3132:
1391:
1265:
31:
878:
793:
315:
90:
338:
106:
3217:
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652:, the constructive and destructive interference between waves scattered at different atoms, leads to distinctive patterns of high and low intensity that depend on the geometry of the crystal. In a sample that is ground to a powder, the X-rays sample a random distribution of all crystal orientations. Powder diffraction can distinguish between minerals that may appear the same in a hand sample, for example
1329:
970:) below the sample and an analyzer above it, polarized perpendicular to each other. Light passes successively through the polarizer, the sample and the analyzer. If there is no sample, the analyzer blocks all the light from the polarizer. However, an anisotropic sample will generally change the polarization so some of the light can pass through. Thin sections and powders can be used as samples.
551:
996:
1193:. It is the study of how plants and animals stabilize minerals under biological control, and the sequencing of mineral replacement of those minerals after deposition. It uses techniques from chemical mineralogy, especially isotopic studies, to determine such things as growth forms in living plants and animals as well as things like the original mineral content of fossils.
290:). In particular, the field has made great advances in the understanding of the relationship between the atomic-scale structure of minerals and their function; in nature, prominent examples would be accurate measurement and prediction of the elastic properties of minerals, which has led to new insight into
1260:
was applied to a dataset of carbon minerals, revealing new patterns in their diversity and distribution. The analysis can show which minerals tend to coexist and what conditions (geological, physical, chemical and biological) are associated with them. This information can be used to predict where to
1040:
formed the
Commission of New Minerals and Mineral Names to rationalize the nomenclature and regulate the introduction of new names. In July 2006, it was merged with the Commission on Classification of Minerals to form the Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature, and Classification. There are over
1253:, with 34% of the minerals having been found at only one or two locations. The model predicts that thousands more mineral species may await discovery or have formed and then been lost to erosion, burial or other processes. This implies a role of chance in the formation of rare minerals occur.
1248:
relationship. The Moon, with only 63 minerals and 24 elements (based on a much smaller sample) has essentially the same relationship. This implies that, given the chemical composition of the planet, one could predict the more common minerals. However, the distribution has a
419:, a standard set of minerals are numbered in order of increasing hardness from 1 (talc) to 10 (diamond). A harder mineral will scratch a softer, so an unknown mineral can be placed in this scale, by which minerals; it scratches and which scratch it. A few minerals such as
1200:
explores the co-evolution of the geosphere and biosphere, including the role of minerals in the origin of life and processes as mineral-catalyzed organic synthesis and the selective adsorption of organic molecules on mineral surfaces.
853:, is similar to wet chemistry in that the sample must still be dissolved, but it is much faster and cheaper. The solution is vaporized and its absorption spectrum is measured in the visible and ultraviolet range. Other techniques are
223:, the "father of modern crystallography", showed that crystals are periodic and established that the orientations of crystal faces can be expressed in terms of rational numbers, as later encoded in the Miller indices. In 1814,
270:) and available computational power, the latter of which has enabled extremely accurate atomic-scale simulations of the behaviour of crystals, the science has branched out to consider more general problems in the fields of
1410:
2314:
Hazen, R. M.; Bekker, A.; Bish, D. L.; Bleeker, W.; Downs, R. T.; Farquhar, J.; Ferry, J. M.; Grew, E. S.; Knoll, A. H.; Papineau, D.; Ralph, J. P.; Sverjensky, D. A.; Valley, J. W. (24 June 2011).
215:
first observed the law of constancy of interfacial angles (also known as the first law of crystallography) in quartz crystals in 1669. This was later generalized and established experimentally by
983:
appears around the perimeter of the crystal. By observing the presence or absence of such lines in liquids with different indices, the index of the crystal can be estimated, usually to within
2552:
2384:
Hazen, Robert M.; Grew, Edward S.; Downs, Robert T.; Golden, Joshua; Hystad, Grethe (March 2015). "Mineral ecology: Chance and necessity in the mineral diversity of terrestrial planets".
81:. Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, as well as their utilization.
2125:
Chandrajith, R.; Wijewardana, G.; Dissanayake, C.B.; Abeygunasekara, A. (2006). "Biomineralogy of human urinary calculi (kidney stones) from some geographic regions of Sri Lanka".
1244:
and others analyzed the number of minerals involving each element as a function of its abundance. They found that Earth, with over 4800 known minerals and 72 elements, has a
2521:
2825:
2098:
Christoffersen, M.R.; Balic-Zunic, T.; Pehrson, S.; Christoffersen, J. (2001). "Kinetics of Growth of
Columnar Triclinic Calcium Pyrophosphate Dihydrate Crystals".
161:, which not only described many different minerals but also explained many of their properties, and Kitab al Jawahir (Book of Precious Stones) by Persian scientist
2583:
1586:
1751:
352:
An initial step in identifying a mineral is to examine its physical properties, many of which can be measured on a hand sample. These can be classified into
2459:
590:, in three dimensions. The lattice can be characterized by its symmetries and by the dimensions of the unit cell. These dimensions are represented by three
1352:
670:
minerals of different compositions have similar powder diffraction patterns, the main difference being in spacing and intensity of lines. For example, the
201:(the origins of geometric crystallography, itself, can be traced back to the mineralogy practiced in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries) and to the
2721:
648:
equipment to analyze the crystal structures of minerals. X-rays have wavelengths that are the same order of magnitude as the distances between atoms.
