Military career of Simón Bolívar

683: 1208: 1029:. The negotiations were also important because the Spanish government for the first time tacitly granted Colombia national status, rather than seeing its representatives as mere rebels. Spain did not of course recognize Colombia, but the negotiations papers referred to it as such, rather than with the previous denominations of "Bolívar's forces" or "the Congress at Angostura." The ceasefire allowed Bolívar to build up his army for the final showdown everyone knew was coming. By the end of the year, the Constitutional government granted Morillo his long-standing request to resign and he left South America. He was replaced by 1278: 922: 1088: 1199:, and within a year in April 1825, the task had been completed. A congress of Upper Peru on August 6, 1825, chose to name the new nation after the Liberator and called it the Republic of Bolívar. (The name would later be changed to Bolivia.) With independence secured for all of Spanish South America, Bolívar's political life entered a new phase. He now had to turn to consolidating the large nations he had created out of the former Spanish provinces. And dissension began to brew in the north as the regions of Gran Colombia began to chafe under the centralized government. 22: 81: 765: 445:. In the document Bolívar blamed the failure on the federal nature of the Venezuelan republic, which had allowed provinces to ignore the needs of other provinces threatened by Monteverde's advance, and the intransigence of the Venezuelan population to the republican cause, among other things. He saw the Venezuelan case as a warning to the divided New Granada and urged it to retake Caracas from the royalists. He enlisted as an officer in the army of the New Granadan Union and led forces in the 1244:

political atmosphere in Gran Colombia. Although Bolívar emerged physically intact from the event, he was, nevertheless, greatly affected. Dissent continued, and new uprisings occurred in New Granada, Venezuela and Quito during the next two years. Gran Colombia finally collapsed in 1830. Bolívar himself died in the same year at age 47 on December 17. His closest political ally at the time, Sucre, who was intending to retire from public life, had been murdered earlier on June 4, 1830.

468:: he had allowed his soldiers to loot many of the cities he occupied and several of his commanders became notorious for torturing and killing civilians suspected of collaborating with the Republic. Bolívar also faced the fact that by 1813 much of the older aristocrats, who had led the republic, had abandoned the cause of independence, and the general population had turned against republicanism even before its collapse. In order to drive a wedge between Venezuelans and 780:, and was preparing to lay siege to the city. The siege proved difficult and long, since Angostura had a lifeline in the river itself. Bolívar's reinforcements were useful and the city fell in August 1817. Angostura proved to be an immensely valuable base. From it the republicans had access to foreign trade in Caribbean and beyond via the Orinoco. The river's tributaries also provided access to the Venezuelan and New Granadan Llanos to the west, especially those in 1233:(April 9 to June 10, 1828) met under a cloud. Many felt that the breakup of the country was imminent. Addressing these fears, the Congress went in the opposite direction that Bolívar had hoped, and drafted a document which would have implemented a radically federalist form of government with greatly reduced the powers for the central administration. Unhappy with this outcome, pro-Bolívar delegates left the convention and the constitution was never ratified. 333:, refusing to openly participate in calls for the establishment of a Venezuelan junta, because the plans did not consider the option of independence. He was still in his country estates when a junta was successfully established on April 19, 1810. The new Junta of Caracas chose him to be part of a delegation to the United Kingdom to seek British aid. The delegation did not have much success, but Bolívar did return in December 1810 with 649:, another region that had fallen out of royalist control, but soon it was decided to send these forces to the Venezuela and New Granada, where the war had become exceedingly savage. Realizing that this change in plans would not go over well with the soldiers, the news was kept from them until they were at sea. When the expeditionary force arrived in Venezuela, it found that most of it had been restored to royalist control, save for 993: 1264: 1061:, declared the province an independent republic, which chose to join Colombia. La Torre took this to be a violation of the truce, and although the republicans argued that Maracaibo had switched sides of its own volition, both sides began to prepare for renewed war. The fate of Venezuela was sealed, when Bolívar returned to Venezuela in April 1821, leading an army of 7,000 from New Granada. At the 1010:

parts of Spanish America at the start of the decade, by 1820 most Spanish Americans did not trust Fernando VII to keep his oath to the Constitution for long. More importantly, it had always been Bolívar's stance that the wars were between two sovereign states, and therefore, the question of reconciling with the Spanish Monarchy under the 1812 Constitution was never a consideration.

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February 10, 1824, Bolívar was given immense political powers when a Peruvian congress named him dictator of Peru, which made Bolívar the head of state of a second country and allowed Bolívar to completely reorganize the political and military administration of Peru. Bolívar, assisted by Sucre, decisively defeated the remnants of the royalist cavalry on August 6, 1824, at the

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unable to agree on a single leader, decided to compromise and in October offered Bolívar the military command, with the understanding that a separate civilian government would be formed. In Haiti Bolívar gathered new supplies and organized a second expedition, named by history as the Jacmel Expedition for the city from which it departed, and on December 31, 1816, landed in

715:(he is traditionally referred to by the Spanish form of his name), who had just acquired a much-needed warship in England to aid the embattled Cartagenan Republic, forced the other Venezuelan leaders to grudgingly accept his leadership. Pétion, for his part, convinced Bolívar to expand the fight for independence to include the liberation of slaves. 897:

great promise since, unlike Venezuela, it had only been recently conquered by Morillo and it had a prior six-year experience of independent government. Royalist sentiment was not strong. But it would be hard to take the initiative against the better prepared and supplied royalist army. To surprise it, Bolívar decided to move during the Venezuelan

177: 835:), Francisco Javier Mayz (one of the eight deputies of the Congress) and Simón Bolívar as the new triumvirate. To replace in an interim manner the two who were not present, the Congress chose Francisco Antonio Zea and Canon Cortés de Madariaga. It made Mariño general-in-chief of the republican forces and established 874:

Venezuela, that Bolívar felt it was time to convene a new Venezuelan congress to give the republican government a permanent form. Elections were held in republican areas and to pick representatives of the provinces of Venezuela and New Granada under royalist control, among the troops of those areas. The

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With New Granada secure under Santander's control, Bolívar could return to Venezuela in a position of unprecedented military, political and financial strength. In his absence the Congress had flirted with deposing him, assuming that he would meet his death in New Granada. The vice-president Francisco

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Granada in 1819. His second challenge was implementing a vision of unifying the region into one large state, which he believed (and most would agree, correctly) would be the only guarantee of maintaining American independence from the Spanish in northern South America. His early experiences under the

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army scaled the mountains poorly clothed and ill-prepared for the cold and altitude of the mountains. On both legs of the trip many became ill or died. Despite some intelligence that Bolívar was on the move, the Spanish considered the route impassable, and therefore, they were taken by surprise when

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Bolívar was now president of both Gran Colombia and Peru and had been granted extraordinary powers by the legislatures of both countries to carry out the war against the Spanish Monarchy. Since Bolívar was tied up with the administration of Quito and Peru, the liberation of Upper Peru fell to Sucre

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to Gran Colombia. Many of the officers who had fought by him were not only involved in the revolts that led to the dissolution of Gran Colombia, but continued to play important political and military roles in the decades and wars that followed. Bolívar's political thought—his emphasis on a strong,

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During 1826, internal divisions had sparked dissent throughout the nation and regional uprisings erupted in Venezuela, and Gran Colombia appeared to be on the verge of collapse. An amnesty was declared and an arrangement was reached with the Venezuelan rebels, but political dissent appeared in New

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It was clear to Bolívar by mid-1817 that he need to set a clear example that he would not tolerate challenges to his leadership. After the fall of Angostura Piar had become upset at Bolívar's leadership and decided to leave the area. He requested a passport from Bolívar, which he granted. Piar had

