132: 10128: 10122: 10117: 10113: 10109: 10105: 10101: 10097: 10093: 10089: 10085: 10080: 10076: 10072: 10067: 10062: 10058: 10054: 10050: 10045: 10041: 10037: 10033: 10029: 10028: 10023: 10021: 10015: 10010: 10005: 10000: 9996: 9992: 9991: 9986: 9981: 9977: 9973: 9969: 9965: 9961: 9957: 9953: 9949: 9943: 9939: 9935: 9930: 9925: 9920: 9915: 9911: 9907: 9906: 9901: 9897: 9893: 9889: 9885: 9881: 9877: 9873: 9869: 9865: 9864: 9859: 9855: 9854:Thiele, Kevin 9851: 9847: 9843: 9839: 9835: 9831: 9826: 9821: 9817: 9813: 9809: 9805: 9804: 9799: 9797: 9793: 9787: 9783: 9779: 9775: 9771: 9766: 9761: 9757: 9753: 9752: 9747: 9742: 9738: 9734: 9730: 9726: 9722: 9718: 9714: 9710: 9709: 9704: 9702: 9696: 9691: 9687: 9683: 9678: 9673: 9669: 9665: 9661: 9656: 9641: 9637: 9633: 9629: 9625: 9621: 9617: 9610: 9608: 9604: 9596: 9592: 9588: 9583: 9578: 9574: 9570: 9569: 9564: 9560: 9556: 9552: 9548: 9543: 9542:1969.1/179875 9538: 9534: 9530: 9526: 9522: 9521: 9513: 9511: 9505: 9501: 9497: 9493: 9489: 9485: 9481: 9477: 9473: 9469: 9468: 9460: 9458: 9452: 9448: 9444: 9440: 9435: 9431: 9427: 9423: 9419: 9415: 9411: 9407: 9403: 9402: 9399:Phylogenetics 9392: 9388: 9384: 9380: 9376: 9372: 9371: 9365: 9361: 9357: 9352: 9347: 9343: 9339: 9335: 9331: 9327: 9323: 9318: 9313: 9308: 9304: 9300: 9296: 9292: 9291: 9286: 9281: 9277: 9275:9780120059034 9271: 9267: 9263: 9259: 9255: 9254:Adv. Bot. Res 9250: 9246: 9242: 9237: 9232: 9228: 9224: 9220: 9216: 9215:Thorne, R. F. 9212: 9208: 9204: 9200: 9196: 9192: 9188: 9184: 9180: 9176: 9175:Thorne, R. F. 9172: 9168: 9162: 9158: 9154: 9150: 9146: 9142: 9137: 9136:10044/1/39821 9132: 9127: 9122: 9118: 9117: 9112: 9107: 9103: 9099: 9095: 9091: 9087: 9083: 9079: 9075: 9074: 9069: 9068:Takhtajan, A. 9065: 9061: 9057: 9053: 9049: 9045: 9041: 9037: 9033: 9029: 9025: 9024: 9019: 9015: 9010: 9006: 9002: 8998: 8994: 8990: 8986: 8985: 8980: 8975: 8971: 8967: 8963: 8959: 8954: 8950: 8946: 8941: 8936: 8932: 8928: 8924: 8919: 8915: 8911: 8906: 8901: 8897: 8893: 8889: 8885: 8884: 8879: 8877: 8870: 8858: 8855:(in German). 8854: 8850: 8846: 8842: 8838: 8833: 8829: 8825: 8824: 8819: 8814: 8810: 8806: 8802: 8798: 8794: 8790: 8787:(1): 93–116. 8786: 8782: 8778: 8773: 8769: 8765: 8761: 8757: 8756: 8750: 8745: 8740: 8736: 8732: 8728: 8724: 8723: 8717: 8713: 8709: 8705: 8701: 8697: 8693: 8692: 8686: 8682: 8678: 8674: 8673:10.1038/28974 8670: 8666: 8662: 8658: 8654: 8649: 8645: 8641: 8637: 8633: 8629: 8625: 8621: 8616: 8612: 8608: 8603: 8598: 8593: 8588: 8584: 8580: 8576: 8572: 8571: 8566: 8562: 8557: 8552: 8547: 8543: 8539: 8535: 8531: 8527: 8523: 8519: 8515: 8511: 8507: 8503: 8499: 8495: 8492:(2): 89–106. 8491: 8487: 8480: 8475: 8471: 8467: 8463: 8459: 8455: 8451: 8444: 8439: 8435: 8431: 8427: 8423: 8418: 8414: 8410: 8407:(2): 91–124. 8406: 8402: 8401: 8396: 8392: 8388: 8384: 8380: 8376: 8375: 8370: 8366: 8362: 8358: 8354: 8350: 8346: 8342: 8338: 8334: 8330: 8326: 8322: 8318: 8314: 8310: 8309: 8304: 8300: 8296: 8292: 8288: 8282: 8278: 8274: 8270: 8266: 8262: 8257: 8252: 8247: 8243: 8239: 8235: 8231: 8227: 8223: 8218: 8213: 8209: 8205: 8201: 8196: 8191: 8186: 8182: 8178: 8174: 8170: 8166: 8162: 8158: 8154: 8150: 8145: 8140: 8136: 8132: 8128: 8124: 8120: 8116: 8112: 8107: 8102: 8097: 8092: 8088: 8084: 8080: 8076: 8069: 8065: 8061: 8049: 8045: 8038: 8034: 8030: 8026: 8022: 8018: 8017: 8012: 8008: 8004: 7999: 7994: 7990: 7986: 7982: 7978: 7974: 7973: 7964: 7958: 7956:9783662035337 7952: 7948: 7947: 7941: 7939: 7938:Oliver (1913) 7933: 7929: 7925: 7923: 7917: 7912: 7910: 7904: 7902:9783662035337 7898: 7894: 7893: 7887: 7885: 7879: 7874: 7872: 7866: 7860: 7856: 7852: 7848: 7844: 7840: 7836: 7834: 7828: 7827: 7822: 7818: 7816: 7810: 7804: 7800: 7796: 7792: 7787: 7784: 7778: 7776:9783662035337 7772: 7768: 7767: 7762: 7758: 7754: 7750: 7748: 7742: 7738: 7733: 7731: 7714: 7707: 7706: 7702: 7697: 7693: 7692:Givnish, T.J. 7689: 7687: 7681: 7679:9780521142472 7675: 7671: 7670: 7665: 7661: 7659: 7650: 7649: 7643: 7641: 7632: 7631: 7625: 7623: 7618: 7616:9781139002950 7612: 7608: 7604: 7600: 7596: 7592: 7587: 7585: 7579: 7576: 7575:Rudall, P. J. 7572: 7568: 7566: 7560: 7556: 7552: 7548: 7547:Rudall, P. J. 7544: 7543:Soltis, P. S. 7540: 7539:Soltis, D. E. 7536: 7532: 7529: 7523: 7522: 7517: 7513: 7511: 7505: 7503:9780191560156 7499: 7495: 7494: 7488: 7487: 7477: 7471: 7467: 7463: 7462: 7456: 7452: 7446: 7442: 7438: 7437: 7430: 7428: 7417: 7415:0-643-06437-0 7411: 7407: 7403: 7402: 7396: 7385: 7379: 7375: 7374: 7368: 7357: 7351: 7347: 7346: 7341: 7337: 7326: 7322: 7318: 7314: 7313: 7308: 7306: 7299: 7298: 7280: 7276: 7275: 7270: 7266: 7255: 7249: 7245: 7244: 7239: 7235: 7231: 7229:9780231073288 7225: 7221: 7217: 7216: 7211: 7207: 7196: 7194:0-05-001715-2 7190: 7186: 7182: 7178: 7174: 7170: 7166: 7164: 7160: 7154: 7152:9781588342010 7148: 7144: 7143: 7138: 7134: 7130: 7126: 7115: 7109: 7105: 7104: 7098: 7087: 7085:0-674-30685-6 7081: 7077: 7072: 7071: 7065: 7061: 7050: 7044: 7040: 7036: 7035: 7030: 7026: 7015: 7013:9780815340256 7009: 7005: 7004: 7003:Plant biology 6999: 6995: 6984: 6982:9781107693753 6978: 6974: 6973: 6968: 6965:Short, Emma; 6963: 6959: 6953: 6949: 6948: 6942: 6931: 6929:9780521310833 6925: 6921: 6920: 6915: 6911: 6907: 6905:0-471-11606-8 6901: 6897: 6896: 6890: 6886: 6884:9781464113512 6880: 6876: 6875: 6870: 6866: 6864: 6851: 6849:9781596919655 6845: 6841: 6840: 6835: 6831: 6827: 6824:. Cambridge: 6823: 6822: 6817: 6813: 6809: 6807:9781284077537 6803: 6799: 6798: 6792: 6788: 6786:9780470752678 6782: 6778: 6777: 6771: 6767: 6765:9780521873055 6761: 6757: 6756: 6750: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6732: 6728: 6724: 6720: 6719: 6714: 6710: 6699: 6697:3-540-64060-6 6693: 6689: 6688: 6683: 6679: 6675: 6671: 6669:9783874291606 6665: 6661: 6657: 6656: 6651: 6647: 6643: 6637: 6634:. MIT Press. 