2695:
1032:
Systematic mineralogy is the identification and classification of minerals by their properties. Historically, mineralogy was heavily concerned with
2945:
2269:
Hazen, Robert M.; Papineau, Dominic; Bleeker, Wouter; Downs, Robert T.; Ferry, John M.; et al. (November–December 2008). "Mineral
Evolution".
2544:
1968:
Dinnebier, Robert E.; Billinge, Simon J.L. (2008). "1. Principles of powder diffraction". In
Dinnebier, Robert E.; Billinge, Simon J.L. (eds.).
1089:
The environments of mineral formation and growth are highly varied, ranging from slow crystallization at the high temperatures and pressures of
2490:
1217:, which has over 690,000 mineral-locality pairs, with the official IMA list of approved minerals and age data from geological publications.
1356:
906:
In addition to macroscopic properties such as colour or lustre, minerals have properties that require a polarizing microscope to observe.
2428:
251:
in 1837, and in a later edition introduced a chemical classification that is still the standard. X-ray diffraction was demonstrated by
2247:
1506:, especially in North-American but also in UK English. Nevertheless, even modern descriptive UK dictionaries tend to record only the
1641:
973:
When an isotropic crystal is viewed, it appears dark because it does not change the polarization of the light. However, when it is
193:, 1546) which began the scientific approach to the subject. Systematic scientific studies of minerals and rocks developed in post-
2625:
1037:
2513:
3546:
216:
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Harrell, James A. (2012). "Mineralogy". In
Bagnall, Roger S.; Brodersen, Kai; Champion, Craige B.; Erskine, Andrew (eds.).
2794:
2575:
3079:
1727:
1689:
1360:
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Golden, Joshua; Pires, Alexander J.; Hazenj, Robert M.; Downs, Robert T.; Ralph, Jolyon; Meyer, Michael Bruce (2016).
2217:
1782:(1st ed.). New York: Britannica Educational Pub. in association with Rosen Educational Services. pp. 14–15.
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2981:
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1985:
1952:
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have a hardness that depends significantly on direction. Hardness can also be measured on an absolute scale using a
278:. It, however, retains a focus on the crystal structures commonly encountered in rock-forming minerals (such as the
539:
1743:
2451:
1869:
1364:
1240:; but mineralogy can also be affected by the processes that determine a planet's composition. In a 2015 paper,
850:
416:
298:. To this end, in their focus on the connection between atomic-scale phenomena and macroscopic properties, the
835:
667:
393:
255:
in 1912, and developed into a tool for analyzing the crystal structure of minerals by the father/son team of
2717:
3131:
942:, the ratio of speed in a vacuum to speed in the crystal. Crystals whose point symmetry group falls in the
866:
614:
17:
2170:"Environmental relations of modification compositions of certain carbonate secreting marine invertebrates"
964:
A polarizing microscope is similar to an ordinary microscope, but it has two plane-polarized filters, a (
3324:
2691:
1556:, sometimes even while their sound file instead has the assimilated pronunciation, as in the case of the
1209:
In 2011, several researchers began to develop a
Mineral Evolution Database. This database integrates the
622:. There are 32 possible crystal classes. In addition, there are operations that displace all the points:
542:, having more than one possible crystal structure depending on factors such as pressure and temperature.
3021:
3508:
227:
introduced a classification of minerals based on their chemistry rather than their crystal structure.
3291:
596:. The lattice remains unchanged by certain symmetry operations about any given point in the lattice:
228:
2650:
2482:
1681:
1503:
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with a lower index of refraction and the microscope is thrown out of focus, a bright line called a
893:
1611:
1236:. Some factors are deterministic, such as the chemical nature of a mineral and conditions for its
612:, a combination of rotation and reflection. Together, they make up a mathematical object called a
2028:
Higgins, Michael D.; Smith, Dorian G. W. (October 2010). "A census of mineral species in 2010".
1264:
479:
is the tendency to break along certain crystallographic planes. It is described by the quality (
437:
refers to the way a mineral behaves, when it is broken, crushed, bent or torn. A mineral can be
224:
3072:
2052:
1507:
1046:
623:
566:; the red spheres are oxygen, the blue spheres silicon and the green spheres magnesium or iron.
377:
260:
110:
78:
30:
1977:
239:
showed that thin sections of minerals could be identified by their optical properties using a
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3119:
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1616:
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373:
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122:
1969:
1673:
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2181:
1894:
1229:
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943:
919:
843:
787:
555:
279:
2621:
2239:
8:
3720:
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3612:
3582:
3329:
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1674:
858:
601:
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499:
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385:
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314:
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185:
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1918:
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Minerals are essential to various needs within human society, such as minerals used as
1237:
1107:
1066:
1054:
1033:
901:
854:
645:
582:
The crystal structure is the arrangement of atoms in a crystal. It is represented by a
483:, perfect or fair) and the orientation of the plane in crystallographic nomenclature.