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and fought against cities that had refused to acknowledge its authority. His forces took Bogotá on December 12, 1814, after an eight-month-long war, and was promoted to captain general for his efforts. He was then given the task of capturing the royalist stronghold, Santa Marta, but Cartagena, the

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of San Mateo, which Monteverde approved but which Miranda never came to sign, granted amnesty and the right to emigrate from Venezuela to all republicans, if they chose to do so. Nevertheless, there was great confusion among the republicans as to what the treaty actually contained or if Monteverde

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of Dictatorship. He considered this as a temporary measure, as a means to reestablish his authority and save the republic, though it only increased dissatisfaction and anger among his political opponents. On September 25, 1828 an attempt to assassinate Bolívar failed, but it illustrated the tense

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arrived and were implemented. The new Constitutional government in Spain radically changed policy towards the rebellions in America. It assumed that the revolutionaries, as liberals, were either fighting for, or could be co-opted by, the Spanish Constitution. Although this might have been true in

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José Cortés de Madariaga—who had been a member of the Junta of Caracas and had just returned to Venezuela after being imprisoned in Spain—Luis Brión and Santiago Mariño. The eight-member Congress proposed to restore the 1811 Constitution and establish a permanent government that could negotiate a

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After the opening of the Congress, Bolívar conceived of a daring, yet risky, plan of attacking New Granada which had been a Spanish stronghold for the past three years. If he could liberate New Granada he would have a whole new base from which to operate against Morillo. Central New Granada held

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protected them from the royalist army. Mariño retreated to his home province of Cumaná, where he could rely on personal connections to maintain a base of operations. After failing to find support along the coast, Bolívar returned to Haiti. In the intervening months the divided republican leaders

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played a key military role in the region's struggle. Turning the tide against independence, these highly mobile, ferocious fighters made up a formidable military force that pushed Bolívar out of his home country once more. By 1814, the regular royalist army headed by Governor and Captain General

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In his 30-year career, Bolívar faced two main challenges. First was gaining acceptance as undisputed leader of the republican cause. Despite claiming such a role since 1813, he began to achieve this only in 1817, and consolidated his hold on power after his dramatic and unexpected victory in New

711:. The growing exile community would receive money, volunteers and weapons from the Haitian president enabling them to resume plans to continue the struggle for independence. There was debate, however, over who should be in charge, but his ability to win over Pétion and a Curaçaoan sea merchant, 1157:

on July 26 and 27, 1822, in which they discussed plans to liberate Peru and it was decided that Bolívar and Gran Colombia would take over the task of fully liberating Peru. San Martín departed from the scene. For the next two years Colombian and Peruvian patriot forces gain more territory. On

95:(July 24, 1783 – December 17, 1830), which included both formal service in the armies of various revolutionary regimes and actions organized by himself or in collaboration with other exiled patriot leaders during the years from 1811 to 1830, was an important element in the success of the 1130:, and by January 1821 had defeated the forces sent by Guayaquil against it. Bolívar was determined to ensure that the Presidency of Quito become part of Gran Colombia and not remain a collection of small, divided republics. To this end, Colombian aid in the form of supplies and an army under 726:

of June 2 and July 16 declared the freedom of slaves conditional on their joining the republican forces. Shortly thereafter, Margarita Island, safely separated by water from Morillo's forces, rejoined the republican cause and became a second base of operations. Operating under the command of

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cavalry outside of the Llanos, where they were extremely effective in holding off and defeating Morillo's formal army. Bolívar was, therefore, left alone in a mid-year attempt to take Caracas, which failed. Nevertheless, by the end of the year, the republicans were secure enough in southern

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on August 18, at a cost of 2,000 royalist casualties of the 10,000 troops they fielded, most of the 3,000 combatants in the republican army, in addition to many civilian casualties. Due to their series of repeated reverses both Bolívar and Mariño were arrested and removed from power by

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Antonio Zea was deposed and replaced by Juan Bautista Arismendi. All this was quickly reversed when word got to the Congress of Bolívar's success. By year's end Bolívar presented himself before the Congress and asked it to decree the union of Venezuela and New Granada in a new state,

905:, when the Llanos flooded up to a meter and the campaign season ended. Morillo's forces would be evacuated from the Llanos for months and no one would anticipate that Bolívar's troops would be on the move. This decision, however, would mean literally wading in waist-deep, 380:

along with its ammunition stores on June 30, when the royalist prisoners held there managed to take it over and attack the small number of troops in the city. Deciding that the situation was lost, Bolívar effectively abandoned his post and retreated to his estate farm in

311:. Throughout Spanish America, people felt it was time to take the government into their own hands, if a Spanish world, independent of the French, were to continue to exist at all, and therefore in 1810 juntas were set up throughout the Americas, including in Caracas and 860:

and found guilty. On October 16 he was executed. Although Piar's crime had ostensibly been fomenting racial hatred, it was understood that his true crime had been not recognizing Bolívar authority. After Piar's execution, Mariño, whom Bolívar's confidant and chronicler

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with the ability to select a successor, and a hereditary third chamber of the legislature. These proposals were deemed anti-liberal and met with strong opposition, including from a faction forming around Santander, who by now was openly opposed to Bolívar politically.

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then in place in Venezuela. A few days later Ribas and Piar decided not to try them and instead released them into exile. On September 8, Bolívar and Mariño set sail for Cartagena de Indias, leaving Piar and Ribas to lead the increasingly encircled republicans.

703:, though ostensibly written to one man, was an appeal to Great Britain specifically and the European powers in general to aid the cause of Spanish American independence, but it found no significant response. So he turned to the small and isolated republic of 1152:

had already made incursions into Peru starting in 1820. He had been declared Protector of Peruvian Freedom, in August 1821 after liberating parts of the country, but the important cities and provinces still remained royalist. Bolívar and San Martín held a

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is often explained by their fear that the loss of the removal of Spanish control might bring about a revolution that would destroy their own power in Venezuela. Nevertheless, in the decades leading up to 1806, Criollos had often been at odds with the

437:, which had established itself as an independent republic on November 11, 1811 (in reaction as much to events in Spain as to attempts by the junta in Bogotá to control it) and joined a few days later in a confederation with four other provinces, the 632:'s advances made it impossible for Napoleon to continue holding Ferdinand or fighting in Spain. Once in Spain, however, Ferdinand was not pleased by the revolution in government that had been undertaken in his name, and by May he had abolished the 707:, that had freed itself from French rule, but being composed of mostly former slaves, received little aid from either the United States or Europe. Bolívar and other Venezuelan and New Granadan exiles were warmly received by the Haitian president 670:

obvious base from which to launch this offensive, refused to give him the necessary soldiers and supplies, so infighting broke out. As Santa Martan forces gained ground against the divided republicans in northern New Granada, Bolívar left for

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to be held in April 1828. To prevent the splintering of Gran Colombia, Bolívar proposed to introduce an even more centralist model of government, including some or all of the elements he had been able to place in the Bolivian constitution: a

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In Curaçao Bolívar learned that Monteverde had broken the promises given in the Capitulation of San Mateo. Many of the republicans who had stayed behind were arrested and the property of many republicans, both in Venezuela and in exile, were

243:). So the Criollos' failure to support Gual, España and Miranda, which would have created a state under their control, needs to also be understood by the fact that a national identity separate from the Spanish had not yet emerged among them. 868:

His political position secured, Bolívar began to expand the scope of his military activity. He met with Páez for the first time in January 1818, who accepted Bolívar as head of the republicans. Páez, however, refused to take his powerful

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who, after Morillo disbanded Boves's informal units, no longer had an outlet for quick enrichment and social advancement under the royalist banner. This, however, posed the challenge to the Criollo republican leaders of channeling the

882:", now seen along with his "Cartagena Manifesto" and "Jamaica Letter" as a foundational exposition of his political thought. The same day the Congress elected Bolívar president of the Republic and ratified his command of its armies. 909:

water for days before attempting to scale the Andes. Understandably the plan received little support from the Congress or even from the master of the Llanos himself, Páez. With only the forces he and Santander had recruited in the

