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369:
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55:
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293:. Now the arms of the human usually extend to grasp the necks of the animals. All the figures are highly stylized, and often the whole composition is repeated underneath, facing in the opposite direction. The bodies of all three figures tend to merge at the middle into the central tube, before diverging again at the lower limbs. The "zoomorphic juncture", where the body of one animal turns into another, is very often seen, with a further human head and pair of animal heads appearing at the waist level of the top set of figures. This second human head often also has a body, and two further animal heads, these typically of cocks, project from it lower down.
451:
357:
244:
terms, differentiating between them on the basis of the form of their decoration alone. Unlike some other types of objects, very few of this group have been found by the archaeological explorations. They may also have been used with perishable elements that have not survived, either as additional decoration or to hold the ensemble together. Many ideas for their function have been suggested, without any general consensus being reached; one persistent suggestion is that leafy or flowering branches were inserted to top them. The numbers surviving suggest that the objects were not rare, and may have been affordable by most families.
494:
466:
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393:
638:
602:
713:
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309:
725:
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540:; in other pins this is clearly the case. These pieces were presumably votives for fertility. The eyes are sometimes inlaid in white, with a black dot for the pupil. The face may occupy most of the disk, or be small, at the centre of a wide border with other subjects. Other designs feature a wide range of subjects, with some purely decorative motifs, and others featuring some complex, mainly religious, scenes with many figures ("odd-looking demons and animals apparently involved in cultic and mythological activities", as Muscarella describes them).
381:
177:
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31:
689:
333:
321:
749:
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701:
420:; when complete these come with a bar between them that goes in the horse's mouth. There are often rings in the upper or rear parts of the plates, for securing straps to tie round the horse's head. These are flat openwork plates, with a reinforced central hole for the bit mouthpiece to go through; where complete sets survive these are held in place by the ends of the mouthpiece bar being curled back.
274:), the local wild species of goat or ibex, was already domesticated millennia before; it has large curved horns with knobbly ribs. Compared to later types, the animals are more naturalistic, especially the ibex group, though not so much that their precise species can be very confidently determined. In some examples the figures are "demons", with human features except for their large horns.
529:. Many designs centre on a large face, and in general humans predominate over animals in their decoration, another difference to the other types. The diameter of the disk is typically between 6 and 9 centimetres, and the whole pin and head up to about 20 centimetres. Similar large face designs are found on some other plaques of uncertain purpose.
666:, both with rounded bottoms. Weapons are common, including a type of "spiked axehead" with spreading strips or spikes behind the axehead; these are also found in miniature votive versions. Some examples seem to have had "spikes" that were designed to be functional in combat, others perhaps not. A kind of long "
204:, though as in the later pieces, animals are a very common subject in small bronze pieces. From slightly before the period of the canonical bronzes, a number of daggers or short swords said to come from Luristan are inscribed with the names of Mesopotamian kings, perhaps reflecting patterns of military service.
277:
The next group is a less common type, often called the "idol standard". Here the feline "animal finial" type has in addition a detached human head in between the two heads of the animals, held by their front paws. The designs have become openwork, with enclosed spaces formed by the human head and the
132:
Luristan bronze objects came to the notice of the world art market from the late 1920s and were excavated in considerable quantities by local people, "wild tribesmen who did not encourage the competition of qualified excavators", and taken through networks of dealers, latterly illegally, to Europe or
431:
Though horse riding was very common among Near
Eastern elites by this date, who all used some type of bit, this large style of cheekpiece is only found in Luristan. The rigid single-piece mouthpiece bar, secured by bent back ends, is also unusual; elsewhere more flexible mouthpieces are found. Many
423:
Designs are varied, but most common are animals, very often in fantastic versions with wings, and the Master of
Animals. Other subjects include charioteers, and a subject with two figures flanking a tree-like object. Many examples survive as single plates, perhaps separated after they were dug up.
144:
Since 1938 several scientific excavations have been conducted by
American, Danish, British, Belgian, and Iranian archaeologists on the cemeteries in areas including the northern Pish Kuh valleys and the southern Pusht Kuh of LorestÄn; these are terms for the eastern "front" and western "back" slopes
243:
Among the most characteristic are a range of objects with a hollow socket or open ring, designed to be fixed at the top of a pole or other vertical support, often using a separate intervening fitting. These may be described as finials, standards and tubes; Muscarella and other writers use all these
218:
Archaeologists divide the periods producing the bronzes into "Luristan Late Iron" (Age) I to III. Luristan Late Iron II was less productive, and remains less well understood. Dates for these periods "remain fluid" but "it is possible to suggest that the material from
Luristan Iron I
501:
Large decorated pin heads are the third common and distinctive type of
Luristan bronzes, falling into two distinct groups: sculptural and openwork designs, many using the iconographic repertoire of other types of objects, and flat, normally round, disk heads. Their use is uncertain; they were
296:
In the final group, called the "anthromorphic tubes", this lower figure with projecting cock's heads is all that is left, or just the human figure, of which only the head may be at all recognisable. Thus the simplest types are just a tube with a human face near the top, sometimes a
116:(perhaps for tent-poles), horse-harness fittings, pins, cups and small fittings are highly decorated over their small surface area. Representations of animals are common, especially goats or sheep with large horns, and the forms and styles are distinctive and inventive. The "
301:
face with two heads back to back, and perhaps some simple mouldings on the tube. Whether these groups actually represent a chronological development with one type succeeding another is unclear. Other tubes are comparable, but use animal rather than human features.