6633: 6632: 6626: 6623: 6621:9780191560156 6617: 6613: 6612: 6606: 6602: 6600:9780444810731 6596: 6592: 6591: 6585: 6574: 6572:81-224-0013-2 6568: 6564: 6563: 6557: 6546: 6540: 6536: 6535: 6530: 6526: 6522: 6520:9780122006807 6516: 6512: 6511: 6506: 6502: 6498: 6496:9780893273323 6492: 6488: 6487: 6482: 6478: 6474: 6468: 6464: 6459: 6458: 6452: 6448: 6444: 6442:9781420024982 6438: 6434: 6430: 6429: 6423: 6412: 6406: 6402: 6398: 6397: 6392: 6388: 6384: 6373: 6367: 6363: 6362: 6356: 6352: 6351:9780198542193 6348: 6345: 6342: 6341: 6338: 6336:9780881928501 6332: 6328: 6327: 6321: 6317: 6314:. Cambridge: 6313: 6312: 6307: 6303: 6302: 6292: 6291:Vindobonensis 6288: 6287: 6282: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6269: 6255: 6251: 6247: 6243: 6242: 6237: 6236: 6231: 6227: 6226: 6215: 6214: 6209: 6205: 6201: 6200: 6194: 6190: 6186: 6185: 6180: 6176: 6172: 6171: 6165: 6161: 6149: 6148: 6143: 6139: 6127: 6126: 6121: 6117: 6113: 6109: 6108: 6103: 6099: 6095: 6094: 6089: 6088:Lindley, John 6085: 6081: 6080: 6074: 6073:Lindley, John 6070: 6066: 6062: 6058: 6057: 6052: 6048: 6036: 6035: 6030: 6029:Engler, Adolf 6026: 6022: 6021: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6007: 6002: 5998: 5994: 5993: 5989:(1818–1821). 5988: 5984: 5980: 5979: 5973: 5972:Birch, Thomas 5969: 5965: 5964: 5960:(1862–1883). 5959: 5955: 5951: 5947: 5943: 5942: 5937: 5933: 5932: 5910: 5905: 5899: 5895: 5890: 5883: 5879: 5874: 5867: 5862: 5855: 5850: 5848: 5840: 5835: 5833: 5825: 5820: 5813: 5808: 5801: 5796: 5789: 5784: 5777: 5772: 5765: 5760: 5753: 5748: 5741: 5740:Stebbins 1974 5736: 5729: 5724: 5717: 5712: 5705: 5700: 5693: 5688: 5681: 5676: 5669: 5664: 5657: 5652: 5645: 5641: 5636: 5629: 5624: 5622: 5614: 5609: 5602: 5597: 5590: 5585: 5578: 5573: 5566: 5561: 5554: 5549: 5542: 5537: 5535: 5527: 5522: 5515: 5510: 5508: 5506: 5498: 5493: 5486: 5481: 5474: 5469: 5467: 5459: 5454: 5447: 5442: 5435: 5431: 5426: 5419: 5414: 5407: 5402: 5400: 5393: 5389: 5384: 5377: 5372: 5365: 5360: 5353: 5348: 5341: 5336: 5329: 5324: 5317: 5312: 5305: 5300: 5298: 5290: 5289:Dahlgren 1989 5285: 5278: 5273: 5266: 5265:Dahlgren 1980 5261: 5254: 5249: 5247: 5245: 5237: 5232: 5225: 5220: 5218: 5216: 5214: 5206: 5201: 5194: 5189: 5182: 5177: 5170: 5165: 5158: 5153: 5146: 5141: 5139: 5131: 5126: 5124: 5116: 5111: 5109: 5101: 5096: 5094: 5086: 5081: 5079: 5071: 5066: 5059: 5054: 5047: 5042: 5035: 5030: 5023: 5018: 5016: 5008: 5003: 4997: 4995: 4990: 4985: 4978: 4974: 4969: 4962: 4958: 4953: 4946: 4941: 4934: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4915: 4911: 4906: 4899: 4895: 4890: 4883: 4879: 4874: 4867: 4863: 4858: 4851: 4846: 4839: 4835: 4830: 4828: 4820: 4818: 4813: 4812:Malpighi 1679 4808: 4806: 4798: 4796: 4791: 4786: 4779: 4775: 4770: 4763: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4744: 4739: 4737: 4729: 4725: 4720: 4713: 4708: 4702: 4698: 4693: 4686: 4681: 4675:, p. 10. 4674: 4669: 4663: 4659: 4654: 4647: 4642: 4640: 4638: 4636: 4634: 4626: 4625:Donoghue 2005 4621: 4614: 4609: 4602: 4597: 4590: 4585: 4583: 4575: 4570: 4564:, p. 92. 4563: 4558: 4551: 4546: 4544: 4536: 4532: 4527: 4525: 4523: 4515: 4510: 4508: 4506: 4504: 4502: 4500: 4498: 4496: 4494: 4492: 4490: 4483: 4479: 4474: 4472: 4470: 4468: 4461: 4457: 4452: 4450: 4448: 4446: 4438: 4433: 4426: 4421: 4414: 4409: 4402: 4397: 4391: 4387: 4382: 4376: 4372: 4367: 4360: 4355: 4348: 4343: 4336: 4331: 4324: 4323:Du et al 2016 4319: 4312: 4307: 4305: 4303: 4295: 4290: 4283: 4282:Kubitzki 1998 4278: 4271: 4266: 4259: 4254: 4252: 4244: 4239: 4237: 4235: 4227: 4222: 4220: 4218: 4209: 4208: 4203: 4197: 4189: 4188: 4183: 4177: 4170: 4165: 4159: 4155: 4154:Tropicos 2015 4150: 4143: 4138: 4136: 4129: 4125: 4124:Tropicos 2015 4120: 4113: 4108: 4106: 4104: 4097: 4093: 4092:Tropicos 2015 4088: 4081: 4076: 4069: 4064: 4062: 4055: 4051: 4050:Tropicos 2015 4046: 4039: 4034: 4032: 4024: 4019: 4017: 4015: 4007: 4002: 4000: 3998: 3996: 3994: 3989: 3976: 3971: 3964: 3960: 3954: 3948: 3944: 3943: 3938: 3932: 3925: 3921: 3920: 3916:* Lacking in 3913: 3907: 3903: 3897: 3889: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3868: 3862: 3855: 3849: 3842: 3837: 3830: 3829:J.H. Schaffn. 3826: 3822: 3817: 3810: 3806: 3800: 3796: 3786: 3783: 3782: 3776: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3743: 3742:horticultural 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3706:Dioscoreaceae 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3666:Zingiberaceae 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3634: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3613: 3609: 3599: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3570: 3560: 3558: 3554: 3548: 3544: 3529: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3505: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3494: 3489: 3488: 3483: 3482: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3459: 3457: 3453: 3450:), including 3449: 3445: 3439: 3437: 3433: 3430: 3429:morphological 3426: 3416: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3380: 3378: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3324: 3321: 3316: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3257: 3255: 3251: 3246: 3236: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3219:(sedges) and 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3175: 3170: 3165: 3158: 3157: 3149: 3148: 3140: 3139: 3131: 3130: 3122: 3121: 3113: 3112: 3104: 3103: 3095: 3094: 3086: 3085: 3077: 3076: 3068: 3067: 3059: 3058: 3055: 3054: 3048: 3047: 3044: 