307:) to form. Even then, the rapid and large French advances in the Peninsula seemed to make the idea of a stable government in Spain pointless. By 1810, the Supreme Junta was cornered in the island city of Cadiz during the two-year 556:

Bolívar and Mariño's success, like Monteverde's a year earlier, was short-lived. The new Republic failed to convince the common people that it was not a tool of the urban elite. Lower-class people, especially the southern, rural

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Bolívar's push towards Caracas was aided by the fact that the general population, which had welcomed Monteverde a year earlier, had become disillusioned by his failure to implement the terms of the San Mateo Capitulation or the

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or nearby areas of Spanish America that at the moment were controlled by those favoring independence, and from there, carry on the struggle. These wars resulted in the creation of several South American states out of the former

258:. Although the revolt was stopped and the leaders punished or executed, the uprising did manage to slow down the economic reforms that the Crown had planned for New Granada. In the subsequent decades, a few New Granadans, like 398:

would keep his word. It was in this uncertain environment that Miranda chose to abandon the country before Monteverde occupied Caracas. In the early morning of August 1, Miranda was sleeping in the house of the commandant of

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and began persecuting and arresting the liberals responsible for its creation. To deal with the Americas, Ferdinand organized the largest expeditionary force that Spain ever sent to the Americas up to that time. Colonel

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1820 proved to be a banner year for Bolívar. His dream of creating a new nation was becoming a reality. Morillo no longer had the upper hand militarily and by late March reports began to arrive about the success of the

978:. It did so on December 17 and elected him president of the new country. The Constitution that the Congress had just written for Venezuela became null and void and a new congress was set to convene within two years. 217:

failed to attract Venezuelans of any social and economic class, in fact local Venezuelans organized the resistance to Miranda's invasion and quickly dispersed it. The lack of interest on the part of the Venezuelan

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Now thirty-two years of age, he found himself in exile for the second time. In Jamaica, Bolívar once again issued a manifesto explaining his view of the failure of the republican cause in Venezuela. His famous

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as the temporary capital of the Republic. It sent word to Bolívar to present himself as soon as military conditions permitted to take his place in the triumvirate. Less than a month later, Rafael Urdaneta and

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newspaper, an official organ of the revolutionaries, which was circulated not only in Venezuela, but in the Caribbean and in Europe. Under Páez and Piar, the republican armies had begun to recruit the local

641:, a veteran of the Spanish struggle against the French was chosen as its commander. The expeditionary force was made up of approximately 10,000 men and nearly sixty ships. Originally, they were to head for 517:, since the situation did not allow for the restoration of the old authorities or new elections. Bolívar would base his subsequent and enduring claim to be the sole head of the Venezuelan republic and 493: 513:

on August 6, 1813, and laid siege to Monteverde, who had retreated to Puerto Cabello. In Caracas Bolívar announced the restoration of the Venezuelan Republic, but placed himself at the head of a

743:, which ended in a debacle in which Bolívar abandoned Mariño, Piar and the rest of his forces, and fled by sea. Piar's forces managed to fight their way from the Caribbean coast to the southern 580:. With the royalist irregulars displaying the same passion and violence that Bolívar had demonstrated in his "war to the death" decree, the republicans suffered their first major setback at the 879: 970:, and the rest of royalist government fled the capital so fast that they left behind the treasury, an incredible coup for Bolívar and Santander. On August 10 Bolívar's army entered Bogotá. 164:

to eventually gain the upper hand. Once again, it was his victory in 1819 that gave him the leverage to bring about the creation of a unified state, Gran Colombia, with which to oppose the

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began to arrive in Guayaquil in February. Throughout 1821 Sucre was unable to take Quito, and by November both sides were exhausted and signed a 90-day armistice. The following year, at

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and guaranteeing Venezuelan independence. Hostilities continued until the surrender of Puerto Cabello in 1823, but the main front of the war now moved to southern New Granada and Quito.

653:, which surrendered to it with no blood shed. With Venezuela pacified, plans were quickly made to subdue neighboring New Granada, and the bulk of the troops moved to the coastal city of 213:

led a small group of mostly British and American foreign volunteers in an attempt to take over Venezuela and set up an independent republic. Like Gual and España's conspiracy, Miranda's

2579: 844:, who remained loyal to Bolívar, lead a group of officers that forced the triumvirate to dissolve itself. By June, Bolívar, aware of its rise and fall, compared its existence to " 360:

in favor of the Cortes of Cádiz. Bolívar's first military service was as an officer under Miranda's command in the units created to put down this revolt. Bolívar was promoted to

1005:. The revolt meant that the reinforcements that Morillo's expeditionary force desperately needed would not be coming. Moreover, in June the official orders to reinstate the 441:. In the weeks before arriving in Cartagena in October 1812, Bolívar began to analyze the collapse of the Venezuelan republic and published his thoughts in December in his 231:

that was benefiting their plantation economy and objected to the Crown's new policy of granting social privileges that had been traditionally been reserved for whites (

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of its forces on this accomplishment, although even at this time he was not universally acknowledged as head of the state or the republican forces. Mariño, based in

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had already opened a front on the east in January 1813. Bolívar's forces easily defeated the overtaxed and underpaid royalist army in a series of battles, entered

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begun to leave the area, when Bolívar changed his mind and accused Piar of plotting to kill all whites in the area and setting up a black and Mulatto republic (a

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energy, while not re-igniting the race war that had occurred under Boves. In this environment leaders like Piar, who in recent years had begun to emphasize his

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to the Republic and turned him over to Monteverde. For his apparent services to the royalist cause, Monteverde granted Bolívar a passport, and Bolívar left for

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The idea of independence for Spanish America had existed for several years among a minority of the residents of northern South America. In 1797 the Venezuelans

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recognition by other nations. Mariño offered his and Bolívar's resignation in order to allow the Congress to elect a new executive. The Congress restored the

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Like many other Venezuelan republicans who fled to New Granada after the second wave of royalist victories, Bolívar once again entered into the service of the

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Bolívar took the forces he brought from Haiti to the Orinoco region, which was mostly controlled by Piar. Piar was making headway against the royalists of

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following, became suspect, and this weakness proved useful to Bolívar, when the moment came to reassert his position as head of the nascent republic.

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was making fast and vast advances into republican territory from the west (his forces had entered Valencia on May 3, 1812), Bolívar lost control of

272:. Again, this was a minority and not necessarily a sign that the majority in New Granada did not see themselves as members of the Spanish Monarchy. 891: 1858: 457:. His success in these operations convinced the congress of the Union to authorize his plans to invade Venezuela in May 1813, and thus began his 3383: 865:

later admitted had been more guilty of insubordination than Piar, fell in line and dropped any other pretensions to an independent leadership.