369:
322:
166:
153:
70:
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1981:
1970:
1948:
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1645:
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1131:
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821:
609:
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531:
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170:
66:
47:
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2189:
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2080:
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2010:
1902:
1512:
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1405:
1118:
939:
801:
766:
605:
535:
469:
357:
148:
140:
2363:
Building the mineral evolution database: implications for future big data analysis
3627:
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to the low temperature precipitation from a saline brine at the Earth's surface.
1097:
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583:
577:
198:
175:
158:
89:
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3345:
2821:
2174:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2124:
2014:
1257:
1062:
931:
927:
489:
is the tendency to break along planes of weakness due to pressure, twinning or
212:
98:
2671:
Wilson, W (2013). "The
Opening of the Mim Mineral Museum in Beirut, Lebanon".
2138:
2097:
1041:
6,000 named and unnamed minerals, and about 100 are discovered each year. The
337:
105:
3714:
3653:
3434:
3370:
3319:
2865:
Sciences of the earth : studies in the history of mineralogy and geology
1621:
1210:
1058:
974:
849:
Since 1960, most chemistry analysis is done using instruments. One of these,
826:
753:
534:
or internal arrangement of atoms. It is also affected by crystal defects and
523:
465:
287:
283:
244:
1906:
235:, which polarizes light, in 1827–1828 while studying fossilized wood;
3536:
3460:
3393:
3388:
3355:
2397:
2213:
2169:
2146:
1914:
1322:
1241:
1186:
1148:
1144:
1122:
958:
661:
592:
389:
345:
330:
294:
behaviour of rocks and depth-related discontinuities in seismograms of the
252:
114:
2610:. New York: Encyclopedia Americana Corp. 1918–1920. plate opposite p. 166.
1411:
List of minerals recognized by the
International Mineralogical Association
3617:
3483:
3439:
3424:
3171:
3151:
2974:
History of the
Inductive Sciences: From the Earliest to the Present Times
2846:
From mineralogy to geology : the foundations of a science, 1650-1830
2339:
2292:
2194:
2050:
Moses, Alfred J. (1918–1920). "Mineralogy". In Ramsdell, Lewis S. (ed.).
1349:
649:
635:
631:
559:
428:
302:(as they are now commonly known) display perhaps more of an overlap with
232:
202:
194:
136:
3031:
2001:
Parsons, Ian (October 2006). "International Mineralogical Association".
1348:, with clubs and societies representing the field. Museums, such as the
1022:
Cl, one of the few minerals that is considered a carbonate and a sulfate
197:
Europe. The modern study of mineralogy was founded on the principles of
3597:
3572:
3551:
3528:
3455:
3156:
1430:
1368:
1318:
1233:
1221:
1214:
1165:
1154:
923:
862:
740:
627:
527:
490:
361:
291:
206:
3669:
3301:
3041:
2111:
2084:
1379:, have popular collections of mineral specimens on permanent display.
1353:
National Museum of Natural History Hall of Geology, Gems, and Minerals
3643:
3498:
3365:
3146:
1435:
1332:
A small collection of mineral samples, with cases. Labels in Russian.
1290:
1286:
1282:
1250:
1245:
1161:
966:
889:
839:
745:
714:
706:
701:
693:
657:
587:
522:
If the mineral is well crystallized, it will also have a distinctive
454:
442:
396:); magnetic and electric properties; radioactivity and solubility in
341:
266:
More recently, driven by advances in experimental technique (such as
162:
132:
62:
35:
926:. The latter is a bending of the light path that occurs because the
3176:
1111:
999:
774:
771:
761:
696:
675:
634:. In combination with the point symmetries, they form 230 possible
461:. An important influence on tenacity is the type of chemical bond (
405:
402:
144:
128:
2057:. Vol. 19. New York: Americana Corporation. pp. 164–168.
1976:(Repr. ed.). Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. pp.
3475:
3262:
3166:
3102:
3088:
1376:
1310:
1298:
1190:
961:
that travel at different speeds and refract at different angles.
950:: the index does not depend on direction. All other crystals are
886:
882:
688:
450:
446:
438:
424:
420:
353:
318:
151:
and the ancient Islamic world. Books on the subject included the
74:
58:
43:
39:
1268:
A color chart of some raw forms of commercially valuable metals.
3186:
3181:
1816:
Earth materials : introduction to mineralogy and petrology
1372:
1314:
1302:
1294:
915:
813:
809:
805:
758:
748:
735:
727:
722:
719:
709:
680:
672:
653:
431:; compared to the absolute scale, the Mohs scale is nonlinear.
1885:
Sharp, T. (27 November 2014). "Bridgmanite – named at last".
1345:
1328:
1306:
1134:
1125:
1093:
935:
642:
550:
2998:
1947:(27. repr. ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
3161:
3057:
3051:
3046:
3036:
3026:
2972:
Whewell, William (2010). "Book XV. History of Mineralogy".
2545:"Data mining: How digging through big data can turn up new"
1548:
1542:
1527:
1494:
1488:
1473:
1281:
for essential components of metal products used in various
1173:
1138:
995:
817:
732:
503:(having smooth curves resembling the interior of a shell),
3231:
1750:. International Union of Crystallography. 24 August 2014.
1545:
1491:
1482:
1224:
to answer new questions, an approach that has been called
834:(HCl). The elements in solution are then identified using
2268:
2071:(1979). "Wood Petrifaction: an aspect of biomineralogy".
