533:
38:
46:
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232:(called Onoudu) under 80 gm, this implies that the group was buried at a certain point in the size devolution of the manilla. Mkporo are made of brass. The weight correspondence of the oval-foot Nkobnkob with the high end of the round-foot range suggests that it is either the earlier variety, or contemporary with the earliest round-foots. The exclusive presence of the 'square-foot' variety of French Popo, normally scarce among circulation groups of Popos, suggests that this is the earliest variety. The earliest French manillas as likely to be contemporaries of the earliest British pieces.
589:
250:
395:, by Armand Duchateau, is a massive manilla of 25 centimetres (9.8 in) across and 4.5 centimetres (1.8 in) gauge, crudely cast with scoop-faceted sides, and well worn. It could be the heaviest (no weight given) and earliest manilla known. However, in the same book is a plaque with a European holding two pieces of very different form, crescent-shaped without flared ends, though apparently heavy if the proportions are correct. Today, pieces of this size and blunt form are associated with the
422:, continuing the "brass" manillas, although, as stated, we have as yet no way to positively identify Dutch manillas. Trader and traveler accounts are both plentiful and specific as to names and relative values, but no drawings or detailed descriptions seem to have survived which could link these accounts to specific manilla types found today. The metals preferred were originally copper, then brass at about the end of the 15th century and finally bronze in about 1630.
1148:
603:
161:
426:
454:
the fancier ones were owned by royalty and used as bride price and in a pre-funeral "dying ceremony." Unlike the smaller money-manillas, their range was not confined to west Africa. A distinctive brass type with four flat facets and slightly bulging square ends, ranging from about 50 ounces (1,400 g)-150 ounces (4,300 g), was produced by the Jonga of
418:, on the Gold Coast, between 1519 and 1522, and an order for 1.4 million manillas being placed, in 1548, with a German merchant of the Fugger family, to support the trade. The order stipulating the supply of both 250g Guinea and 312g Mina type manilla. As the Dutch came to dominate the Africa trade, they are likely to have switched manufacture from Antwerp to
445:, became the most significant European brass manufacturing city. It is likely that most types of brass manillas were made there, including the "middle period" Nkobnkob-Onoudu whose weight apparently decreased over time, and the still lighter "late period" types such as Okpoho (from the Efik word for brass) and those salvaged from the
453:
A class of heavier, more elongated pieces, probably produced in Africa, are often labelled by collectors as "King" or "Queen" manillas. Usually with flared ends and more often copper than brass, they show a wide range of faceting and design patterns. Plainer types were apparently bullion monies, but
449:
wreck of 1843. Among the late period types, specimen weights overlap type distinctions suggesting contemporary manufacture rather than a progression of types. The Popos, whose weight distribution places them at the transition point between
Nkobnkob and Onoudu, were made in Nantes, France, possibly
359:
The
Portuguese were soon supplanted aside by the British, French, and Dutch, all of whom had labor-intensive plantations in the West Indies, and later by the Americans. A typical voyage took manillas and utilitarian brass objects such as pans and basins to Western Africa, where they were exchanged
235:
Sometimes distinguished from manillas mainly by their wearability are a large number of regional types called 'Bracelet' monies and 'Legband' monies. Some are fairly uniform in size and weight and served as monies of account like manillas, but others were actually worn as wealth display. The less
231:
An important hoard had a group of 72 pieces with similar patination and soil crusting, suggesting common burial. There were 7 Mkporo; 19 Nkobnkob-round foot; 9 Nkobnkob-oval foot; and 37 Popo-square foot. The lightest 'Nkobnkobs' in the hoard were 108 gm and 114 gm, while they are routinely found
474:
except with the permission of the High
Commissioner. This was done to encourage the use of coined money. They were still in regular use however and constituted an administrative problem in the late 1940s. The Ibo tribe still used them prior to this and at Wukai a deep bowl of corn was considered
390:
for the monarch and possibly other places, and are about 240 millimetres (9.4 in) long, about 13 millimetres (0.51 in) gauge, weighing 600 grams (21 oz) in 1529, though by 1548 the dimensions and weight were reduced to about 250 grams (8.8 oz)-280 grams (9.9 oz). In many
486:
The
British undertook a major recall dubbed "operation manilla" in 1948 to replace them with British West African currency. The campaign was largely successful and over 32 million pieces were bought up and resold as scrap. The manilla, a lingering reminder of the slave trade, ceased to be legal
288:
Metal bracelets and leg bands were the principal 'money' and they were usually worn by women to display their husband's wealth. Early
Portuguese traders thus found a preexisting and very convenient willingness to accept unlimited numbers of these 'bracelets', and they are referred to by
867:
Skowronek, Tobias B.; DeCorse, Christopher R.; Denk, Rolf; Birr, Stefan D.; Kingsley, Sean; Cook, Gregory D.; Dominguez, Ana María Benito; Clifford, Brandon; Barker, Andrew; Otero, José Suárez; Moreira, Vicente Caramés; Bode, Michael; Jansen, Moritz; Scholes, Daniel (2023-04-05).