2786: 1843: 402:, Colonel Manuel María Casas, when he was awakened by Casas, Bolívar, Miguel Peña and four other soldiers, who promptly arrested Miranda for 191: 2791: 348:

broke out between the provinces of Venezuela that recognized the Caracas Junta and those that still recognized the Regency in Spain (the

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His reentry into Venezuela marked a new, more violent phase of the wars of independence. Monteverde's troops had already carried out

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on December 9. South American independence was now all but secured. The only royalist area in the continent was highland country of

3104: 3074: 2612: 1899: 878:, consisting of twenty-six delegates, began holding sessions in February 1819. The highlight of the opening session was Bolívar's " 206:

with greater social equality for Venezuelans of all racial and social backgrounds. Nine years later, in 1806 long-time Venezuelan

3398: 3051: 1887: 1711: 740: 480:, in which he promised to kill any Peninsular who did not actively support his efforts to restore independence and to spare any 3348: 2099: 1909: 1216:

Granada as a consequence of this. In an attempt to keep the nation together, Bolívar called for a constitutional convention at

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on June 15, 1814, and Boves took Caracas on July 16. The republicans and Criollo royalists in Caracas, who also feared Boves's

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royalists that were captured. It was during this period that the republican city fathers of Caracas, following the example of

352:), that had replaced the Supreme Central Junta. The situation became more tense when a congress, called by the Caracas Junta, 3358: 3273: 2730: 2432: 1806: 1706: 1660: 1296: 275:

The break with the Crown came in 1808 with the disappearance of a stable government in Spain. The crisis was precipitated by

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With the Spanish Monarchy collapsing in South America and the uncertainty of constitutional rule in Spain, provinces of the

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pitted middle-class and rural residents against the royal authorities over the issue of new taxes instituted as part of the

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to make up for the large deficits the government faced. Bolívar decided to rejoin the patriot cause and made his way to

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on May 24, 1822, Sucre's Venezuelan forces finally conquered Quito. The territory of New Granada was secure. From

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on June 24, the Colombian forces decisively defeated the royalist forces, assuring control of Venezuela, save for

3343: 3268: 3181: 2904: 2813: 2704: 2422: 2180: 2114: 2089: 1870: 666: 525:, did not recognize Bolívar's claim, but did collaborate with him militarily. Reprisals were carried out against 438: 2655: 1207: 848:

in hot soup" and noted that at the moment in Venezuela only those who could command by force could truly do so.

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on July 25, Bolívar intercepted a royalist force attempting to reach the poorly defended capital. Then at the

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tensions also existed with the Crown but had not evolved into an outright desire for separation. In 1779 the

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to Mariño's strongholds in the east. The combined forces of Mariño's and Bolívar were defeated again at the

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at Los Cayos on March 31, 1816. Bolívar proclaimed the restoration of the Venezuelan Republic and in two

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on May 8, 1815. Cartagena would fall to Morillo in December 1815 and Bogotá in May of the following year.

454: 385:. Miranda also saw the republican cause as lost and authorized a capitulation with Monteverde on July 25. 3373: 3278: 3214: 3176: 2855: 2845: 2622: 2597: 2469: 1964: 1875: 1099: 324: 153: 2650: 1236:

After the failure of the convention, Bolívar proclaimed himself dictator on August 27, 1828, through an

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on August 7, the bulk of the royalist army surrendered to Bolívar. On receiving the news, the viceroy,

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Bolívar's small army emerged from the mountains on July 5. In a series of battles under the auspices of

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convinced him that divisions among republicans, augmented by federal forms of government, only allowed

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the republican expeditionaries captured more coastal towns. On July 14 Bolívar led an assault against

99:. Given the unstable political climate during these years, Bolívar and other patriot leaders, such as 2868: 2863: 2501: 2459: 2278: 2200: 2155: 1933: 1823: 1789: 1585: 1570: 1498: 1252:

centralized government—became the basis of conservative thought in nineteenth-century South America.

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to renounce any claim to returning to the throne he had abdicated only months earlier) and his

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controlled by Mariño, who by this point barely accepted Bolívar as head of the republicans.

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The small army consisted of about 2,500 men: 1,300 infantry and 800 cavalry, including a

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that had refused to accept Cartagena's authority or that of the Union, and then attacked

442: 434: 299:), Spain itself fell into chaos and it took almost a year for a coordinated, centralized 295:

rejected the new Bonaparte Dynasty (Napoleon gave the crown of Spain to his brother, the

284: 963: 708: 3119: 3089: 3014: 2506: 2417: 2320: 2263: 2253: 2233: 2210: 2150: 1738: 1733: 1222: 1163: 1162:. Sucre then destroyed the still numerically superior remnants of the royalist army at 1062: 1042: 1030: 518: 458: 446: 357: 91: 1159: 728: 506: 505:, which the capitulation promised. Monteverde also faced attacks on two fronts, since 349: 100: 3317: 3246: 3191: 3149: 3134: 3099: 3056: 2547: 2542: 2283: 1466: 1452: 1415: 1382: 1127: 1049: 546: 382: 377: 263: 777: 308: 259: 214: 80: 3169: 3139: 2325: 1605: 1022: 1002: 818:

The first overt challenge to his rule came with the meeting of the "Congresillo of

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and attempted to promote its values by disseminating translated documents like the

224: 938: 3322: 3144: 1119: 1058: 1057:, which had been in secret negotiations with the republicans aided by native son 930: 538: 450: 255: 1625: 981: 492: 176: 2936: 2873: 2248: 1993: 1640: 1615: 1139: 1066: 823: 650: 534: 514: 481: 369: 292: 288: 219: 836: 764: 3337: 3201: 3186: 3084: 2439: 1973: 1620: 1560: 1025:, which established a six-month cessation of hostilities and regularized the 996:

Monument to the meeting between Morillo and Bolívar in Santa Ana de Trujillo.

987: 975: 857: 819: 638: 145: 1146:. However the main focus now became neutralizing the royalist Army in Peru. 712: 660: 2495: 1978: 1291: 1269: 1013:

Despite this, Morillo continued with negotiations and focused on getting a

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Sketch of Bolívar at age 47 made from life by José María Espinosa in 1830.

1126:

remained in royalist control under the Audiencia President, Field Marshal

831:

and selected Fernando Rodríguez del Toro (who was at the moment exiled in

337:, who saw an opportunity in the political turmoil to return to Venezuela. 1575: 1237: 1018: 911: 828: 747:, where the vast and underpopulated terrain and the forces forming under 732: 654: 602: 465: 419: 329:

In 1809 a twenty-six-year-old Bolívar had retreated to his estate in the

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Miniature portrait of Bolívar at about age 21 made in Paris, circa 1804.

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and Brión in Ocumare. 19th century illustration by Carmelo Fernández.

484:

even if they actively collaborated with Monteverde or the royalists.

399: 345: 125: 116: 2692: 2336: 1181: 1175: 1072: 1021:. This was achieved in two treaties signed on November 25 and 26 in 955: 934: 522: 2464: 2367: 1630: 1091: 832: 199: 165: 129: 945:. After the hardships of wading through a virtual sea, the mostly 279:

removal of Bourbon Dynasty from the throne of Spain (he convinced

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Supreme Central and Governmental Junta of Spain and the Indies

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President and Commander-in-Chief of Gran Colombia (1820-1825)

704: 941:, at an altitude of 3,960 meters (13,000 feet), through the 677: 413: 137: 1451:(Second edition). New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1986. 372:

the following year. At the same time that Frigate Captain

1110:

began to declare independence. In October 1820 a coup in

1047:

The truce did not last all six months. On January 28 the

661:

Second exile in New Granada and the Caribbean (1814-1816)

1377:

José Luis Salcedo-Bastardo, "Congreso de Cariaco" in

1329:, 44-48; Madariaga, 108-116; and Masur (1969), 62-65. 1114:

set up a junta, which declared Guayaquil a republic.