3043: 3040: 3039: 3032: 3031: 3025: 3024: 3021: 3020: 3017: 3016: 3009: 3008: 3002: 3001: 2998: 2997: 2994: 2993: 2986: 2985: 2978: 2975: 2974: 2971: 2970: 2967: 2965: 2959: 2958: 2952:121 MYA 2951: 2950: 2947: 2946: 2943: 2941: 2935: 2934: 2928: 2927: 2924: 2923: 2915: 2914: 2911: 2909: 2903: 2902: 2899: 2898: 2895: 2893: 2887: 2886: 2880:120 MYA 2879: 2878: 2872: 2871: 2868: 2867: 2864: 2863: 2862:Petrosaviales 2856: 2855: 2849:122 MYA 2848: 2847: 2844: 2843: 2840: 2839: 2833: 2832: 2826: 2825: 2822: 2821: 2818: 2817: 2810: 2809: 2803: 2802: 2796: 2795: 2788: 2784: 2781: 2780: 2776: 2775: 2772: 2769: 2768: 2765: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2738: 2735: 2731: 2726: 2724: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2651:Rolf Dahlgren 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2627: 2602: 2595: 2594: 2586: 2585: 2577: 2576: 2568: 2567: 2559: 2558: 2550: 2549: 2541: 2540: 2537: 2536: 2530: 2529: 2526: 2525: 2522: 2521: 2515: 2514: 2508: 2507: 2504: 2503: 2500: 2499: 2493: 2492: 2486: 2485: 2482: 2481: 2473: 2472: 2469: 2468: 2467:Chloranthales 2462: 2461: 2458: 2457: 2454: 2453: 2447: 2446: 2440: 2439: 2432: 2431: 2428: 2427: 2424: 2423: 2417: 2416: 2410: 2409: 2406: 2405: 2402: 2401: 2395: 2394: 2388: 2387: 2384: 2383: 2380: 2379: 2373: 2372: 2366: 2363: 2362: 2358: 2357: 2354: 2351: 2350: 2347: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2320: 2318: 2315: 2310: 2306: 2305:uniaperturate 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2281: 2279: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2265: 2260: 2256: 2255:phylogenetics 2252: 2240: 2239:Thorne system 2236: 2232: 2228: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2212: 2208: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2196: 2195:Engler system 2192: 2188: 2187: 2186: 2183: 2181: 2177: 2176: 2170: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2127: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2059: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2044:Dicotyledones 2041: 2037: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2019: 2014: 2008: 2001: 1999: 1995: 1990: 1983: 1978: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1954: 1947: 1932: 1927: 1925: 1924:Royal Society 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1900: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1866: 1855:Early history 1852: 1849: 1844: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1820: 1818: 1817: 1812: 1811: 1806: 1805: 1800: 1799: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1750: 1746: 1745: 1740: 1728: 1724: 1721: 1718: 1714: 1711: 1709:cotyledon tip 1708: 1705: 1702: 1700: 1696: 1694: 1690: 1688: 1685: 1682: 1680: 1676: 1673: 1669: 1666: 1664: 1661: 1658: 1657: 1655: 1653: 1649: 1639: 1637: 1636:plesiomorphic 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1599: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1588: 1583: 1582: 1577: 1573: 1572: 1567: 1566: 1561: 1560: 1555: 1551: 1539: 1520: 1517: 1513: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1499: 1498: 1494: 1491: 1488: 1485: 1482: 1478: 1475: 1474: 1470: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1457: 1454: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1424: 1420: 1417: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1405: 1401: 1399: 1396: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1366: 1364: 1361: 1360: 1356: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1344: 1341: 1340: 1336: 1333: 1330: 1329: 1326: 1324: 1320: 1311: 1310: 1305: 1298: 1294: 1289: 1280: 1278: 1274: 1264: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1236:phaneranthous 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1186: 1182: 1167: 1165: 1161: 1160: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1105: 1102: 1101:Leaf venation 1097: 1087: 1085: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1069: 1068:Calamus manan 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1043:Burmanniaceae 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1003: 999: 995: 994: 989: 985: 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 961: 946: 944: 940: 936: 932: 928: 924: 920: 916: 912: 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 885:) as well as 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 864: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 841: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 817: 813: 809: 805: 801: 797: 793: 790: 786: 780: 778: 773: 769: 765: 760: 756: 752: 738: 731: 727: 723: 722: 717: 708: 706: 702: 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 669: 667: 663: 659: 655: 650: 648: 644: 639: 638:, or dicots. 637: 633: 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 612: 608: 607: 602: 596: 536: 525: 522: 518: 513: 510: 506:Monocotyleae 505: 502: 498: 495: 490: 487: 484: 480: 476: 471: 468: 464: 461: 458: 453: 450: 445: 444: 442: 439: 435: 426: 423: 421: 418: 416: 413: 411: 408: 407: 406: 405: 401: 398: 397: 392: 391:Petrosaviales 389: 387: 384: 382: 379: 377: 374: 372: 369: 368: 367: 366: 363: 360: 359: 354: 351: 349: 346: 345: 344: 343: 340: 337: 336: 335: 334: 332: 327: 323: 318: 317: 312: 309: 305: 302: 299: 296: 293: 292: 289: 286: 283: 280: 279: 276: 275:Tracheophytes 273: 270: 267: 266: 263: 260: 257: 256: 251: 246: 242: 238: 234: 230: 229: 224: 220: 216: 215: 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 185: 175: 164: 157: 146: 139: 128: 121: 110: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 58: 53: 48: 41: 31: 19: 11741: 11565:Aquifoliales 11458:Picramniales 11420:Cucurbitales 11400:Malpighiales 11350:Saxifragales 11282:Ranunculales 11250:Zingiberales 11245:Commelinales 11198:Dioscoreales 11167: 11079:Amborellales 11055:Angiospermae 10937:. Retrieved 10933:the original 10928: 10913:. Retrieved 10893:. Retrieved 10877:. Retrieved 10854:. Retrieved 10831:. Retrieved 10827:the original 10822: 10804: 10796:, retrieved 10787: 10771:. Retrieved 10740: 10734: 10710:. Retrieved 10696: 10690: 10657: 10651: 10615: 10609: 10585: 10579: 10543: 10537: 10480: 10474: 10445: 10439: 10404: 10398: 10352: 10346: 10312: 10308: 10252: 10248: 10241:Chase, M. W. 10205: 10201: 10186:cite journal 10174:. Retrieved 10143: 10139: 10130: 10126: 10087: 10083: 10056: 10052: 10031: 10025: 10019: 10014:Bremer, Kare 9994: 9988: 9951: 9947: 9909: 9903: 9867: 9861: 9807: 9801: 9795: 9791: 9758:(1): 22–66. 