273:
money. One suggestion is that
Nigerian fishermen brought them up in their nets from the shipwrecks of European wrecks or made them from the copper 'pins' used in wooden sailing ships wrecked in the Bight of Benin. One theory is that if indigenous, they copied a splayed-end
168:
Africans of each region had names for each variety of manilla, probably varying locally. They valued them differently, and were very particular about the types they would accept. Manillas were partly differentiated and valued by the sound they made when struck.
227:
The proliferation of
African names is probably due more to regional customs than actual manufacturing specialization. The 'Mkporo' is likely a Dutch or British manilla and the 'Popo' is French, but the rest are examples of a single evolving Birmingham product.
519:
As curios for the tourist trade and internal 'non-monetary' uses they are still made, often of more modern metals such as aluminium, but the designs are still largely traditional ones. Manillas may be occasionally still used in a few remote villages in
309:
The houses are built of sun-dried bricks covered with palm leaves. Benin, which is 80 leagues (sic) long by 40 leagues (sic) broad, is always at war with its neighbours from whom it obtains captives, whom we buy at from 12 to 15 brass or copper
551:
Internally, manillas were the first true general-purpose currency known in West Africa, being used for ordinary market purchases, bride price, payment of fines, compensation of diviners, and for the needs of the next world, as burial money.
564:) all served as special-purpose monies. As the slave trade wound down in the 19th century so did manilla production, which was already becoming unprofitable. By the 1890s their use in the export economy centered around the
76:, manillas continued to serve as money and decorative objects until the late 1940s and are still sometimes used as decoration on arms, legs and around the neck. In popular culture, they are particularly associated with the
145:. Calabar was the chief city of the ancient southeast Nigerian coastal kingdom of that name. It was here in 1505 that a slave could be bought for 8–10 manillas, and an elephant’s tooth for one copper manila.
572:
some women still wear large manillas around their necks at funerals, which are later laid on the family shrine. Gold manillas are said to have been made for the very important and powerful, such as King
483:. Although manillas were legal tender, they floated against British and French West African currencies and the palm-oil trading companies manipulated their value to advantage during the market season.
236:
well off would mimic the movements of the 'better off' who were so encumbered by the weight of manillas that they moved in a very characteristic way. The larger manillas had a much more open shape.
458:
and called 'Onganda', or 'onglese', phonetic French for "English.". Other types which are often called manillas include early twisted heavy-gauge wire pieces (with and without "knots") of probable
391:
places brass, which is cheaper and easier to cast, was preferred to copper, so the
Portuguese introduced smaller, yellow manillas made of copper and lead with traces of zinc and other metals. In
560:
a variety of other currencies, such as bracelets of more complex native design, iron units often derived from tools, copper rods, themselves often bent into bracelets, and the well-known Handa (
340:
In addition to the earliest report, the origin of manillas from
Calabar for use in Africa and particularly Nigeria is also confirmed by the African and universal other name for Manillas as
386:
by
Italian and Arab merchants. It is not known for certain what the Portuguese or the Dutch manillas looked like. From contemporary records, we know the earliest Portuguese were made in
487:
tender in British West Africa on April 1, 1949 after a six-month period of withdrawal. People were permitted to keep a maximum of 200 for ceremonies such as marriages and burials. Only
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trade. Many manillas were melted down by African craftsmen to produce artworks. Manillas were often hung over a grave to show the wealth of the deceased and in the Degema area of
356:
By the early 16th century it was common in the slave trade for bearers to carry manillas to Africa's coast, and gradually manillas became the principal currency of this trade.