315:, just as they had been in Spain two years earlier. 1259: 813: 657:, which had remained in royalist hands since 1810. 269:

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

239:

through the purchase of certificates of whiteness (

1414:. Exeter, University of Exeter Press, 2000, 153. 1412:Spain and the Independence of Colombia, 1810-1825 1182:The Peruvian and Colombian campaign in Upper Peru 1073:The Southern Campaign, Quito and Peru (1821-1824) 759: 487: 3335: 856:) in imitation of Haiti. Piar was tracked down, 613: 572:was overshadowed by a large, irregular force of 3379:Campaigns of the Venezuelan War of Independence 1203:The dissolution of Gran Colombia and aftermath 925:Bolívar's troops cross the Cordillera Oriental 2352: 1506: 788:. In Angostura Bolívar began publishing the 319:Service under the First Republic (1810-1812) 1449:The Spanish American Revolutions, 1808-1826 885: 388: 2359: 2345: 1513: 1499: 1381:, Vol. 1. Caracas: Fundación Polar, 1999. 892:Bolívar's campaign to liberate New Granada 563:(cowboys), flocked to the royalist cause. 496:Portrait of Bolívar made in Haiti in 1816. 678:Aid from the Haitian Republic and Curaçao 414:Exile and the Second Republic (1812-1814) 66:Learn how and when to remove this message 1206: 1086: 991: 920: 763: 681: 491: 356:on July 5, 1811, sparking rebellions in 340: 175: 171: 79: 29:This article includes a list of general 1036: 954:the republican army cleared its way to 918:regions, Bolívar set off in June 1819. 822:" on May 8 and 9 under the auspices of 605:, each representing the two republican 262:, became intrigued by the ideas of the 3336: 1908: 1520: 1432:Spain and the Independence of Colombia 1017:and bringing the war in line with the 3384:Spanish American wars of independence 2366: 2340: 1494: 1297:Spanish American wars of independence 1122:followed suit in the next few weeks. 186:Spanish American wars of independence 2485:Colombia–Peru War (Leticia Incident) 1379:Diccionario de Historia de Venezuela 880:Address at the Congress of Angostura 718:The émigrés successfully captured a 15: 1900:Guayana Esequiba (Reclamation area) 1355:, 70-75; and Masur (1969), 122-127. 472:, Bolívar's instituted a policy of 13: 1247:Bolívar's legacy continued in the 647:Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata 227:: they wanted an expansion of the 115:often had to go into exile in the 97:independence wars in South America 84:Equestrian statue of Simón Bolívar 35:it lacks sufficient corresponding 14: 3415: 1485:Historia Fundamental de Venezuela 1338:Masur (1969), 98-102; and Lynch, 1142:royalist make a counterattack at 814:Challenges to Bolívar's authority 686:Soublette, Pedro Briceño Méndez, 620:Spanish reconquest of New Granada 90:military and political career of 2428:Military career of Simón Bolívar 2029:Ecological Movement of Venezuela 1399:The Spanish American Revolutions 1366:The Spanish American Revolutions 1276: 1262: 628:had returned to the throne. The 545:(the more appropriate site, the 20: 3182:Freedom of religion in Colombia 2507:Current internal armed conflict 2423:United Provinces of New Granada 1465:, Yale University Press, 2006. 1441: 533:, granted Bolívar the title of 439:United Provinces of New Granada 3399:Military careers by individual 1591:Restorative Liberal Revolution 1424: 1404: 1391: 1371: 1358: 1345: 1332: 1319: 1079:Ecuadorian War of Independence 806:roots as he built a Pardo and 760:The Third Republic (1817-1820) 488:The Republic restored and lost 1: 3349:Military history of Venezuela 614:Royalist control consolidated 594:Battle of Aragua de Barcelona 549:, was still damaged from the 3359:Military history of Colombia 1483:Bastardo-Salcedo, JL (1993) 1307:Bolivian War of Independence 1189:Bolivian War of Independence 1083:Peruvian War of Independence 786:Francisco de Paula Santander 634:Spanish Constitution of 1812 503:Spanish Constitution of 1812 449:against cities in the lower 424:Second Republic of Venezuela 283:to abdicate, and his father 113:Francisco de Paula Santander 7: 3364:Military history of Ecuador 3354:Military history of Bolivia 3279:Colombia in popular culture 3052:Water supply and sanitation 2470:Colombian Civil War of 1895 1965:Democratic Unity Roundtable 1954:People's Electoral Movement 1888:Supreme Tribunal of Justice 1255: 1094:of Bolívar's liberation of 325:First Republic of Venezuela 10: 3420: 2413:Viceroyalty of New Granada 1661:2017 constitutional crisis 1302:Latin American integration 1076: 1040: 985: 889: 617: 478:Decree of War to the Death 417: 322: 183: 162:Spanish American royalists 3295: 3274:Right-wing paramilitarism 3200: 3065: 3000: 2996: 2987: 2895: 2886: 2854: 2764: 2726: 2717: 2668: 2621: 2533: 2529: 2520: 2460:United States of Colombia 2378: 2298: 2219: 2146: 2137: 2058: 2049: 2002: 1962: 1934:Movement We Are Venezuela 1917: 1790:Human rights in Venezuela 1775: 1766: 1697: 1688: 1636:1992 coup d'état attempts 1571:Revolution of the Reforms 1541: 1532: 297:King of Naples and Sicily 154:First Venezuelan Republic 124:, the currently existing 3389:19th century in Colombia 3369:Military history of Peru 1807:Administrative divisions 1666:2019 presidential crisis 1646:2002 coup d'état attempt 1581:Revindicating Revolution 1312: 1144:Battle of Lake Maracaibo 952:Francisco Mariño y Soler 886:The New Granada Campaign 863:Daniel Florencio O'Leary 389:The royalist restoration 3394:19th century in Ecuador 2512:Colombian peace process 2455:Granadine Confederation 2450:Republic of New Granada 1780:Corruption in Venezuela 1098:in a book of poetry by 624:Earlier in March 1814, 543:Church of San Francisco 252:Revolt of the Comuneros 109:José Francisco Bermúdez 50:more precise citations. 