1536:
1521:
1467:
1278:
954:: light passing through them is broken up into two plane
830:, which involves dissolving a mineral in an acid such as
3011:
2646:
2514:"Data-driven discovery reveals Earth's missing minerals"
1587:
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
1228:. One such question is how much of mineral evolution is
1185:
Biomineralogy is a cross-over field between mineralogy,
562:, has this structure. Its chemical formula is (Mg,Fe)SiO
415:
is determined by comparison with other minerals. In the
2848:(Pbk. ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2316:"Needs and opportunities in mineral evolution research"
3016:
2360:
2313:
824:. The classical method for identifying composition is
27:
Scientific study of minerals and mineralised artifacts
1524:
1515:
1470:
1461:
1289:, essential components to building materials such as
2576:"How Math Can Help Geologists Discover New Minerals"
2383:
1539:
1533:
1485:
1479:
1386:
1261:
look for new deposits and even new mineral species.
1860:Klein, Cornelis; Hurlbut, Cornelius S. Jr. (1993).
1722:(2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
1530:
1518:
1476:
1464:
3047:Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and Ireland
2905:. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
1940:
1680:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.
586:of points which repeats a basic pattern, called a
1967:
1862:Manual of mineralogy : (after James D. Dana)
205:study of rock sections with the invention of the
3712:
3017:French Society of Mineralogy and Crystallography
2976:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 187–252.
2999:The Virtual Museum of the History of Mineralogy
1814:Klein, Cornelis; Philpotts, Anthony R. (2013).
1103:Various possible methods of formation include:
493:. Where these two kinds of break do not occur,
3037:Italian Mineralogical and Petrological Society
2647:"The American Federation of Mineral Societies"
1938:
1813:
1642:"NASA Instrument Inaugurates 3-D Moon Imaging"
1071:sulfates, chromates, molybdates and tungstates
475:Of the other measures of mechanical cohesion,
3247:
3073:
1972:Powder diffraction : theory and practice
1580:
2944:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2483:"How Life and Luck Changed Earth's Minerals"
2027:
1939:Ashcroft, Neil W.; Mermin, N. David (1977).
1859:
1744:"Law of the constancy of interfacial angles"
1357:Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County
1344:is also a recreational study and collection
61:specializing in the scientific study of the
2749:Optical Mineralogy: Principles And Practice
2746:
2045:
2043:
1934:
1932:
1036:of the rock-forming minerals. In 1959, the
127:Early writing on mineralogy, especially on
3254:
3240:
3080:
3066:
2953:Wenk, Hans-Rudolf; Bulakh, Andrey (2016).
2952:
1855:
1773:
1771:
1769:
1502:due to the common phonological process of
1045:places minerals in the following classes:
918:into a transparent crystal, some of it is
558:. The most abundant mineral in the Earth,
2720:. Natural History Museum of Los Angeles.
2203:
2193:
2167:
2067:
1961:
1853:
1851:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1843:
1841:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1667:
1665:
1663:
1606:
1604:
1220:This database makes it possible to apply
1084:
796:Portable Micro-X-ray fluorescence machine
3012:American Federation of Mineral Societies
2922:Introduction to mineralogy and petrology
2689:
2624:. The Mineralogical Society of America.
2452:"Is Mineral Evolution Driven by Chance?"
2365:. GSA Annual Meeting. Denver, Colorado.
2040:
1929:
1818:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
1777:
1327:
1263:
994:
876:
791:
549:
336:
313:
104:
88:
29:
3032:International Mineralogical Association
2971:
2955:Minerals: Their Constitution and Origin
2919:
2881:
2862:
2765:
2000:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1803:
1801:
1799:
1766:
1671:
1038:International Mineralogical Association
14:
3713:
2843:
2831:from the original on 28 September 2017
2670:
2573:
2542:
2511:
1832:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1660:
1601:
309:
3235:
3061:
2792:
2307:
2250:from the original on 23 November 2018
2127:Environmental Geochemistry and Health
2049:
1884:
1878:
1717:
1634:
930:changes as it goes into the crystal;
2920:Tisljar, S.K. Haldar, Josip (2013).
2900:
2698:from the original on 26 October 2013
2480:
2449:
2240:"Earth's rarest minerals catalogued"
2237:
1796:
1754:from the original on 19 October 2016
1748:Online dictionary of crystallography
1196:A new approach to mineralogy called
909:
781:
545:
360:); measures of mechanical cohesion (
3693:
3042:Mineralogical Association of Canada
2768:The encyclopedia of ancient history
2690:Lyckberg, Peter (16 October 2013).
2586:from the original on 27 August 2018
2555:from the original on 26 August 2018
2524:from the original on 23 August 2018
2462:from the original on 26 August 2018
2238:Amos, Jonathan (13 February 2016).
2231:
1698:
1075:phosphates, arsenates and vanadates
683:) crystal structure is space group
526:(for example, hexagonal, columnar,
497:is a less orderly form that may be
24:
2747:Gribble, C.D.; Hall, A.J. (1993).
2739:
2520:. American Geosciences Institute.
1864:(21st ed.). New York: Wiley.