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were handed in and exchanged. A metal dealer in Europe purchased 2,460 tons of manillas, but the exercise still cost the taxpayer somewhere in the region of £284,000.
72:. They were produced in large numbers in a wide range of designs, sizes, and weights. Originating before the colonial period, perhaps as the result of trade with the
450:
Birmingham as well and were too small to be worn. They are wider than the Birmingham types and have a gradual, rather than sudden, flare to the ends.
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By 1522 in Benin a female slave 16 years of age cost 50 manillas; the King of Portugal put a limit of 40 manillas per slave to stop this inflation.
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of coastal Southeastern Nigeria. It has been documented that in 1505 at Calabar, (Nigeria) Manillas were being used as a medium of exchange, one
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360:
for slaves. The price of a slave, expressed in manillas varied considerably according to time, place, and the specific type of manilla offered.
414:. The Portuguese trade increasing over the following decades, with 150,000 manillas a year being exported to the like of their trading fort at
993:
1336:
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traders bought slaves against payment in rough grey copper armlets which had to be very well made or they would be quickly rejected.
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37:
556:, valued at a small fraction of a manilla, were used for small purchases. In regions outside coastal west Africa and the
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being worth a big elephant tooth, and a slave cost between eight and ten manillas. They were also in use on the
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were officially recognised and they were 'bought in' at 3d., 1d. and a halfpenny respectively. 32.5 million
45:
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270:
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141:-shaped. The earliest use of manillas was in West Africa. As a means of exchange they originated in
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348:) word for money which is used throughout this report and in the titles of images in this report.
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870:"German brass for Benin Bronzes: Geochemical analysis insights into the early Atlantic trade"
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A variant form of manilla, decorated with a geometric design, in the collection of the
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441:(one of the companies later incorporated into the United African Company), and then
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was the "red gold" of Africa and had been both mined there and traded across the
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The Native Currency Proclamation of 1902 in Nigeria prohibited the import of
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origin, and heavy, multi-coil copper pieces with bulging ends from Nigeria.
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explorers and traders. The Egyptians have also been suggested as they used
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Earliest report on the use of Manillas in Africa points to its origin in
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Primitive Money in its ethnological, historical and economic aspects.
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Primitive Money in its ethnological, historical and economic aspects.
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Primitive Money in its ethnological, historical and economic aspects.
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Primitive Money in its ethnological, historical and economic aspects.
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49:
Manilla bundle of copper and copper alloys, various eras, West Africa
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836:"Benin bronzes made from metal mined in west Germany, study finds"
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and a cup-shaped receptacle filled with salt was worth one small
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797:. Smithsonian Libraries. Halifax, Eng., F. King & Sons, ltd.
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tusks, slaves, and pepper. Describing the exchange, with the
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in 1856 listed five different patterns of manillas in use in
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depicts a Portuguese soldier with manillas in the background
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Between 1504 and 1507, Portuguese traders imported 287,813
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Some sources attribute their introduction to the ancient
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in being rigid and circular and open-ended at the front.
137:, with terminations that face each other and are roughly
866:
265:
who traded along the west coast of Africa or even early
188:
or 'bottle-necked' was good only at Opungo market; the
801:
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584:
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Town and Qua Market, but only half the worth of the
333:river in 1589 and again in Calabar in 1688, where
285:with its bulbous ends inspired the manilla shape.
41:An Okpoho-type manilla from south-eastern Nigeria
1460:
695:Coin News. April 2000. ISSN 0958-1391. p. 46–47.
107:
278:cloth bracelet worn by women, another that the
987:
935:Coin News. April 2000. ISSN 0958-1391. p. 47.
811:Eyre & Spottiswoode. London. pp. 150–152.
781:Coin News. April 2000. ISSN 0958-1391. p. 46.
652:Chamberlain, C. C.(1963). The Teach Yourself
648:
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204:New Kalabari and the kingdom of Okrika; the
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794:Great Benin; its customs, art and horrors
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824:Eyre & Spottiswoode. London. p. 155.