3344:19th-century conflicts 2950:Science and technology 2705:Indigenous territories 2408:Kingdom of New Granada 2105:Science and technology 2019:Movement for Socialism 1929:United Socialist Party 1651:2002–03 general strike 1212: 1103: 1100:José Joaquín de Olmedo 997: 960:Battle of Vargas Swamp 926: 773: 695: 497: 301:provisional government 181: 144:, and the now defunct 85: 3404:Military emancipation 1463:Simón Bolívar: A Life 1210: 1132:Antonio José de Sucre 1090: 1023:Santa Ana de Trujillo 995: 924: 876:Congress of Angostura 842:Antonio José de Sucre 767: 688:Francisco Antonio Zea 685: 576:recruited and led by 495: 374:Domingo de Monteverde 354:declared independence 341:Independence declared 179: 172:Historical background 83: 3105:World Heritage Sites 3075:Archaeological sites 2809:Council of Ministers 2613:World Heritage Sites 2603:Environmental issues 2580:Valleys and Plateaus 2480:Separation of Panama 2465:Republic of Colombia 2433:Wars of independence 2398:Muisca Confederation 2005:Agreement for Change 1944:For Social Democracy 1920:Great Patriotic Pole 1785:Torture in Venezuela 1754:World Heritage Sites 1729:Environmental issues 1284:Latin America portal 1155:meeting in Guayaquil 1037:Victory in Venezuela 547:Cathedral of Caracas 335:Francisco de Miranda 211:Francisco de Miranda 3269:Guerrilla movements 2814:Government agencies 2787:Comptroller General 2191:List of Venezuelans 2014:Progressive Advance 1802:Crisis in Venezuela 1556:War of Independence 1231:Convention of Ocaña 1223:lifetime presidency 1136:Battle of Pichincha 1108:Presidency of Quito 1027:rules of engagement 968:Juan José de Sámano 943:Cordillera Oriental 768:First issue of the 741:Ocumare de la Costa 701:Letter from Jamaica 582:Battle of La Puerta 570:Juan Manuel Cajigal 515:military government 443:Cartagena Manifesto 435:Cartagena de Indias 3042:Race and ethnicity 2955:Telecommunications 2688:Metropolitan areas 2475:Thousand Days' War 2418:Foolish Fatherland 2393:Indigenous peoples 2181:Indigenous peoples 2115:Telecommunications 1712:metropolitan areas 1410:Earle, Rebecca A. 1213: 1164:Battle of Ayacucho 1150:José de San Martín 1104: 1063:Battle of Carabobo 1043:Battle of Carabobo 1031:Miguel de la Torre 1007:Cádiz Constitution 998: 927: 790:Correo del Orinoco 774: 770:Correo del Orinoco 696: 519:commander-in-chief 498: 459:Admirable Campaign 447:Magdalena Campaign 182: 168:on the continent. 86: 3331: 3330: 3291: 3290: 3287: 3286: 2983: 2982: 2882: 2881: 2831:Foreign relations 2792:Inspector General 2731:Political parties 2713: 2712: 2664: 2663: 2587:(Protected Areas) 2334: 2333: 2294: 2293: 2133: 2132: 2045: 2044: 2041: 2040: 2037: 2036: 1989:Democratic Action 1854:National Assembly 1834:Foreign relations 1762: 1761: 1684: 1683: 1551:Captaincy General 1187:For details, see 1128:Melchior Aymerich 749:José Antonio Páez 393:The terms of the 378:San Felipe Castle 331:Valleys of Aragua 289:invasion of Spain 264:French Revolution 196:José María España 76: 75: 68: 3411: 3311: 3304: 3252:Drug trafficking 3160:National symbols 3140:Muisca mythology 2998: 2997: 2994: 2993: 2940: 2932:Mineral industry 2917:Economic history 2893: 2892: 2724: 2723: 2693:Capital District 2608:Invasive species 2593:Cities and towns 2588: 2531: 2530: 2527: 2526: 2403:Spanish conquest 2361: 2354: 2347: 2338: 2337: 2314: 2307: 2144: 2143: 2056: 2055: 2007: 1967: 1922: 1915: 1914: 1906: 1905: 1773: 1772: 1695: 1694: 1611:1958 coup d'état 1606:El Trienio Adeco 1539: 1538: 1515: 1508: 1501: 1492: 1491: 1476:Masur, Gerhard. 1435: 1428: 1422: 1408: 1402: 1395: 1389: 1375: 1369: 1362: 1356: 1349: 1343: 1336: 1330: 1323: 1286: 1281: 1280: 1279: 1272: 1267: 1266: 1265: 1249:successor states 964:Battle of Boyacá 772:, June 27, 1818. 737:Carlos Soublette 709:Alexandre Pétion 692:Gregor MacGregor 667:United Provinces 651:Margarita Island 599:José Félix Ribas 578:José Tomás Boves 291:. As the entire 241:gracias al sacar 166:Spanish Monarchy 122:Spanish colonies 71: 64: 60: 57: 51: 46:this article by 37:inline citations 24: 23: 16: 3419: 3418: 3414: 3413: 3412: 3410: 3409: 3408: 3334: 3333: 3332: 3327: 3314: 3307: 3300: 3283: 3196: 3177:Public holidays 3145:Muisca religion 3061: 2979: 2938: 2878: 2864:Aerospace Force 2850: 2782:Auditor General 2760: 2709: 2660: 2623:Natural regions 2617: 2598:Natural hazards 2586: 2585:National parks 2516: 2374: 2365: 2335: 2330: 2317: 2310: 2303: 2290: 2215: 2196:Public holidays 2129: 2033: 2003: 1998: 1963: 1958: 1939:Communist Party 1918: 1904: 1839:Law enforcement 1758: 1749:Natural Regions 1680: 1528: 1519: 1444: 1439: 1438: 1429: 1425: 1409: 1405: 1396: 1392: 1376: 1372: 1363: 1359: 1353:Bolívar: A Life 1350: 1346: 1340:Bolívar: A Life 1337: 1333: 1327:Bolívar: A Life 1324: 1320: 1315: 1282: 1277: 1275: 1268: 1263: 1261: 1258: 1205: 1184: 1160:Battle of Junín 1085: 1077:Main articles: 1075: 1059:Rafael Urdaneta 1045: 1039: 990: 984: 958:. First at the 894: 888: 858:court-martialed 816: 762: 680: 663: 630:Sixth Coalition 622: 616: 588:hoards, had to 551:1812 earthquake 539:captain general 507:Santiago Mariño 490: 451:Magdalena River 426: 418:Main articles: 416: 391: 350:Cortes of Cádiz 343: 327: 321: 256:Bourbon Reforms 246:In neighboring 188: 174: 101:Santiago Mariño 72: 61: 55: 52: 42:Please help to 41: 25: 21: 12: 11: 5: 3417: 3407: 3406: 3401: 3396: 3391: 3386: 3381: 3376: 3371: 3366: 3361: 3356: 3351: 3346: 3329: 3328: 3326: 3325: 3320: 3313: 3312: 3305: 3297: 3296: 3293: 3292: 3289: 3288: 3285: 3284: 3282: 3281: 3276: 3271: 3266: 3265: 3264: 3259: 3254: 3244: 3239: 3234: 3229: 3224: 3223: 3222: 3217: 3206: 3204: 3198: 3197: 3195: 3194: 3189: 3184: 3179: 3174: 3173: 3172: 3167: 3157: 3152: 3147: 3142: 3137: 3132: 3127: 3122: 3117: 3112: 3107: 3102: 3097: 3092: 3087: 3082: 3077: 3071: 3069: 3063: 3062: 3060: 3059: 3054: 3049: 3044: 3039: 3034: 3029: 3024: 3019: 3018: 3017: 3007: 3001: 2991: 2985: 2984: 2981: 2980: 2978: 2977: 2975:Transportation 2972: 2967: 2962: 2957: 2952: 2947: 2945:Stock exchange 2942: 2934: 2929: 2924: 2919: 2914: 2909: 2908: 2907: 2896: 2890: 2884: 2883: 2880: 2879: 2877: 2876: 2871: 2866: 2860: 2858: 2852: 2851: 2849: 2848: 2843: 2838: 2833: 2828: 2827: 2826: 2824:Vice President 2821: 2816: 2811: 2801: 2800: 2799: 2794: 2789: 2784: 2776: 2770: 2768: 2762: 2761: 2759: 2758: 2757: 2756: 2751: 2746: 2738: 2733: 2727: 2721: 2715: 2714: 2711: 2710: 2708: 2707: 2702: 