278:
head and neck of each feline, and others by their hind legs. The meaning, if any, of this group is unclear, but they seem if anything to reverse the meaning of the next, much more common group, called the "master of animals standards".
653:
Other types include bronzes centred on a large ring, mostly decorated with animals in way similar to the finials and cheekpieces. These perhaps were part of horse-harnesses. Large socketed pieces are assumed to be handles for
222:
The stylistic development of the pieces is now thought to be from naturalistic depictions of humans and animals towards stylization, though it is not yet clear if this was a consistent trend. This reverses the trend proposed by
424:
The common story that the pieces were often found placed underneath the heads of men in burials seems not to be true. Most pieces were found in unrecorded contexts, but one example of a
Luristan
281:
These have a fuller figure, now seen down to the waist with an essentially human shape (including what may be divine and "demonic" figures) in between the two animals, grasping them to form the
670:-axe" has the head of an animal perched at the top of the blade, and spikes on the other side. Pieces of bronze jewellery such as rings, bracelets pendants and arm or anklets are also found.
625:
532:
The faces are mostly rounded to fill a circular space, and may be intended as female. They lack beards, and some full figures are clearly female, sitting with open legs displaying a
613:
215:
before 1000 BC seems to have significantly affected the area. The few pieces attributed to
Luristan that carry inscriptions are unrecorded pieces from the antiquities market.
438:
368:
89:, and those found in recorded excavations are generally found in burials. The ethnicity of the people who created them remains unclear, though they may well have been
133:
America, without information about the contexts in which they were found. Previous sporadic examples reaching the West had been assigned to various places, including
510:
suggests, but also worn as decoration or for fastening clothes. Other uses have been suggested. These have not been found in excavated tombs. Pin heads in bone and
432:
pieces have small spikes on the reverse of the plates; it is thought these were either used to control the horse, or to fix backing pads of softer material.
344:
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Taking the groups in what is now generally considered to be their broad chronological sequence, the first are the "animal finials", with two rampant
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sheep) or felines, facing each other with a central tube or open rings (formed at the junctions of their front and hind feet) between them. The
149:, which define the region where the bronzes seem to have been found. How these cemeteries related to contemporary settlements remains unclear.
790:"Luristan" remains the usual spelling in art history for the bronzes, as for example in EI, Muscarella, Frankfort, and current museum practice
601:
188:
The term "Luristan bronze" is not normally used for earlier bronze artifacts from LorestÄn between the fourth millennium BC and the (Iranian)
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was manufactured in the years around 1000 B.C., that of Iron II about 900/800â750, and that of Iron III about 750/725â650."
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in western Iran. They include a great number of ornaments, tools, weapons, horse-fittings and a smaller number of vessels including
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211:. As a mountainous rural region, what the rise and fall of these empires meant for the region remains largely uncertain; a
465:
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Bronze in
Luristan: Preliminary analytical evidence from copper/bronze artifacts excavated by the Belgian mission in Iran
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192:(c. 2900â1250 BC), although they are often quite similar. These earlier bronze objects, including those from the
17:
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332:
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Though there is a wide range of objects, certain types are especially common, distinctive, and hence "canonical".
141:. There is strong suspicion that the many thousands of pieces sourced from the art trade include some forgeries.
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people, for whom all possessions needed to be light and portable, and necessary objects such as weapons,
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152:
Somewhat curiously, two very characteristic
Luristan pieces have been excavated in the Greek world, on
1344:
Bronzen and
Keramik aus Luristan und anderen Gebieten Irans im Museum fĂŒr Vor- and FrĂŒhgeschichte
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who have given their name to the area. They probably date to between about 1000 and 650 BC.
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Small cast objects decorated with bronze sculptures from the Early Iron Age found in Iran
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662:, typically divided vertically into registers with small scenes. There are cups and
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is common but typically highly stylized. Some female "mistress of animals" are seen.
117:
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35:
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444:
Pair of cheekpieces with intact bit; the loops at the ends of the torso can be seen
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1298:
Bronze and Iron: Ancient Near Eastern Artifacts in the Metropolitan Museum of Art
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Frankfort, 343-48; Muscarella, 117 is less confident that they were not settled.
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Magier mit Feuer und Erz, Bronzekunst der frĂŒhen Bergvölker in Luristan, Iran.