1361:Carnegie Museum of Natural History
1204:
380:); macroscopic visual properties (
25:
3732:
2992:
2795:"Mineralogy: A historical review"
2692:"The MIM Museum opening, Lebanon"
2493:from the original on 17 July 2017
2418:
1676:Science and civilisation in China
1317:, etc. Minerals are also used in
1256:In another use of big data sets,
34:Mineralogy applies principles of
3692:
3681:
3680:
3668:
3300:
3215:
3130:
3052:Mineralogical Society of America
2924:. Burlington: Elsevier Science.
2776:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah21217
2481:Kwok, Roberta (16 August 2015).
2450:Kwok, Roberta (11 August 2015).
2431:from the original on 28 May 2018
1511:
1457:
1389:
1180:
1067:carbonates, nitrates and borates
914:When light passes from air or a
217:Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Islee
3004:
2802:Journal of Geological Education
2770:. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
2724:from the original on 2010-05-31
2710:
2683:
2664:
2653:from the original on 2017-07-22
2639:
2628:from the original on 2010-06-19
2614:
2598:
2567:
2536:
2505:
2474:
2443:
2412:
2377:
2354:
2262:
2220:from the original on 2015-10-16
2161:
2118:
2091:
2061:
2021:
1994:
975:immersed in a calibrated liquid
247:published his first edition of
2957:. Cambridge University Press.
2574:Rogers, Nala (1 August 2017).
2543:Hooper, Joel (2 August 2017).
2512:Oleson, Timothy (1 May 2018).
1736:
1574:
1449:
1365:Natural History Museum, London
1028:Mineral § Mineral classes
867:optical emission spectrography
851:atomic absorption spectroscopy
687:; this structure is shared by
641:Most geology departments have
515:(jagged with sharp edges), or
13:
1:
3022:Geological Society of America
1590:(5th ed.). HarperCollins
1567:
1336:
990:
117:that mapped the lunar surface
3087:
3027:German Mineralogical Society
2073:Australian Journal of Botany
820:, but the vast majority are
615:crystallographic point group
556:perovskite crystal structure
139:world, ancient and medieval
7:
3325:Geological history of Earth
3261:
2168:Lowenstam, Heitz A (1954).
2100:Crystal Growth & Design
1382:
1232:and how much the result of
306:than any other discipline.
10:
3737:
3298:
2822:10.5408/0022-1368-32.5.288
2607:The Encyclopedia Americana
2015:10.2113/gselements.2.6.388
1778:Rafferty, John P. (2012).
1720:Introduction to mineralogy
1718:Nesse, William D. (2012).
1025:
899:
872:
785:
575:
569:
120:
84:
69:, and physical (including
3662:
3636:
3565:
3527:
3474:
3448:
3412:
3379:
3339:Composition and structure
3338:
3310:
3292:Index of geology articles
3269:
3211:
3195:
3139:
3128:
3095:
2793:Hazen, Robert M. (1984).
2386:The Canadian Mineralogist
2371:10.1130/abs/2016AM-286024
2139:10.1007/s10653-006-9048-y
1504:anticipatory assimilation
1143:recrystallization due to
2901:Rapp, George R. (2002).
2882:Perkins, Dexter (2014).
2673:The Mineralogical Record
1672:Needham, Joseph (1959).
1442:
1321:to enrich the growth of
1168:of rocks exposed to the
1130:crystallization from an
1096:deep within the Earth's
922:at the surface and some
894:Agnew, Western Australia
50:to the study of minerals
2863:Oldroyd, David (1998).
2844:Laudan, Rachel (1993).
2055:: International Edition
1907:10.1126/science.1261887
1272:
1153:crystallization during
2867:. Aldershot: Ashgate.
2398:10.3749/canmin.1400086
2053:Encyclopedia Americana
1508:spelling pronunciation
1333:
1269:
1085:Formation environments
1023:
897:
797:
567:
349:
334:
261:William Lawrence Bragg
249:A System of Mineralogy
191:On the Nature of Rocks
118:
111:Moon Mineralogy Mapper
102:
95:Treatise on mineralogy
51:
3588:Environmental geology
2886:. Pearson Higher Ed.
2751:. London: CRC Press.
2320:American Mineralogist
2272:American Mineralogist
1644:. JPL. Archived from
1617:CollinsDictionary.com
1416:List of mineralogists
1397:Earth sciences portal
1331:
1267:
1059:oxides and hydroxides
998:
880:
827:wet chemical analysis
795:
553:
348:polymorph of calcite.
340:
317:
241:polarizing microscope
209:in the 17th century.
131:, comes from ancient
123:History of mineralogy
108:
92:
33:
3547:Planetary geophysics
2622:"Collector's Corner"
2340:10.2138/am.2011.3725
2293:10.2138/am.2008.2955
2279:(11–12): 1693–1720.
2195:10.1073/pnas.40.1.39
1455:Commonly pronounced
1043:Manual of Mineralogy
934:relates the bending
885:adcumulate from the
844:gravimetric analysis
788:analytical chemistry
538:. Many crystals are
530:) that reflects the
225:Jöns Jacob Berzelius
173:wrote works such as
3649:Petroleum geologist
3613:Forensic geophysics
3583:Engineering geology
3330:Timeline of geology
3282:Glossary of geology
3222:Minerals portal
2814:1984JGeoE..32..288H
2718:"Gems and Minerals"
2332:2011AmMin..96..953H
2285:2008AmMin..93.1693H
2186:1954PNAS...40...39L
1943:Solid state physics
1899:2014Sci...346.1057S
1893:(6213): 1057–1058.