2699:Corregimientos 2695: 2690: 2685: 2683:Municipalities 2680: 2674: 2672: 2666: 2665: 2662: 2661: 2659: 2658: 2653: 2648: 2643: 2638: 2633: 2627: 2625: 2619: 2618: 2616: 2615: 2610: 2605: 2600: 2595: 2590: 2582: 2577: 2572: 2567: 2562: 2557: 2552: 2551: 2550: 2545: 2534: 2524: 2518: 2517: 2515: 2514: 2509: 2504: 2502:National Front 2499: 2492: 2487: 2482: 2477: 2472: 2467: 2462: 2457: 2452: 2447: 2437: 2436: 2435: 2425: 2420: 2415: 2410: 2405: 2400: 2395: 2390: 2384: 2382: 2376: 2375: 2364: 2363: 2356: 2349: 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3400: 3397: 3395: 3392: 3390: 3387: 3385: 3382: 3380: 3377: 3375: 3374:Simón Bolívar 3372: 3370: 3367: 3365: 3362: 3360: 3357: 3355: 3352: 3350: 3347: 3345: 3342: 3341: 3339: 3324: 3321: 3319: 3316: 3315: 3310: 3306: 3303: 3299: 3298: 3294: 3280: 3277: 3275: 3272: 3270: 3267: 3263: 3260: 3258: 3255: 3253: 3250: 3249: 3248: 3245: 3243: 3240: 3238: 3235: 3233: 3230: 3228: 3225: 3221: 3218: 3216: 3213: 3212: 3211: 3208: 3207: 3205: 3203: 3199: 3193: 3190: 3188: 3187:Miss Colombia 3185: 3183: 3180: 3178: 3175: 3171: 3168: 3166: 3163: 3162: 3161: 3158: 3156: 3153: 3151: 3148: 3146: 3143: 3141: 3138: 3136: 3133: 3131: 3128: 3126: 3123: 3121: 3118: 3116: 3113: 3111: 3108: 3106: 3103: 3101: 3098: 3096: 3093: 3091: 3088: 3086: 3083: 3081: 3078: 3076: 3073: 3072: 3070: 3068: 3064: 3058: 3055: 3053: 3050: 3048: 3045: 3043: 3040: 3038: 3035: 3033: 3030: 3028: 3025: 3023: 3020: 3016: 3013: 3012: 3011: 3008: 3006: 3003: 3002: 2999: 2995: 2992: 2990: 2986: 2976: 2973: 2971: 2968: 2966: 2963: 2961: 2958: 2956: 2953: 2951: 2948: 2946: 2943: 2941: 2935: 2933: 2930: 2928: 2925: 2923: 2920: 2918: 2915: 2913: 2910: 2906: 2903: 2902: 2901: 2898: 2897: 2894: 2891: 2889: 2885: 2875: 2872: 2870: 2867: 2865: 2862: 2861: 2859: 2857: 2853: 2847: 2844: 2842: 2839: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2829: 2825: 2822: 2820: 2817: 2815: 2812: 2810: 2807: 2806: 2805: 2802: 2798: 2795: 2793: 2790: 2788: 2785: 2783: 2780: 2779: 2777: 2775: 2772: 2771: 2769: 2767: 2763: 2755: 2752: 2750: 2747: 2745: 2742: 2741: 2739: 2737: 2734: 2732: 2729: 2728: 2725: 2722: 2720: 2716: 2706: 2703: 2701: 2700: 2696: 2694: 2691: 2689: 2686: 2684: 2681: 2679: 2676: 2675: 2673: 2671: 2667: 2657: 2656:Pacific/Chocó 2654: 2652: 2649: 2647: 2644: 2642: 2639: 2637: 2634: 2632: 2629: 2628: 2626: 2624: 2620: 2614: 2611: 2609: 2606: 2604: 2601: 2599: 2596: 2594: 2591: 2589: 2583: 2581: 2578: 2576: 2573: 2571: 2568: 2566: 2563: 2561: 2558: 2556: 2553: 2549: 2546: 2544: 2541: 2540: 2539: 2536: 2535: 2532: 2528: 2525: 2523: 2519: 2513: 2510: 2508: 2505: 2503: 2500: 2498: 2497: 2493: 2491: 2488: 2486: 2483: 2481: 2478: 2476: 2473: 2471: 2468: 2466: 2463: 2461: 2458: 2456: 2453: 2451: 2448: 2445: 2444:reunification 2441: 2440:Gran Colombia 2438: 2434: 2431: 2430: 2429: 2426: 2424: 2421: 2419: 2416: 2414: 2411: 2409: 2406: 2404: 2401: 2399: 2396: 2394: 2391: 2389: 2386: 2385: 2383: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2362: 2357: 2355: 2350: 2348: 2343: 2342: 2339: 2327: 2324: 2322: 2319: 2318: 2313: 2309: 2306: 2302: 2301: 2297: 2285: 2282: 2280: 2277: 2275: 2272: 2271: 2270: 2267: 2265: 2262: 2260: 2257: 2255: 2252: 2250: 2247: 2245: 2242: 2240: 2237: 2235: 2232: 2230: 2227: 2226: 2224: 2222: 2218: 2212: 2209: 2207: 2204: 2202: 2199: 2197: 2194: 2192: 2189: 2187: 2184: 2182: 2179: 2177: 2174: 2172: 2169: 2167: 2164: 2162: 2159: 2157: 2154: 2152: 2149: 2148: 2145: 2142: 2140: 2136: 2126: 2123: 2121: 2118: 2116: 2113: 2111: 2108: 2106: 2103: 2101: 2098: 2096: 2093: 2091: 2088: 2084: 2081: 2079: 2076: 2075: 2074: 2071: 2069: 2066: 2064: 2061: 2060: 2057: 2054: 2052: 2048: 2030: 2027: 2025: 2022: 2020: 2017: 2015: 2012: 2011: 2009: 2006: 2001: 1995: 1992: 1990: 1987: 1985: 1982: 1980: 1977: 1975: 1974:Justice First 1972: 1971: 1969: 1966: 1961: 1955: 1952: 1950: 1947: 1945: 1942: 1940: 1937: 1935: 1932: 1930: 1927: 1926: 1924: 1921: 1916: 1913: 1911: 1907: 1901: 1898: 1894: 1891: 1890: 1889: 1886: 1882: 1879: 1877: 1874: 1872: 1869: 1868: 1867: 1864: 1860: 1857: 1856: 1855: 1852: 1850: 1847: 1845: 1842: 1840: 1837: 1835: 1832: 1830: 1827: 1825: 1822: 1818: 1815: 1813: 1810: 1809: 1808: 1805: 1803: 1800: 1796: 1793: 1792: 1791: 1788: 1786: 1783: 1781: 1778: 1777: 1774: 1771: 1769: 1765: 1755: 1752: 1750: 1747: 1745: 1742: 1740: 1737: 1735: 1732: 1730: 1727: 1725: 1722: 1720: 1717: 1713: 1710: 1709: 1708: 1705: 1703: 1700: 1699: 1696: 1693: 1691: 1687: 1677: 1674: 1672: 1669: 1667: 1664: 1662: 1659: 1657: 1654: 1652: 1649: 1647: 1644: 1642: 1639: 1637: 1634: 1632: 1629: 1627: 1624: 1622: 1621:El Carupanazo 1619: 1617: 1614: 1612: 1609: 1607: 1604: 1602: 1599: 1597: 1594: 1592: 1589: 1587: 1584: 1582: 1579: 1577: 1574: 1572: 1569: 1566: 1565:reunification 1562: 1561:Gran Colombia 1559: 1557: 1554: 1552: 1549: 1547: 1544: 1543: 1540: 1537: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1516: 1511: 1509: 1504: 1502: 1497: 1496: 1493: 1487:UVC, Caracas. 1486: 1482: 1479: 1478:Simón Bolívar 1475: 1472: 1471:0-300-11062-6 1468: 1464: 1461:Lynch, John. 1460: 1458: 1457:0-393-95537-0 1454: 1450: 1447:Lynch, John. 1446: 1445: 1433: 1427: 1421: 1420:0-85989-612-9 1417: 1413: 1407: 1400: 1394: 1388: 1387:980-6397-37-1 1384: 1380: 1374: 1367: 1361: 1354: 1348: 1341: 1335: 1328: 1322: 1318: 1308: 1305: 1303: 1300: 1298: 1295: 1293: 1290: 1289: 1285: 1274: 1271: 1260: 1253: 1250: 1245: 1242: 1239: 1234: 1232: 1227: 1224: 1219: 1209: 1200: 1198: 1192: 1191: 1190: 1179: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1156: 1151: 1147: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1084: 1080: 1070: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1051: 1044: 1034: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1011: 1008: 1004: 994: 989: 988:Gran Colombia 979: 977: 971: 969: 965: 961: 957: 953: 948: 944: 940: 936: 932: 923: 919: 917: 913: 908: 904: 900: 893: 883: 881: 877: 872: 866: 864: 859: 855: 849: 847: 846:cassava bread 843: 838: 834: 830: 825: 821: 811: 809: 805: 801: 796: 791: 787: 783: 779: 771: 