9755: 9749: 9712: 9706: 9700: 9667: 9663: 9647:. Retrieved 9640:the original 9619: 9615: 9606: 9602: 9572: 9566: 9524: 9518: 9509: 9471: 9465: 9457:Tracheophyta 9456: 9413: 9409: 9406:Bremer, Kåre 9374: 9368: 9333: 9329: 9294: 9288: 9257: 9253: 9226: 9222: 9182: 9178: 9148: 9114: 9077: 9071: 9027: 9021: 9017: 8988: 8982: 8961: 8957: 8930: 8926: 8887: 8881: 8875: 8861:. Retrieved 8856: 8852: 8827: 8821: 8784: 8780: 8759: 8753: 8726: 8720: 8695: 8689: 8656: 8652: 8627: 8623: 8620:Crane, P. R. 8574: 8568: 8561:Crane, P. R. 8541: 8537: 8532:(May 2013). 8489: 8485: 8453: 8450:Paleobiology 8449: 8425: 8421: 8404: 8398: 8378: 8372: 8344: 8340: 8312: 8306: 8268: 8260: 8241: 8237: 8207: 8203: 8180: 8176: 8169:Bremer, Kåre 8134: 8130: 8078: 8074: 8051:. Retrieved 8020: 8014: 7988: 7984: 7945: 7931: 7915: 7891: 7877: 7846: 7833:Birch (1757) 7825: 7790: 7765: 7740: 7737:Crane, P. R. 7720:. Retrieved 7713:the original 7704: 7700: 7696:Meerow, A.W. 7668: 7647: 7629: 7598: 7577: 7571:Chase, M. W. 7558: 7520: 7516:Chase, M. W. 7492: 7460: 7434: 7419:, retrieved 7400: 7387:. Retrieved 7372: 7359:. Retrieved 7344: 7340:Rudall, P.J. 7328:. Retrieved 7316: 7310: 7304: 7283:. Retrieved 7279:the original 7273: 7257:. Retrieved 7246:. Springer. 7242: 7218:. New York: 7214: 7198:. Retrieved 7184: 7180: 7176: 7158: 7141: 7133:Soltis, P.S. 7129:Soltis, D.E. 7117:. Retrieved 7102: 7089:. Retrieved 7069: 7052:. Retrieved 7033: 7017:. Retrieved 7002: 6986:. Retrieved 6971: 6967:George, Alex 6946: 6933:. Retrieved 6918: 6894: 6873: 6853:. Retrieved 6838: 6834:Pavord, Anna 6820: 6796: 6775: 6754: 6717: 6701:. Retrieved 6686: 6654: 6630: 6610: 6589: 6576:. Retrieved 6561: 6548:. Retrieved 6533: 6509: 6485: 6461:. New York: 6456: 6427: 6414:. Retrieved 6395: 6375:. Retrieved 6360: 6325: 6310: 6306:Arber, Agnes 6285: 6273:Google Books 6266: 6257:. Retrieved 6239: 6234: 6218:. Retrieved 6212: 6197: 6183: 6168: 6152:. Retrieved 6146: 6130:. Retrieved 6124: 6111: 6106: 6092: 6077: 6055: 6039:. Retrieved 6033: 6019: 6005: 5991: 5976: 5962: 5958:Hooker, J.D. 5944:(in Latin). 5940: 5918:Bibliography 5904: 5889: 5873: 5861: 5819: 5807: 5795: 5788:Henslow 1893 5783: 5771: 5764:Thorne 1992b 5759: 5747: 5735: 5723: 5711: 5699: 5687: 5675: 5668:Hallier 1905 5663: 5651: 5635: 5608: 5596: 5584: 5572: 5560: 5548: 5521: 5492: 5480: 5453: 5441: 5425: 5413: 5383: 5371: 5359: 5347: 5335: 5323: 5311: 5284: 5272: 5260: 5236:Bentham 1877 5231: 5200: 5193:LAPGIII 2009 5188: 5176: 5164: 5152: 5145:APG III 2009 5065: 5053: 5046:Lindley 1830 5041: 5034:Jussieu 1789 5029: 5007:Lindley 1853 5002: 4993: 4989:Scopoli 1772 4984: 4968: 4961:pp. 1–2 4952: 4940: 4930: 4921: 4905: 4889: 4873: 4862:Stuessy 2009 4857: 4845: 4816: 4794: 4785: 4769: 4759: 4750: 4719: 4707: 4692: 4680: 4668: 4653: 4620: 4613:Lersten 2004 4608: 4596: 4569: 4557: 4550:Stevens 2015 4432: 4420: 4408: 4396: 4386:Mauseth 2017 4381: 4371:Tillich 1998 4366: 4354: 4342: 4330: 4318: 4289: 4277: 4265: 4226:Tillich 1998 4205: 4196: 4185: 4176: 4164: 4149: 4142:Eichler 1886 4119: 4112:Thorne 1992a 4087: 4075: 4045: 3974: 3970: 3953: 3946: 3940: 3936: 3931: 3917: 3912: 3896: 3865: 3848: 3836: 3816: 3809:typification 3804: 3799: 3682:Bromeliaceae 3674:Asparagaceae 3635: 3608:staple foods 3605: 3566: 3563:Conservation 3550: 3513: 3511: 3491: 3490:(Liliales), 3485: 3479: 3476:dicotyledons 3470:leaves with 3465: 3444:biomechanics 3440: 3438:and others. 3435: 3425:Melanthiales 3422: 3409:Commelinidae 3397:Dioscoreales 3386: 3368:Cucurbitales 3359: 3351: 3347: 3330: 3320:phylogenetic 3317: 3261:monophyletic 3258: 3242: 3215:include the 3186: 3053:Commelinales 3051: 3038:Zingiberales 3036: 3013: 2990: 2962: 2938: 2906: 2892:Dioscoreales 2890: 2860: 2836: 2814: 2782: 2770: 2739: 2727: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2628: 2624: 2533: 2518: 2497: 2496: 2465: 2450: 2420: 2398: 2378:Amborellales 2376: 2352: 2321: 2317:(APG) system 2293:monophyletic 2282: 2262: 2248: 2184: 2173: 2171: 2128: 2119: 2115: 2103: 2096:Acotyledones 2065: 2062:Post Linnean 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2034: 2018:a posteriori 2016: 2012: 2010: 2004: 1988: 1987: 1981: 1973:, following 1970: 1966: 1962: 1956: 1950: 1936: 1930: 1901: 1882: 1876:1682, after 1845: 1826: 1814: 1808: 1802: 1796: 1791:), bananas ( 1777:woody plants 1754: 1742: 1693:placentation 1645: 1605: 1592:Nymphaeaceae 1585: 1579: 1576:Dioscoreales 1569: 1563: 1557: 1546: 1503:: Number of 1479:: Number of 1465: 1334:In monocots 1315: 1307: 1270: 1256:aphananthous 1224:thermonastic 1178: 1170:Reproductive 1157: 1134:scale leaves 1111: 1093: 1066: 1062: 1057:) to locate 1055:skototropism 1047:Triuridaceae 1017:growth forms 1012: 1001: 991: 957: 919:Zingiberales 879:grass family 828:Dioscoreales 781: 759:dicotyledons 748: 719: 670: 651: 640: 636:dicotyledons 609: 604: 600: 534: 533: 425:Zingiberales 415:Commelinales 376:Dioscoreales 314: 300: 294: 281: 268: 236: 226: 222: 212: 208: 200: 192: 11766:Wikispecies 11633:Gentianales 11628:Boraginales 11557:Campanulids 11473:Brassicales 11395:Celastrales 11337:Superrosids 11326:Dilleniales 11227:Commelinids 11216:Asparagales 11186:Alismatales 11158:Magnoliales 11085:Nymphaeales 11066:Angiosperms 11027:Supergroup 10915:30 December 10660:(1): 1–20. 