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761:Eyre & Spottiswoode. London. p. 150.
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748:Eyre & Spottiswoode. London. p. 151.
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184:was good in all interior markets; the
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293:who made voyages in the 1490s to buy
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656:. English Universities Press. p. 92.
791:Roth, H. Ling (Henry Ling) (1903).
718:"Manilla: Money of the slave trade"
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164:Two variant forms of Okpoho manilla
24:
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372:A large manilla on display in the
172:A report by the British Consul of
148:Manillas bear some resemblance to
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1337:Akkadian standards of measurement
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429:Two different variants of manilla
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1023:(W. Mesoamerica & N. Andes)
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1:
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1288:List of historical currencies
1193:Central bank digital currency
957:Manilla currency, West Africa
834:Alberge, Dalya (2023-04-05).
637:
374:Ethnological Museum of Berlin
133:(necklace). They are usually
1489:Economic history of Portugal
1394:Standard of deferred payment
887:10.1371/journal.pone.0283415
220:was valued by the people at
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433:Early in the 18th century,
410:via the trading station of
92:is said to derive from the
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437:, with companies such as
1377:Quantity theory of money
1198:Chattel/movable property
321:the capital city of the
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967:Central Bank of Nigeria
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352:Role in the slave trade
303:Esmeraldo de situ orbis
1436:Complementary currency
1365:Credit theory of money
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1419:Digital gold currency
820:Einzig, Paul (1949).
807:Einzig, Paul (1949).
757:Einzig, Paul (1949).
744:Einzig, Paul (1949).
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84:Origins and etymology
68:, which were used in
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1494:Atlantic slave trade
1484:Currencies of Africa
1298:Coincidence of wants
1118:Representative money
654:Guide to Numismatics
78:Atlantic slave trade
30:For other uses, see
1446:Time-based currency
931:Rees, Alun (2000).
777:Rees, Alun (2000).
691:Rees, Alun (2000).
671:Details of Manillas
475:equal to one large
406:from Portugal into
1474:Types of jewellery
1315:Clearinghouse bank
1003:Medium of exchange
952:Pitt Rivers Museum
676:2007-07-07 at the
595:Numismatics portal
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60:, usually made of
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1479:Culture of Africa
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1387:Market monetarism
1350:Code of Hammurabi
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1131:Gold certificates
959:at Hamill Gallery
412:São Jorge da Mina
323:Cross River State
206:Finniman Fawfinna
96:for a 'bracelet'
74:Portuguese Empire
16:(Redirected from
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1184:
1181:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1171:
1166:
1162:
1155:
1144:
1132:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1115:
1108:
1105:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1089:Water buffalo
1087:
1086:
1084:
1080:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1058:(Roman world)
1057:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1046:
1043:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1031:
1029:(Mesoamerica)
1028:
1025:
1022:
1019:
1018:
1016:
1014:
1008:
1004:
997:
992:
990:
985:
983:
978:
977:
974:
968:
964:
961:
958:
955:
953:
949:
946:
945:
934:
928:
926:
924:
915:
911:
906:
901:
897:
893:
888:
883:
879:
875:
871:
863:
849:
845:
841:
837:
830:
823:
817:
810:
804:
796:
795:
787:
780:
774:
772:
770:
768:
760:
754:
747:
741:
739:
737:
727:
719:
712:
710:
708:
706:
704:
702:
694:
688:
686:
679:
675:
672:
667:
665:
663:
655:
649:
647:
642:
633:
630:
628:
625:
623:
622:Katanga Cross
620:
618:
615:
614:
610:
599:
596:
585:
578:
576:
575:Jaja of Opobo
571:
567:
563:
562:Katanga cross
559:
555:
554:Cowrie shells
547:
543:
539:
538:Sforza Castle
534:
525:
523:
512:
510:
507:, and 50,000
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
484:
482:
478:
473:
463:
461:
457:
451:
448:
444:
440:
436:
427:
423:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
400:
398:
394:
389:
385:
381:
375:
370:
361:
357:
349:
347:
343:
338:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
315:
311:
306:
304:
300:
296:
292:
286:
284:
281:
277:
272:
268:
264:
256:
251:
237:
233:
229:
225:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
192:was best for
191:
187:
186:Congo Simgolo
183:
179:
175:
170:
162:
153:
151:
146:
144:
140:
136:
131:
125:
119:
115:
110:
105:
100:
95:
91:
81:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
47:
39:
33:
19:
1320:Savings bank
1310:Central bank
1247:Legal tender
1154:Money portal
1038:
932:
877:
873:
862:
851:. Retrieved
840:The Guardian
839:
829:
821:
816:
808:
803:
793:
786:
778:
758:
753:
745:
726:
692:
653:
609:Money portal
550:
522:Burkina Faso
518:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
485:
480:
476:
471:
469:
452:
446:
432:
403:
401:
392:
378:
358:
355:
341:
339:
326:
316:
313:
308:
302:
287:
282:
267:Carthaginian
260:
255:Benin Bronze
234:
230:
226:
218:Cutta Antony
217:
213:
205:
189:
185:
181:
171:
167:
147:
127:, plural of
89:
87:
53:
52:
1272:Safekeeping
1126:Bimetallism
1041:(W. Africa)
632:Trade beads
627:Kissi penny
558:Niger River
263:Phoenicians
194:Old Calabar
174:Fernando Po
70:West Africa
1463:Categories
1382:Monetarism
1370:Chartalism
1267:Redemption
1257:Possession
1220:Clay token
1073:Trade bead
1027:Cocoa bean
1011:Commodity
853:2023-05-15
638:References
503:, 250,000
443:Birmingham
271:penannular
216:; and the
104:Portuguese
1091:(SE Asia)
1021:Axe-money
933:Manillas.
896:1932-6203
848:0261-3077
779:Manillas.
693:Manillas.
577:in 1891.
420:Amsterdam
310:manillas.
88:The name
1230:Currency
1208:Clearing
1188:Banknote
1183:Bailment
1103:(Arabia)
1064:(barley)
1050:Quachtli
914:37018227
905:10075414
874:PLOS ONE
674:Archived
581:See also
566:palm-oil
524:(2000).
472:manillas
404:manillas
54:Manillas
18:Manillas
1281:General
1235:Deposit
1225:Coinage
1097:(Hindu)
1039:Manilla
950:at the
515:Revival
481:manilla
477:manilla
460:Calabar
435:Bristol
388:Antwerp
327:manilla
319:Calabar
245:Origins
240:History
222:Umballa
178:Nigeria
143:Calabar
139:lozenge
130:'monile
124:monilia
109:manilha
99:manilla
94:Spanish
90:manilla
32:Manilla
1293:Barter
1252:Notary
1203:Cheque
1068:Shells
1062:Shekel
1035:(rice)
912:
902:
894:
846:
617:Grivna
505:okombo
501:Okpoho
493:Okombo
489:Okpoho
466:Demise
416:Elmina
408:Guinea
384:Sahara
380:Copper
342:Òkpòhò
283:mondua
280:Yoruba
276:Raffia
214:Antony
190:Onadoo
180:. The
102:, the
66:copper
62:bronze
1469:Coins
1174:Token
1165:Money
1101:Camel
1013:money
570:Benin
546:Italy
542:Milan
456:Zaire
447:Duoro
397:Congo
335:Dutch
331:Benin
295:ivory
202:Bonny
156:Types
150:torcs
118:manus
114:Latin
1332:Mint
1170:Fiat
1056:Salt
1033:Koku
910:PMID
892:ISSN
844:ISSN
528:Uses
495:and
346:Efik
210:Juju
198:Igbo
1107:Yak
1095:Cow
965:at
900:PMC
882:doi
540:in
509:abi
497:abi
64:or
1465::
1341:c.
922:^
908:.
898:.
890:.
878:18
876:.
872:.
842:.
838:.
766:^
735:^
700:^
684:^
661:^
645:^
544:,
491:,
399:.
305::
253:A
224:.
196:,
80:.
1352:(
1346:)
1339:(
1176:)
1172:/
1168:(
995:e
988:t
981:v
916:.
884::
856:.
720:.
34:.
20:)
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