1780:Geological sciences
881:Photomicrograph of
859:electron microprobe
840:volumetric analysis
800:A few minerals are
656:and its polymorphs
310:Physical properties
288:framework silicates
276:solid-state physics
272:inorganic chemistry
268:neutron diffraction
257:William Henry Bragg
237:Henry Clifton Sorby
186:De Natura Fossilium
3675:Geology portal
3603:Geologic modelling
3542:Geophysical survey
3494:Geodetic astronomy
3420:Structural geology
3381:Historical geology
3312:History of geology
3287:History of geology
3277:Outline of geology
3203:Industrial mineral
1558:Collins Dictionary
1421:Mineral collecting
1369:Mim Mineral Museum
1367:, and the private
1342:Mineral collecting
1334:
1270:
1024:
902:Optical mineralogy
898:
855:X-ray fluorescence
798:
646:powder diffraction
568:
350:
335:
333:crystal structure.
167:German Renaissance
119:
103:
52:
3708:
3707:
3593:Planetary geology
3509:Planetary geodesy
3229:
3228:
2903:Archaeomineralogy
2421:"Mineral Ecology"
2112:10.1021/cg015547j
2085:10.1071/bt9790377
2069:Scurfield, Gordon
1648:on 1 January 2009
1198:mineral evolution
1119:aqueous solutions
910:Transmitted light
832:hydrochloric acid
802:chemical elements
782:Chemical elements
572:Crystal structure
546:Crystal structure
532:crystal structure
398:hydrogen chloride
323:carbonate mineral
304:materials science
171:Georgius Agricola
67:crystal structure
48:materials science
16:(Redirected from
3728:
3696:
3695:
3684:
3683:
3673:
3672:
3608:Forensic geology
3578:Economic geology
3504:Gravity of Earth
3399:Paleoclimatology
3304:
3256:
3249:
3242:
3233:
3232:
3220:
3219:
3218:
3134:
3082:
3075:
3068:
3059:
3058:
2987:
2968:
2949:
2943:
2935:
2916:
2897:
2878:
2859:
2840:
2838:
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2830:
2799:
2789:
2762:
2733:
2732:
2730:
2729:
2714:
2708:
2707:
2705:
2703:
2687:
2681:
2680:
2668:
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2636:
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2540:
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2529:
2509:
2503:
2502:
2500:
2498:
2478:
2472:
2471:
2469:
2467:
2447:
2441:
2440:
2438:
2436:
2425:Carnegie Science
2416:
2410:
2409:
2381:
2375:
2374:
2358:
2352:
2351:
2311:
2305:
2304:
2266:
2260:
2259:
2257:
2255:
2235:
2229:
2228:
2226:
2225:
2207:
2197:
2165:
2159:
2158:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2095:
2089:
2088:
2065:
2059:
2058:
2047:
2038:
2037:
2025:
2019:
2018:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1975:
1965:
1959:
1958:
1946:
1936:
1927:
1926:
1882:
1876:
1875:
1857:
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1794:
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1501:
1500:
1497:
1496:
1493:
1490:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1453:
1406:List of minerals
1399:
1394:
1393:
1392:
1117:deposition from
986:
940:Refractive index
777:
764:
751:
738:
725:
712:
699:
678:
610:rotary inversion
408:
358:specific gravity
356:(often given as
300:mineral sciences
77:and mineralized
73:) properties of
57:is a subject of
21:
3736:
3735:
3731:
3730:
3729:
3727:
3726:
3725:
3711:
3710:
3709:
3704:
3667:
3658:
3632:
3628:Mineral physics
3561:
3523:
3470:
3444:
3430:Plate tectonics
3408:
3404:Palaeogeography
3375:
3351:Crystallography
3334:
3306:
3305:
3296:
3265:
3260:
3230:
3225:
3216:
3214:
3207:
3191:
3140:Common minerals
3135:
3126:
3091:
3086:
3056:
3007:
2995:
2990:
2984:
2965:
2937:
2936:
2932:
2913:
2894:
2875:
2856:
2834:
2832:
2828:
2797:
2786:
2759:
2742:
2740:Further reading
2737:
2736:
2727:
2725:
2716:
2715:
2711:
2701:
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2669:
2665:
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2572:
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2558:
2556:
2541:
2537:
2527:
2525:
2510:
2506:
2496:
2494:
2479:
2475:
2465:
2463:
2456:Quanta Magazine
2448:
2444:
2434:
2432:
2419:Hazen, Robert.