10635:10654/18083 10407:: 159–165. 9896:Ané, Cécile 9649:14 December 9260:: 207–292. 8863:10 February 8428:: 255–395. 8230:Byng, J. W. 7815:Reed (2008) 7753:Kubitzki, K 7535:Chase, M.W. 7137:Chase, M.W. 7091:16 December 7019:14 December 6988:14 December 6935:10 December 6855:18 February 6550:10 February 6416:14 December 6377:15 December 6344:1st edition 6265:, see also 6259:13 December 6220:13 December 6154:13 December 6132:13 December 5954:Bentham, G. 5882:p. 149 5752:Thorne 1976 5644:p. 205 5526:Bremer 2002 5514:Bremer 2000 5224:APG IV 2016 5181:APG II 2003 5070:Engler 1886 4914:p. 195 4712:Pavord 2005 4701:p. 339 4697:Pavord 2005 4658:l'Obel 1571 4023:Bessey 1915 3734:houseplants 3698:Orchidaceae 3684:), sedges ( 3625:, and many 3332:Kåre Bremer 3309:mycotrophic 3305:saprophytic 3301:Alismatales 3245:prephyletic 3201:Asparagales 3197:Orchidaceae 2977:commelinids 2964:Asparagales 2838:Alismatales 2758:crown group 2723:Alismatanae 2682:Liliiflorae 2678:superorders 2667:angiosperms 2647:Asparagales 2621:Subdivision 2400:Nymphaeales 2365:angiosperms 2330:grade, the 2309:monosulcate 2251:angiosperms 2165:(1992) and 2088:De Candolle 1912:systematist 1860:Pre-Linnean 1848:Orchidaceae 1833:angiosperms 1789:Pandanaceae 1761:Collenchyma 1757:atactostele 1677:Successive 1632:pentacyclic 1620:atactostele 1608:apomorphies 1602:Apomorphies 1581:Potamogeton 1487:Monocolpate 1404:adventitial 1353:arboraceous 1343:Growth form 1040:mycotrophic 1032:Alismatales 972:arboraceous 943:Alismatales 826:(Liliales, 804:Asparagales 770:, prior to 726:Asparagales 711:Description 673:agriculture 658:Orchidaceae 371:Asparagales 353:Alismatales 288:Angiosperms 11800:Categories 11701:Alismatids 11613:Icacinales 11590:Dipsacales 11515:Santalales 11468:Huerteales 11463:Sapindales 11443:Geraniales 11405:Oxalidales 11321:Gunnerales 11204:Pandanales 11143:Canellales 11135:Magnoliids 11010:Orders of 10939:7 February 10905:"Tropicos" 10895:19 January 10879:6 February 10856:6 February 10798:31 January 10773:6 February 10176:14 January 10084:Cladistics 10022:sequences" 9798:phylogeny" 9527:(3): 528. 8979:Bremer, K. 8544:(1): 1–4. 8534:"Monocots" 8123:Bremer, K. 8064:Bremer, K. 8053:5 February 7757:Rudall, PJ 7551:Fay, M. F. 7421:14 January 7389:9 December 7361:14 January 7330:18 January 7173:"Lilianae" 7119:6 February 6863:ebook 2010 6703:14 January 6578:25 January 6431:. London: 6399:. Oxford: 5929:Historical 5680:Arber 1925 5434:p. 38 5406:Panis 2008 5392:Liliopsida 5277:Huber 1969 4977:p. 16 4933:p. 11 4910:Raven 1950 4894:Stace 1989 4878:Datta 1988 4819:p. 18 4797:p. 13 4778:p. 15 4743:Raven 1950 4673:Vines 1913 4662:p. 65 4514:Chase 2004 4258:Vogel 1998 4128:Liliopsida 3890:required.) 3686:Cyperaceae 3633:produced. 3594:, and 269 3592:vulnerable 3588:endangered 3578:, four as 3462:Other taxa 3383:Core group 3313:angiosperm 3311:habits in 3297:Pothoideae 3289:Cretaceous 3217:Cyperaceae 2966:(120 MYA) 2942:(121 MYA) 2908:Pandanales 2894:(115 MYA) 2698:sensu lato 2671:sieve tube 2452:magnoliids 2245:Modern era 2217:Liliopsida 2124:endogenous 2116:Vasculares 2084:De Jussieu 2080:taxonomist 1870:cotyledons 1841:radiations 1765:herbaceous 1715:Steroidal 1707:Haustorial 1684:Syncarpous 1616:herbaceous 1554:Piperaceae 1550:magnoliids 1505:cotyledons 1493:Tricolpate 1419:Plant stem 1390:reticulate 1380:leaf veins 1368:Leaf shape 1349:herbaceous 1337:In dicots 1248:staminodes 1240:semaphylls 1228:zoophilous 1208:zoophilous 1164:geophilous 1130:internodes 1081:therophyte 1036:Lemnoideae 1028:bromeliads 949:Vegetative 909:(Poales), 907:bromeliads 891:palm trees 889:tree-like 832:Pandanales 798:including 779:are rare. 701:sugar cane 497:Liliopsida 454:Endogenae 400:commelinid 386:Pandanales 308:Type genus 11648:Vahliales 11643:Solanales 11623:Garryales 11580:Bruniales 11570:Asterales 11287:Proteales 11148:Piperales 11035:Bryophyta 10785:(2015) , 10140:Evolution 9217:(1992b). 8859:: 219–538 8486:Brittonia 8456:: 77–93. 8238:Phytotaxa 8210:: 45–70. 8183:: 22–27. 8161:221734079 8131:Evolution 8041:(also at 7821:Ray, John 7761:Chase, MW 7722:4 January 7439:. Århus: 7436:Evolution 7325:0065-6275 7259:7 January 7200:14 August 7031:(1989) . 6916:(1950) . 6861:See also 6483:(1988) . 6232:(1890) . 6199:specialis 6193:Ray, John 6179:Ray, John 6164:Ray, John 6090:(1853) . 6059:. Paris. 6017:(1886) . 6003:(1819) . 5894:IUCN 2016 4762:p. 7 4531:NBGI 2016 3985:Citations 3975:Endogènes 3957:See also 3841:Cronquist 3825:authority 3769:bluebells 3761:amaryllis 3753:daffodils 3738:epiphytes 3690:Juncaceae 3678:pineapple 3670:asparagus 3646:Arecaceae 3627:medicines 3537:Emergence 3522:cotyledon 3508:Etymology 3493:Dioscorea 3468:petiolate 3452:sympodial 3448:substrate 3372:Santonian 3281:Barremian 3239:Evolution 3229:Liliaceae 3225:Arecaceae 3221:Juncaceae 2910:(91 MYA) 2754:cladogram 2730:monophyly 2694:Liliaceae 2659:Lilliidae 2635:alliances 2344:cladogram 2295:group or 2259:cladistic 2229:subclass 2159:Takhtajan 2155:Cronquist 2139:Wettstein 2120:Endogènes 2066:Although 1998:Phaseolus 1971:cotyledon 1969:and then 1920:cotyledon 1916:dichotomy 1816:Cordyline 1785:Arecaceae 1691:Parietal 1687:gynoecium 1624:sympodial 1612:radiation 1516:endosperm 1481:apertures 1462:trimerous 1244:filaments 1220:fugacious 1212:corolline 1185:trimerous 1159:Crocosmia 1138:geophytes 1084:life form 1021:epiphytic 1009:internode 921:) in the 877:) in the 820:epiphytes 792:geophytes 789:perennial 787:includes 785:diversity 772:radiation 764:body plan 751:cotyledon 699:grasses, 632:cotyledon 630:leaf, or 628:embryonic 475:Cronquist 472:Liliatae 258:Kingdom: 205:date palm 11806:Monocots 11780:BioLib: 11772:Monocots 11751:Wikidata 11742:Monocots 11717:Category 11707:Lilioids 11638:Lamiales 11547:Ericales 11542:Cornales 11530:Asterids 11478:Malvales 11448:Myrtales 11269:Eudicots 11235:Arecales 11210:Liliales 11180:Acorales 11168:Monocots 11153:Laurales 10974:Monocots 10962:Monocots 10868:(2016). 