766: 757: 755: 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 725: 721: 716: 714: 710: 706: 702: 693: 689: 684: 675: 673: 668: 658: 656: 652: 648: 644: 640: 639:Pablo Morillo 635: 631: 627: 626:Ferdinand VII 621: 611: 608: 604: 600: 595: 591: 590:flee en masse 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 566: 562: 561: 554: 552: 548: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 504: 494: 485: 483: 479: 475: 471: 467: 462: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 425: 421: 411: 409: 405: 401: 396: 386: 384: 379: 375: 371: 367: 363: 359: 355: 351: 347: 338: 336: 332: 326: 316: 314: 310: 306: 302: 298: 294: 293:Spanish world 290: 286: 282: 281:Ferdinand VII 278: 273: 271: 270: 265: 261: 257: 253: 249: 244: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 225:Spanish Crown 221: 216: 212: 209: 205: 201: 197: 193: 187: 178: 169: 167: 163: 159: 155: 149: 147: 146:Gran Colombia 143: 139: 135: 131: 127: 123: 118: 114: 110: 106: 102: 98: 94: 93: 92:Simón Bolívar 82: 78: 70: 67: 59: 49: 45: 39: 38: 32: 27: 18: 17: 3210:Human rights 3165:Coat of arms 3095:Video gaming 3080:Architecture 3022:Demographics 2965:Trade unions 2905:Central bank 2774:Constitution 2749:Conservatism 2697: 2670:Subdivisions 2538:Biodiversity 2496:La Violencia 2494: 2490:World War II 2427: 2279:coat of arms 2156:Demographics 2100:Oil industry 2090:Cooperatives 1979:Popular Will 1824:Constitution 1676:Coups d'état 1626:El Porteñazo 1601:World War II 1484: 1477: 1462: 1448: 1442:Bibliography 1431: 1426: 1411: 1406: 1398: 1393: 1378: 1373: 1365: 1360: 1352: 1347: 1339: 1334: 1326: 1321: 1292:Libertadores 1270:Spain portal 1246: 1235: 1228: 1214: 1193: 1186: 1185: 1148: 1105: 1095: 1048: 1046: 1012: 1003:Riego Revolt 999: 972: 946: 928: 903:rainy season 898: 895: 870: 867: 853: 850: 817: 807: 799: 794: 789: 775: 769: 717: 697: 664: 623: 585: 573: 564: 558: 555: 499: 470:Peninsulares 463: 427: 395:Capitulation 392: 344: 328: 274: 267: 245: 240: 232: 189: 150: 89: 87: 77: 62: 53: 34: 3227:Immigration 3125:Handicrafts 3047:Health care 2922:Agriculture 2740:Ideologies 2678:Departments 2176:Immigration 2063:Agriculture 1724:Earthquakes 1586:1895 crisis 1576:Federal War 1546:New Granada 854:pardocracia 837:La Asunción 829:triumvirate 655:Santa Marta 603:Manuel Piar 431:confiscated 420:Patria Boba 248:New Granada 192:Manuel Gual 158:New Granada 105:Manuel Piar 48:introducing 3338:Categories 3257:Corruption 3232:Emigration 3130:Literature 3010:Colombians 2939:(currency) 2766:Governance 2744:Liberalism 2239:Literature 2171:Healthcare 1671:Civil wars 1434:, 154-159. 1401:, 210-213. 1368:, 210-211. 1168:Upper Peru 1116:Portoviejo 986:See also: 916:Meta River 890:See also: 713:Luis Brión 643:Montevideo 527:Peninsular 474:no quarter 466:atrocities 366:commandant 285:Charles IV 277:Napoleon's 229:free trade 208:expatriate 56:April 2024 31:references 3262:Terrorism 3115:Festivals 3110:Carnivals 3032:Languages 3027:Education 2912:Companies 2836:Judiciary 2819:President 2804:Executive 2797:Ombudsman 2754:Communism 2736:Elections 2651:Orinoquía 2641:Caribbean 2565:Mountains 2522:Geography 2206:Squatting 2186:Languages 2166:Education 2125:Transport 2073:Companies 1984:A New Era 1866:President 1859:President 1829:Elections 1690:Geography 1522:Venezuela 1172:El Callao 1112:Guayaquil 1055:Maracaibo 1015:ceasefire 800:llanero's 778:Angostura 754:Barcelona 720:beachhead 535:Liberator 400:La Guaira 383:San Mateo 364:and made 346:Civil war 233:españoles 204:Venezuela 126:Venezuela 117:Caribbean 3318:Category 3215:Intersex 3120:Folklore 3037:Religion 3005:Abortion 2960:Taxation 2927:Industry 2856:Military 2841:Congress 2778:Control 2719:Politics 2388:Timeline 2372:articles 2368:Colombia 2321:Category 2259:Religion 2201:Refugees 2161:Diaspora 2068:Currency 1949:Tupamaro 1893:In exile 1849:Missions 1844:Military 1768:Politics 1631:Caracazo 1526:articles 1342:, 60-63. 1256:See also 1197:O'Connor 1096:Colombia 1092:Allegory 976:Colombia 907:malarial 899:invierno 833:Trinidad 795:llaneros 782:Casanare 607:commands 574:llaneros 565:Llaneros 560:llaneros 482:American 358:Valencia 220:Criollos 200:republic 130:Colombia 3302:Outline 3242:Smoking 3237:Poverty 3155:Theater 3100:Cuisine 3067:Culture 2989:Society 2970:Tourism 2900:Banking 2888:Economy 2646:Insular 2570:Islands 2560:Geology 2555:Climate 2380:History 2305:Outline 2269:Symbols 2234:Cuisine 2221:Culture 2139:Society 2120:Tourism 2051:Economy 1910:Parties 1881:Cabinet 1812:Regions 1719:Climate 1702:Borders 1534:History 1430:Earle, 1397:Lynch, 1364:Lynch, 1351:Lynch, 1325:Lynch, 1238:Organic 1050:cabildo 947:llanero 871:llanero 820:Cariaco 808:llanero 724:decrees 672:Jamaica 645:in the 586:llanero 541:in the 511:Caracas 476:in his 408:Curaçao 404:treason 362:colonel 156:and in 142:Bolivia 134:Ecuador 44:improve 3323:Portal 3202:Issues 3090:Cinema 2846:Police 2636:Andean 2631:Amazon 2575:Rivers 2370: 2326:Portal 2274:anthem 2229:Cinema 2095:Energy 1817:States 1707:Cities 1656:Crisis 1524: 1469: 1455: 1418: 1385: 1241:Decree 1176:Chiloé 1120:Cuenca 956:Bogotá 935:Páramo 901:, the 745:Llanos 729:Mariño 531:Mérida 523:Cumaná 313:Bogotá 303:(the 237:Pardos 215:putsch 33:, but 3309:Index 3247:Crime 3192:Sport 3150:Music 3135:Media 3057:Women 2937:Peso 2548:Flora 2543:Fauna 2312:Index 2264:Sport 2254:Music 2244:Media 2211:Women 2151:Crime 2078:PDVSA 2024:COPEI 1739:Flora 1734:Fauna 1313:Notes 1218:Ocaña 1124:Quito 939:Pisba 912:Apure 824:Canon 804:Pardo 705:Haiti 455:Ocaña 235:) to 3220:LGBT 3170:Flag 3015:list 2874:Navy 2869:Army 2284:flag 1871:List 1795:LGBT 1467:ISBN 1453:ISBN 1416:ISBN 1383:ISBN 1229:The 1195:and 1174:and 1118:and 1081:and 914:and 735:and 733:Piar 601:and 422:and 194:and 140:and 138:Peru 111:and 88:The 3085:Art 2083:CVG 1053:of 937:de 553:). 368:of 202:in 3340:: 1178:. 1170:, 1033:. 731:, 690:, 461:. 148:. 136:, 132:, 128:, 107:, 103:, 2446:) 2442:( 2360:e 2353:t 2346:v 1567:) 1563:( 1514:e 1507:t 1500:v 1473:. 1102:. 69:) 63:( 58:) 54:( 40:.

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