2417:
2413:
2382:
2378:
2359:
2355:
2312:
2308:
2267:
2263:
2253:
2251:
2236:
2232:
2223:
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2166:
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2123:
2119:
2096:
2092:
2066:
2062:
2048:
2041:
2026:
2022:
1999:
1995:
1988:
1966:
1962:
1955:
1937:
1930:
1883:
1879:
1872:
1858:
1833:
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1797:
1790:
1776:
1767:
1757:
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1742:
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1699:
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1670:
1661:
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1640:
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1635:
1626:
1624:
1610:
1609:
1602:
1593:
1591:
1579:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1564:
1514:
1510:
1460:
1456:
1454:
1450:
1445:
1440:
1426:Mineral physics
1395:
1390:
1388:
1385:
1339:
1275:
1226:mineral ecology
1207:
1205:Mineral ecology
1183:
1087:
1047:native elements
1030:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
993:
984:
912:
904:
875:
865:tomography and
790:
784:
770:
757:
744:
731:
718:
705:
692:
671:
580:
578:Crystallography
574:
565:
548:
401:
328:
312:
199:crystallography
176:De re metallica
159:Pliny the Elder
154:Natural History
125:
87:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3734:
3724:
3723:
3706:
3705:
3703:
3702:
3690:
3678:
3663:
3660:
3659:
3657:
3656:
3651:
3646:
3640:
3638:
3634:
3633:
3631:
3630:
3625:
3623:Mining geology
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3569:
3567:
3563:
3562:
3560:
3559:
3557:Tectonophysics
3554:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3533:
3531:
3525:
3524:
3522:
3521:
3519:Geopositioning
3516:
3514:Remote sensing
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3480:
3478:
3472:
3471:
3469:
3468:
3466:Marine geology
3463:
3458:
3452:
3450:
3446:
3445:
3443:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3416:
3414:
3410:
3409:
3407:
3406:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3385:
3383:
3377:
3376:
3374:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3346:Cosmochemistry
3342:
3340:
3336:
3335:
3333:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3316:
3314:
3308:
3307:
3299:
3297:
3295:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3273:
3271:
3267:
3266:
3259:
3258:
3251:
3244:
3236:
3227:
3226:
3212:
3209:
3208:
3206:
3205:
3199:
3197:
3193:
3192:
3190:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3143:
3141:
3137:
3136:
3129:
3127:
3125:
3124:
3123:
3122:
3112:
3111:
3110:
3099:
3097:
3093:
3092:
3085:
3084:
3077:
3070:
3062:
3055:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3002:
3001:
2994:
2993:External links
2991:
2989:
2988:
2982:
2969:
2963:
2950:
2930:
2917:
2911:
2898:
2892:
2879:
2873:
2860:
2854:
2841:
2808:(5): 288–298.
2790:
2784:
2763:
2757:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2735:
2734:
2709:
2694:. Mindat.org.
2682:
2663:
2638:
2613:
2597:
2580:Inside Science
2566:
2535:
2518:Earth Magazine
2504:
2473:
2442:
2411:
2392:(2): 295–324.
2376:
2353:
2326:(7): 953–963.
2306:
2261:
2230:
2160:
2133:(4): 393–399.
2117:
2106:(6): 463–466.
2090:
2079:(4): 377–390.
2060:
2039:
2020:
1993:
1986:
1960:
1953:
1928:
1877:
1870:
1831:
1824:
1795:
1788:
1765:
1735:
1729:978-0199827381
1728:
1697:
1691:978-0521058018
1690:
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1600:
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1400:
1384:
1381:
1338:
1335:
1274:
1271:
1258:network theory
1206:
1203:
1182:
1179:
1178:
1177:
1172:or within the
1158:
1151:
1147:processes and
1141:
1128:
1115:
1086:
1083:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
992:
989:
928:speed of light
911:
908:
900:Main article:
874:
871:
783:
780:
593:Miller indices
570:Main article:
563:
547:
544:
326:
311:
308:
296:Earth's mantle
231:developed the
221:René Just Haüy
213:Nicholas Steno
135:, the ancient
121:Main article:
99:Friedrich Mohs
86:
83:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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3655:
3654:Volcanologist
3652:
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3489:Earth's orbit
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3413:Dynamic Earth
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3537:Geomagnetism
3461:Hydrogeology
3394:Paleontology
3389:Stratigraphy
3360:
3356:Geochemistry
3213:
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3005:Associations
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1758:22 September
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1747:
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1675:
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1646:the original
1636:
1625:. Retrieved
1615:
1612:"mineralogy"
1592:. Retrieved
1585:
1582:"mineralogy"
1576:
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1451:
1340:
1323:agricultural
1276:
1255:
1242:Robert Hazen
1225:
1219:
1208:
1195:
1187:paleontology
1184:
1176:environment.
1157:of sediments
1149:metasomatism
1123:hydrothermal
1102:
1088:
1042:
1031:
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972:
965:
963:
951:
947:
944:cubic system
913:
905:
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825:
804:, including
799:
684:
666:
662:cristobalite
640:
636:space groups
619:
613:
591:
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521:
516:
512:
508:
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498:
494:
486:
485:
480:
476:
474:
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433:
412:
411:
390:luminescence
351:
346:orthorhombic
331:rhombohedral
299:
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253:Max von Laue
248:
211:
190:
184:
183:, 1556) and
180:
174:
152:
126:
115:spectrometer
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18:Mineralogist
3637:Occupations
3618:Meteoritics
3484:Cartography
3440:Volcanology
3425:Geodynamics
3172:Plagioclase
3152:Bridgmanite
2679:(1): 61–83.