10845:(2015). 10805:see also 10712:21 April 10682:(2009). 10646:(2016). 10604:(2009). 10568:82134384 10532:(1998). 10515:25249442 10462:91678240 10431:27064530 10379:21613169 10331:21652312 10303:(2004). 10232:85623329 10170:39420833 10162:11926492 10123:(2002). 10112:84872583 10104:34933465 10075:15944438 9938:30368769 9884:15036227 9834:16011923 9792:a priori 9774:21628175 9737:20316595 9686:83881036 9636:13108898 9591:21652314 9561:(2004). 9488:25065865 9453:(2007). 9391:56468137 9360:11674868 9324:(2001). 9245:85738663 9207:40348158 9102:86958633 9060:84386403 9005:21652315 8949:24488857 8914:17218343 8847:(1969). 8845:Huber, H 8809:83651698 8712:21665623 8611:15546982 8563:(2004). 8522:25304267 8470:36988476 8261:Liliatae 8232:(2016). 8153:12206239 8125:(2002). 8115:10759567 8066:(2000). 8009:(1915). 7970:Articles 7823:(1674). 7763:(1998). 7739:(1995). 7493:Monocots 7484:Chapters 7427:Excerpts 7295:Symposia 7285:15 April 7271:(1924). 7240:(2009). 7212:(1991). 7171:(1966). 7159:see also 7139:(2005). 7066:(1974). 7054:29 April 6969:(2013). 6836:(2005). 6745:39472817 6652:(1973). 6453:(1981). 6308:(1925). 6283:(1772). 6210:(1875). 6195:(1703). 6181:(1696). 6166:(1682). 6144:(1679). 6122:(1675). 6104:(1571). 6075:(1830). 6053:(1789). 6031:(1886). 5938:(1802). 5388:CoL 2015 5253:Fay 2013 5130:APG 1998 4973:Ray 1703 4957:Ray 1703 4945:Ray 1696 4926:Ray 1682 4850:Ray 1682 4790:Ray 1682 4755:Ray 1682 4724:Ray 1674 4375:Figure 1 4096:Liliidae 4054:Lilianae 3963:Dahlgren 3906:meristem 3902:hypogeal 3821:Tropicos 3779:See also 3732:). Many 3662:cardamom 3658:turmeric 3650:Musaceae 3572:Red List 3487:Trillium 3413:Gondwana 3401:Liliales 3389:Acorales 3379:period. 3377:Jurassic 3334:, using 3287:– Early 3233:Liliales 3193:families 2992:Arecales 2940:Liliales 2816:Acorales 2783:monocots 2748:and the 2690:splitter 2674:plastids 2663:subclass 2643:Liliales 2535:eudicots 2498:monocots 2336:lineages 2237:and the 2231:Liliidae 2223:and the 2203:and the 2193:and the 2167:Dahlgren 2141:, while 2068:Linnaeus 2048:Methodus 2036:analoga. 2031:phyletic 2025:enabled 1975:Malpighi 1959:Malpighi 1904:John Ray 1897:venation 1889:Lobelius 1878:Malpighi 1874:John Ray 1837:eudicots 1823:Taxonomy 1810:Dracaena 1793:Musaceae 1749:Arecales 1717:saponins 1699:seedling 1663:raphides 1606:Monocot 1596:eudicots 1578:(yams). 1559:Trillium 1495:(three) 1448:eustelic 1443:regions 1437:cortical 1384:parallel 1382:usually 1376:stipules 1331:Feature 1323:eudicots 1319:monocots 1252:stylodia 1216:Anthesis 1194:, being 1181:perigone 1122:rhizomes 1073:Arecales 939:seagrass 937:such as 927:Acorales 895:Arecales 838:; major 816:Liliales 794:such as 730:perianth 606:Lilianae 601:monocots 517:E.Morren 489:Liliidae 463:Lilianae 438:Synonyms 410:Arecales 402:monocots 381:Liliales 348:Acorales 301:Monocots 193:Triticum 42:– Recent 18:Monocots 11605:Lamiids 11585:Apiales 11435:Malvids 11425:Fagales 11415:Rosales 11410:Fabales 11372:Vitales 11297:Buxales 10833:1 March 10602:APG III 10560:2992015 10506:4200517 10485:Bibcode 10409:Bibcode 10289:8197201 10257:Bibcode 9976:4228662 9956:Bibcode 9825:1559828 9729:2399849 9551:2399846 9430:1220367 9351:1088868 9299:Bibcode 9187:Bibcode 9094:1216134 9052:1741614 9032:Bibcode 9023:Science 8905:2803006 8801:2474901 8681:4382842 8661:Bibcode 8632:Bibcode 8579:Bibcode 8514:2806826 8494:Bibcode 8361:1218676 8329:1217531 8267:(ed.). 8083:Bibcode 8037:2990030 6170:copioso 6079:economy 6065:5161409 3959:Lindley 3716:), and 3714:Araceae 3694:vanilla 3654:gingers 3631:biomass 3576:extinct 3532:Ecology 3502:stomata 3364:Fagales 3273:fossils 3205:Poaceae 3189:species 2712:-florae 2639:Lindley 2631:Bentham 2303:types, 2233:in the 2219:in the 2108:Lindley 2076:Scopoli 2027:Eichler 1941:wise... 1571:Pogonia 1456:Flowers 1433:cambium 1411:radicle 1372:petiole 1347:Mostly 1321:versus 1232:insects 1204:corolla 1175:Flowers 1118:runners 1061:trees ( 1051:Araceae 1024:orchids 988:bamboos 984:pandans 964:cambium 911:bananas 871:sorghum 800:orchids 745:General 705:bamboos 677:biomass 662:Poaceae 509:Eichler 483:W.Zimm. 329:Orders 262:Plantae 11757:Q78961 11382:Fabids 11360:Rosids 11240:Poales 11016:APG IV 10911:. 2015 10891:. 2016 10644:APG IV 10576:APG II 10566: 10558: 10513: 10503: 10460: 10429: 10377: 10329: 10287: 10277: 10230: 10168: 10160: 10110: 10102: 10073: 9974: 9936: 9882: 9832: 9822: 9772: 9735: 9727: 9684: 9634: 9589: 9549: 9486: 9428: 9389: 9358: 9348: 9272: 9243: 9205: 9163: 9100: 9092: 9058: 9050: 9003: 8947: 8912: 8902: 8807: 8799: 8710: 8679: 8653:Nature 8609: 8602:534535 8599: 8520: 8512: 8468: 8359: 8327: 8283: 8263:". In 8228:& 8159: 8151: 8113: 8103: 8035: 7953: 7899: 7861: 7805: 7773: 7676: 7613: 7500: 7472: 7447: 7412: 7380: 7352: 7323: 7250: 7226: 7191: 7149: 7110: 7082: 7045: 7010: 6979: 6954: 6926: 6902: 6881: 6846: 6804: 6783: 6762: 6743: 6733: 6694: 6666: 6638: 6618: 6597: 6569: 6541: 6517: 6493: 6469: 6439: 6407: 6368: 6349: 6333: 6299:Modern 6063: 5946:Weimar 4994:Alisma 3942:Alisma 3924:sister 3919:Acorus 3773:tulips 3765:cannas 3757:irises 3749:lilies 3726:garlic 3615:grains 3612:cereal 3590:, 621 3586:, 632 3481:Smilax 3436:et al. 3360:et al. 3352:et al. 3348:Acorus 3285:Aptian 3254:Bessey 3209:Poales 3015:Poales 2709:suffix 2701:family 2324:grades 2301:pollen 2287:based 2273:clades 2163:Thorne 2151:Bessey 2147:Engler 2135:Hooker 1813:, and 1747:palm ( 1672:anther 1565:Smilax 1501:Embryo 1477:Pollen 1441:stelar 1363:Leaves 1297:Poales 1273:embryo 1260:bracts 1192:tepals 1188:whorls 1146:tubers 1090:Leaves 1077:Poales 1038:) and 986:, and 976:agaves 931:aroids 929:) and 915:ginger 899:bamboo 883:Poales 867:millet 855:barley 843:grains 840:cereal 812:lilies 808:tulips 777:clades 703:, the 697:forage 681:grains 666:sedges 654:family 501:Batsch 492:Takht. 