1652:19 December
1350:Smithsonian
1319:fertilizers
1283:commodities
1145:metamorphic
1108:sublimation
952:anisotropic
932:Snell's law
836:colorimetry
668:Isomorphous
650:Diffraction
632:glide plane
624:translation
560:bridgmanite
540:polymorphic
429:sclerometer
394:diaphaneity
280:perovskites
233:Nicol prism
203:microscopic
195:Renaissance
169:specialist
147:texts from
137:Greco-Roman
3721:Mineralogy
3598:Geobiology
3573:Biogeology
3552:Seismology
3529:Geophysics
3456:Glaciology
3361:Mineralogy
3157:K-feldspar
3115:Mineralogy
2884:Mineralogy
2728:2010-05-22
2702:19 October
2657:2010-05-22
2632:2010-05-22
2224:2017-07-04
2009:(6): 388.
1871:047157452X
1627:2017-10-19
1594:2017-10-19
1568:References
1431:Metallurgy
1337:Collecting
1222:statistics
1215:Mindat.org
1170:atmosphere
1166:weathering
1155:diagenesis
1055:sulfosalts
1026:See also:
991:Systematic
980:Becke line
863:atom probe
786:See also:
741:alabandite
628:screw axis
598:reflection
576:See also:
528:botryoidal
500:conchoidal
491:exsolution
417:Mohs scale
207:microscope
93:Page from
55:Mineralogy
3644:Geologist
3499:Geomatics
3366:Petrology
3270:Overviews
3147:Amphibole
2940:cite book
2590:26 August
2559:26 August
2528:26 August
2497:24 August
2466:11 August
2036:(5): 346.
1923:206563252
1436:Petrology
1291:limestone
1287:machinery
1251:long tail
1246:power law
1238:stability
1162:oxidation
1079:silicates
967:polarizer
956:polarized
948:isotropic
924:refracted
920:reflected
890:komatiite
861:analysis
822:compounds
767:osbornite
715:bunsenite
702:periclase
658:tridymite
606:inversion
588:unit cell
509:splintery
443:malleable
384:, color,
342:Aragonite
329:) with a
219:in 1783.
181:On Metals
163:Al-Biruni
133:Babylonia
129:gemstones
79:artifacts
63:chemistry
36:chemistry
3715:Category
3177:Pyroxene
3096:Overview
3089:Minerals
2826:Archived
2722:Archived
2696:Archived
2651:Archived
2626:Archived
2584:Archived
2553:Archived
2522:Archived
2491:Archived
2460:Archived
2429:Archived
2406:10969988
2348:21530264
2301:27460479
2248:Archived
2244:BBC News
2218:Archived
2214:16589423
2155:24627795
2147:16791711
2030:Elements
2003:Elements
1915:25430755
1752:Archived
1383:See also
1112:volcanic
1051:sulfides
1034:taxonomy
1000:Hanksite
887:Archaean
602:rotation
536:twinning
495:fracture
477:cleavage
470:metallic
455:flexible
435:Tenacity
413:Hardness
374:fracture
370:cleavage
366:tenacity
362:hardness
145:Sanskrit
75:minerals
3699:Geology
3687:Geology
3476:Geodesy
3263:Geology
3196:Related
3167:Olivine
3120:History
3103:Mineral
2810:Bibcode
2328:Bibcode
2281:Bibcode
2182:Bibcode
1895:Bibcode
1887:Science
1377:Lebanon
1325:crops.
1311:plaster
1299:granite
1191:biology
1132:igneous
1091:igneous
1063:halides
985:± 0.003
938:to the
883:olivine
873:Optical
765:), and
689:sylvite
584:lattice
505:fibrous
487:Parting
459:elastic
451:ductile
447:sectile
439:brittle
425:kyanite
421:calcite
378:parting
354:density
319:Calcite
165:. The
85:History
71:optical
59:geology
44:physics
40:geology
3187:Spinel
3182:Quartz
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1295:marble
1234:chance
1126:brines
1077:, and
916:vacuum
816:, and
814:silver
810:copper
806:sulfur
728:galena
681:halite
654:quartz
630:, and
608:, and
517:uneven
513:hackly
386:streak
382:luster
344:is an
143:, and
101:(1825)
3449:Water
2829:(PDF)
2798:(PDF)
2487:Wired
2402:S2CID
2344:S2CID
2297:S2CID
2151:S2CID
1980:–19.
1919:S2CID
1443:Notes
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1307:glass
1213:site
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1114:gases
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643:X-ray
466:ionic
463:e.g.,
325:(CaCO
321:is a
141:China
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3108:List
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2869:ISBN
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2780:ISBN
2753:ISBN
2704:2017
2592:2018
2561:2018
2530:2018
2499:2018
2468:2018
2437:2018
2256:2016
2210:PMID
2143:PMID
1982:ISBN
1949:ISBN
1911:PMID
1866:ISBN
1820:ISBN
1784:ISBN
1760:2015
1724:ISBN
1686:ISBN
1654:2008
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1279:ores
1273:Uses
1189:and
1174:soil
1164:and
1139:lava
1121:and
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1002:, Na
959:rays
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818:gold
685:Fm3m
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274:and
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109:The
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