481:& 479:Takht. 467:Takht. 449:Bessey 420:Poales 316:Lilium 233:ginger 231:, and 223:Lilium 11029:Plant 10687:(PDF) 10564:S2CID 10556:JSTOR 10458:S2CID 10441:Taxon 10280:43952 10228:S2CID 10166:S2CID 10136:(PDF) 10108:S2CID 9972:S2CID 9880:S2CID 9733:S2CID 9725:JSTOR 9682:S2CID 9643:(PDF) 9632:S2CID 9612:(PDF) 9547:JSTOR 9515:(PDF) 9484:JSTOR 9467:Taxon 9462:(PDF) 9426:JSTOR 9410:Taxon 9387:S2CID 9241:S2CID 9223:Aliso 9203:S2CID 9098:S2CID 9090:JSTOR 9073:Taxon 9056:S2CID 9048:JSTOR 8805:S2CID 8797:JSTOR 8677:S2CID 8518:S2CID 8510:JSTOR 8482:(PDF) 8466:S2CID 8446:(PDF) 8357:JSTOR 8341:Taxon 8325:JSTOR 8308:Taxon 8177:Aliso 8157:S2CID 8106:18297 8071:(PDF) 8033:JSTOR 7961:, In 7936:, in 7907:, In 7869:, in 7831:, in 7813:, in 7781:, In 7716:(PDF) 7709:(PDF) 7684:, in 7656:, In 7652:(PDF) 7638:, in 7634:(PDF) 7620:, in 7582:, In 7563:, in 7526:, In 7508:, in 7406:CSIRO 7312:Aliso 7179:[ 6741:S2CID 6238:[ 6110:[ 6041:2 May 5924:Books 3884: 3805:-atae 3791:Notes 3745:bulbs 3722:onion 3718:leeks 3642:palms 3638:crops 3526:seeds 3518:Latin 3498:vines 3293:clade 3213:order 2716:-anae 2686:Huber 2328:basal 2297:clade 2283:This 1798:Yucca 1781:xylem 1628:whorl 1514:One, 1398:Roots 1293:grass 1206:. In 1200:calyx 1150:corms 1142:bulbs 993:Yucca 980:palms 903:reeds 887:woody 875:wheat 847:maize 755:seeds 693:maize 689:wheat 624:seeds 616:grass 611:sensu 295:Clade 282:Clade 269:Clade 189:wheat 11783:3358 10941:2017 10917:2015 10897:2016 10881:2017 10866:IUCN 10858:2017 10851:ITIS 10835:2017 10800:2017 10775:2017 10714:2015 10511:PMID 10427:PMID 10375:PMID 10327:PMID 10285:PMID 10192:link 10178:2014 10158:PMID 10131:ndhF 10129:and 10127:rbcL 10100:PMID 10071:PMID 10020:rbcL 9934:PMID 9830:PMID 9796:ndhF 9770:PMID 9651:2015 9607:atpA 9605:and 9603:rbcL 9587:PMID 9356:PMID 9270:ISBN 9161:ISBN 9001:PMID 8945:PMID 8910:PMID 8865:2015 8708:PMID 8607:PMID 8281:ISBN 8149:PMID 8111:PMID 8055:2017 7951:ISBN 7897:ISBN 7859:ISBN 7803:ISBN 7771:ISBN 7724:2014 7674:ISBN 7611:ISBN 7498:ISBN 7470:ISBN 7445:ISBN 7423:2014 7410:ISBN 7391:2015 7378:ISBN 7363:2014 7350:ISBN 7332:2014 7321:ISSN 7287:2015 7261:2014 7248:ISBN 7224:ISBN 7202:2015 7189:ISBN 7147:ISBN 7121:2014 7108:ISBN 7093:2015 7080:ISBN 7056:2015 7043:ISBN 7021:2015 7008:ISBN 6990:2015 6977:ISBN 6952:ISBN 6937:2015 6924:ISBN 6900:ISBN 6879:ISBN 6857:2015 6844:ISBN 6802:ISBN 6781:ISBN 6760:ISBN 6731:ISBN 6705:2014 6692:ISBN 6664:ISBN 6636:ISBN 6616:ISBN 6595:ISBN 6580:2015 6567:ISBN 6552:2014 6539:ISBN 6515:ISBN 6491:ISBN 6467:ISBN 6437:ISBN 6418:2015 6405:ISBN 6379:2015 6366:ISBN 6347:ISBN 6331:ISBN 6261:2015 6222:2015 6156:2015 6134:2015 6061:OCLC 6043:2015 3831:1911 3771:and 3724:and 3710:taro 3660:and 3617:and 3602:Uses 3569:IUCN 3567:The 3545:and 3366:and 3336:rbcL 2720:e.g. 2645:and 2264:rbcL 2257:and 2175:ICBN 2133:and 2086:and 2042:and 1996:and 1994:Faba 1908:seed 1893:leaf 1804:Aloe 1584:and 1509:seed 1466:e.g. 1439:and 1271:The 1202:and 1120:and 1114:root 1096:leaf 1063:i.e. 1059:host 913:and 905:and 873:and 863:oats 851:rice 810:and 685:rice 219:lily 197:taro 47:PreꞒ 10843:CoL 10745:doi 10741:161 10701:doi 10697:161 10662:doi 10658:181 10630:hdl 10620:doi 10616:161 10590:doi 10586:141 10548:doi 10530:APG 10523:APG 10501:PMC 10493:doi 10450:doi 10417:doi 10365:hdl 10357:doi 10317:doi 10275:PMC 10265:doi 10218:hdl 10210:doi 10148:doi 10092:doi 10061:doi 10036:doi 10032:146 9999:doi 9995:178 9964:doi 9952:206 9924:hdl 9914:doi 9910:105 9872:doi 9820:PMC 9812:doi 9808:272 9760:doi 9717:doi 9701:rbc 9672:doi 9624:doi 9577:doi 9537:hdl 9529:doi 9510:rbc 9476:doi 9418:doi 9379:doi 9375:133 9346:PMC 9338:doi 9334:268 9307:doi 9262:doi 9231:doi 9195:doi 9153:doi 9131:hdl 9121:doi 9082:doi 9040:doi 9028:190 8993:doi 8966:doi 8935:doi 8900:PMC 8892:doi 8832:doi 8828:178 8789:doi 8785:156 8764:doi 8739:hdl 8731:doi 8700:doi 8669:doi 8657:394 8640:doi 8628:232 8597:PMC 8587:doi 8575:101 8546:doi 8542:172 8502:doi 8458:doi 8430:doi 8409:doi 8383:doi 8379:100 8349:doi 8317:doi 8273:doi 8246:doi 8242:261 8212:doi 8208:128 8185:doi 8139:doi 8101:PMC 8091:doi 8025:doi 7993:doi 7920:In 7882:in 7851:doi 7795:doi 7745:In 7728:In 7703:ndh 7603:doi 6723:doi 6271:at 6250:doi 3876:doi 3852:An 3708:), 3702:yam 3700:), 3692:), 3676:), 3668:), 3652:), 3516:in 3277:mya 3243:In 3235:). 2787:MYA 2762:mya 2734:APG 2665:of 2285:DNA 2126:). 2122:or 1961:'s 1918:of 1872:by 1795:), 1250:or 1190:of 1148:or 1013:see 1002:see 945:). 897:), 859:rye 806:); 671:In 603:, ( 521:Mez 519:ex 457:DC. 225:), 211:), 207:, ( 203:), 195:), 11802:: 11768:: 11753:: 10927:. 10907:. 10872:. 10849:. 10821:. 10817:. 10791:, 10739:. 10733:. 10725:; 10695:. 10689:. 10678:; 10656:. 10650:. 10628:. 10614:. 10608:. 10584:. 10562:. 10554:. 10544:85 10542:. 10536:. 10509:. 10499:. 10491:. 10479:. 10473:. 10456:. 10446:64 10444:. 10425:. 10415:. 10405:30 10403:. 10397:. 10389:; 10373:. 10363:. 10353:98 10351:. 10325:. 10313:91 10311:. 10307:. 10299:; 10283:. 10273:. 10263:. 10253:91 10251:. 10247:. 10226:. 10216:. 10206:48 10204:. 10188:}} 10184:{{ 10164:. 10156:. 10144:56 10142:. 10138:. 10106:. 10098:. 10086:. 10069:. 10057:22 10055:. 10051:. 10030:. 10024:. 9993:. 9987:. 9970:. 9962:. 9950:. 9932:. 9922:. 9908:. 9902:. 9878:. 9868:97 9866:. 9860:. 9852:; 9848:; 9828:. 9818:. 9806:. 9800:. 9768:. 9756:96 9754:. 9748:. 9731:. 9723:. 9713:80 9711:. 9705:. 9680:. 9668:54 9666:. 9662:. 9630:. 9620:29 9618:. 9614:. 9585:. 9573:91 9571:. 9565:. 9545:. 9535:. 9525:80 9523:. 9517:. 9512:L" 9498:; 9482:. 9472:56 9470:. 9464:. 9449:; 9445:; 9424:. 9414:27 9412:. 9385:. 9373:. 9354:. 9344:. 9332:. 9328:. 9305:. 9295:11 9293:. 9287:. 9268:. 9239:. 9227:13 9225:. 9221:. 9201:. 9193:. 9183:58 9181:. 9159:. 9129:. 9119:. 9113:. 9096:. 9088:. 9078:13 9076:. 9054:. 9046:. 9038:. 9026:. 8999:. 8989:91 8987:. 8962:14 8960:. 8943:. 8931:34 8929:. 8925:. 8908:. 8898:. 8888:99 8886:. 8880:. 8851:. 8826:, 8803:. 8795:. 8783:. 8760:29 8758:. 8737:. 8725:. 8706:. 8696:89 8694:. 8675:. 8667:. 8655:. 8638:. 8626:. 8605:. 8595:. 8585:. 8573:. 8567:. 8540:. 8536:. 8516:. 8508:. 8500:. 8490:44 8488:. 8484:. 8464:. 8454:31 8452:. 8448:. 8426:16 8424:. 8405:80 8403:. 8377:. 8355:. 8345:18 8343:. 8323:. 8313:15 8311:. 8301:; 8297:; 8279:. 8240:. 8236:. 8206:. 8202:. 8181:22 8179:. 8175:. 8155:. 8147:. 8135:56 8133:. 8129:. 8109:. 8099:. 8089:. 8079:97 8077:. 8073:. 8046:. 8031:. 8019:. 8013:. 7989:15 7987:. 7983:. 7930:. 7857:. 7845:. 7801:. 7759:; 7755:; 7609:, 7549:; 7545:; 7541:; 7537:; 7468:. 7464:. 7443:. 7408:, 7317:22 7315:. 7309:. 7222:. 7175:. 7161:: 7131:; 7078:. 7041:. 6739:. 6729:. 6680:; 6662:. 6465:. 6435:. 6403:. 6389:; 6289:. 6248:. 5956:; 5896:, 5880:, 5846:^ 5831:^ 5642:, 5620:^ 5533:^ 5504:^ 5465:^ 5432:, 5398:^ 5390:, 5296:^ 5243:^ 5212:^ 5137:^ 5122:^ 5107:^ 5092:^ 5077:^ 5014:^ 4991:, 4975:, 4959:, 4928:, 4912:, 4896:, 4880:, 4864:, 4836:, 4826:^ 4814:, 4804:^ 4792:, 4776:, 4757:, 4735:^ 4726:, 4699:, 4660:, 4632:^ 4581:^ 4542:^ 4533:, 4521:^ 4488:^ 4480:, 4466:^ 4458:, 4444:^ 4388:, 4373:, 4301:^ 4250:^ 4233:^ 4216:^ 4204:. 4184:. 4156:, 4134:^ 4126:, 4102:^ 4094:, 4060:^ 4052:, 4030:^ 4013:^ 3992:^ 3874:. 3864:. 3827:, 3767:, 3763:, 3759:, 3755:, 3751:, 3720:, 3528:. 3484:, 3395:, 3231:, 3207:, 3199:, 2789:) 2744:, 2346:. 1819:. 1807:, 1801:, 1638:. 1562:, 1511:) 1450:) 1431:, 1421:: 1325:. 1295:: 1279:. 1246:, 1086:. 982:, 978:, 901:, 869:, 865:, 861:, 857:, 853:, 849:, 830:, 691:, 687:, 580:iː 477:, 322:L. 297:: 284:: 271:: 239:) 217:, 97:Pg 11705:³ 11699:² 11693:¹ 11218:³ 11212:³ 11206:³ 11200:³ 11194:³ 11188:² 11182:² 11093:¹ 11087:¹ 11081:¹ 11031:: 11018:) 11014:( 11003:e 10996:t 10989:v 10943:. 10919:. 10899:. 10883:. 10860:. 10837:. 10810:) 10803:( 10777:. 10753:. 10747:: 10716:. 10703:: 10670:. 10664:: 10638:. 10632:: 10622:: 10596:. 10592:: 10570:. 10550:: 10517:. 10495:: 10487:: 10481:5 10464:. 10452:: 10433:. 10419:: 10411:: 10381:. 10367:: 10359:: 10333:. 10319:: 10291:. 10267:: 10259:: 10234:. 10220:: 10212:: 10194:) 10180:. 10150:: 10114:. 10094:: 10088:7 10077:. 10063:: 10042:. 10038:: 10007:. 10001:: 9978:. 9966:: 9958:: 9940:. 9926:: 9916:: 9886:. 9874:: 9836:. 9814:: 9776:. 9762:: 9739:. 9719:: 9688:. 9674:: 9653:. 9626:: 9593:. 9579:: 9553:. 9539:: 9531:: 9490:. 9478:: 9459:" 9432:. 9420:: 9393:. 9381:: 9362:. 9340:: 9315:. 9309:: 9301:: 9278:. 9264:: 9258:3 9247:. 9233:: 9209:. 9197:: 9189:: 9169:. 9155:: 9139:. 9133:: 9123:: 9104:. 9084:: 9062:. 9042:: 9034:: 9007:. 8995:: 8972:. 8968:: 8951:. 8937:: 8916:. 8894:: 8878:" 8867:. 8857:8 8834:: 8811:. 8791:: 8770:. 8766:: 8747:. 8741:: 8733:: 8727:4 8714:. 8702:: 8683:. 8671:: 8663:: 8646:. 8642:: 8634:: 8613:. 8589:: 8581:: 8554:. 8548:: 8524:. 8504:: 8496:: 8472:. 8460:: 8436:. 8432:: 8415:. 8411:: 8389:. 8385:: 8363:. 8351:: 8331:. 8319:: 8289:. 8275:: 8254:. 8248:: 8220:. 8214:: 8193:. 8187:: 8163:. 8141:: 8117:. 8093:: 8085:: 8059:) 8057:. 8039:. 8027:: 8021:2 8001:. 7995:: 7965:. 7959:. 7905:. 7867:. 7853:: 7811:. 7797:: 7785:. 7779:. 7726:. 7682:. 7605:: 7530:. 7506:. 7478:. 7453:. 7393:. 7365:. 7334:. 7307:" 7289:. 7263:. 7232:. 7204:. 7157:( 7155:. 7123:. 7095:. 7058:. 7023:. 6992:. 6960:. 6939:. 6908:. 6887:. 6859:. 6828:. 6810:. 6789:. 6768:. 6747:. 6725:: 6707:. 6672:. 6644:. 6603:. 6582:. 6554:. 6523:. 6499:. 6475:. 6445:. 6420:. 6381:. 6339:. 6318:. 6263:. 6252:: 6224:. 6158:. 6136:. 6067:. 6045:. 5978:3 5911:. 5884:. 5868:. 5856:. 5841:. 5826:. 5814:. 5802:. 5790:. 5778:. 5766:. 5754:. 5742:. 5730:. 5718:. 5706:. 5694:. 5682:. 5670:. 5658:. 5646:. 5630:. 5615:. 5603:. 5591:. 5579:. 5567:. 5555:. 5543:. 5528:. 5516:. 5499:. 5487:. 5475:. 5460:. 5448:. 5436:. 5420:. 5408:. 5378:. 5366:. 5354:. 5342:. 5330:. 5318:. 5306:. 5291:. 5279:. 5267:. 5255:. 5238:. 5226:. 5207:. 5195:. 5183:. 5171:. 5159:. 5147:. 5132:. 5117:. 5102:. 5087:. 5072:. 5060:. 5048:. 5036:. 5024:. 5009:. 4979:. 4963:. 4947:. 4935:. 4916:. 4900:. 4884:. 4868:. 4852:. 4840:. 4821:. 4799:. 4780:. 4764:. 4745:. 4730:. 4714:. 4687:. 4648:. 4627:. 4615:. 4603:. 4591:. 4576:. 4552:. 4537:. 4516:. 4439:. 4427:. 4415:. 4403:. 4361:. 4349:. 4337:. 4325:. 4313:. 4296:. 4284:. 4272:. 4260:. 4245:. 4228:. 4171:. 4144:. 4114:. 4082:. 4070:. 4040:. 4025:. 4008:. 3882:. 3878:: 3856:. 3728:( 3712:( 3704:( 3696:( 3680:( 3672:( 3664:( 3644:( 3307:/ 3295:- 3283:– 2718:( 2307:( 2114:( 2050:( 1719:* 1071:( 1000:( 962:( 941:( 917:( 893:( 845:( 814:( 802:( 724:( 683:( 595:/ 592:z 589:n 586:ə 583:d 577:l 574:ˈ 571:ə 568:t 565:ɒ 562:k 559:ˌ 556:ə 553:n 550:ɒ 547:m 544:ˌ 541:/ 537:( 235:( 221:( 199:( 191:( 102:N 92:K 87:J 82:T 77:P 72:C 67:D 62:S 57:O 52:Ꞓ 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index