207:
For most of the period of the bronzes it was, at least in theory, part of the
38:
standard", here on two levels, showing "zoomorphic juncture"; 8.5 inches high.
1405:
658:. Other pieces made from sheet metal include sheets for the front covers of
619:
Animal-headed deity as master of animals, holding two panthers by their tails
525:
and other techniques, so differing from the types described above, which are
425:
105:
1283:, Pelican History of Art, 4th ed 1970, Penguin (now Yale History of Art),
1234:
987:
EI, I; Muscarella, 117â119; EI II suggests "ca. 1300/1250 to 700/650 BCE"
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65:(rarely "LorestÄn", "LorestÄni" etc. in sources in English) are small
522:
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Some horse cheekpieces have the animal "body" reduced to a rectangle.
165:
285:
motif, already over 2000 years old at this point, and a mainstay of
416:
Another common class of bronzes is pairs of horse cheekpieces from
138:
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196:, which included LorestÄn, were broadly similar to those found in
34:
One of the distinctive "canonical" types of Luristan bronze, the "
755:
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1351:
Catalogue of the Ancient Persian Bronzes in the Ashmolean Museum
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113:
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Persia's Ancient Splendour: Mining, Handicraft and Archaeology
533:
298:
157:
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120:" motif, showing a human positioned between and grasping two
171:
1328:
Fleming, S. J., V. C. Pigott, C. P. Swann, and S. K. Nash.
1031:. Science 24 March 2000: Vol. 287. no. 5461, pp. 2254â2257
552:
181:
161:
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is known; it is unclear if it was from the same period.
145:
of the Kabīrkƫh range of mountains, part of the larger
1133:
Muscarella, 122â132 on bronze Surkh Dum finds, 173â180
607:
Disk pin with woman giving birth, flanked by antelopes
238:
1337:
Iran: from the earliest times to the Islamic conquest
262:, generally a pair of large-horned ibex (or goats or
1224:
1385:, Museum fĂŒr Vor-und FrĂŒhgeschichte: MĂŒnchen, 2002.
1363:Overlaet, B. "Luristan Metalwork in the Iron Age",
1323:Les Antiquités du Luristan. Collection David-Weill
517:The disk-headed pins are made from sheet metal by
506:, as the numbers found in the excavated temple at
773:Harness pieces and disc headed pins in the Louvre
1403:
904:Ancient Technologies and Archaeological Material
1281:The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient
374:Master of Animals standard, double composition
227:, one of the earliest writers on the bronzes.
184:horse trapping in cast bronze, c. 2600â2400 BC
1325:, Paris, 1976 (many items now in the Louvre)
643:Disk pin; face with one remaining inlaid eye
497:Face from an otherwise undecorated disk pin
1029:) in the Zagros Mountains 10,000 Years Ago
108:. They represent the art of a nomadic or
77:which have been found in large numbers in
1367:, Deutsches Bergbau-Museum: Bochum, 2004.
898:EI III; Muscarella, 112â113; EI I; EI II;
172:Context, dating and stylistic development
1258:"Luristan bronzes i, the Field Research"
492:
407:
246:
175:
53:
41:
29:
1070:Muscarella, 147â150; Frankfort, 344-45
951:Muscarella, 223â237, especially 229â237
14:
1437:Ancient Near East art and architecture
1404:
1396:LorestÄn bronze weapons and artifacts
1383:ArchĂ€ologische Staatssammlung MĂŒnchen
1379:Luristan: Antike Bronzen aus dem Iran
631:Unusual silver pin with complex scene
1300:, 1988, Metropolitan Museum of Art,
1025:The Initial Domestication of Goats (
754:Quiver-cases, swords and spiked and
403:
100:The bronzes tend to be flat and use
996:EI, I; Muscarella, 117â119, 136â137
742:Whetstone socket, Master of Animals
239:Animal finials, standards and tubes
230:
24:
1422:Archaeological discoveries in Iran
1315:
58:Harness ring with ibex and felines
25:
1463:
1389:
1268:"Luristan bronzes ii, Chronology"
978:Muscarella, 117, 120 note 6; EI I
93:, possibly related to the modern
1398:â World Museum of Man Collection
1227:
1160:Muscarella, 202â206; EI I quoted
915:Muscarella, 114â117; EI I; EI II
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583:Pinhead with idol standard motif
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104:, like the related metalwork of
1360:. British Museum: London, 1974.
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1023:Melinda A. Zeder, Brian Hesse:
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338:Feline animal finial with rings
326:Feline animal finial with rings
1374:Museum Rietberg: ZĂŒrich, 1992.
969:EI II; Muscarella, 120, note 6
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514:were also found at Surkh Dum.
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1412:Archaeological artefact types
1358:Ancient Bronzes from Luristan
1220:
314:Ibex animal finial with rings
160:, but none in other parts of
1266:"EI III" = Overlaet, Bruno,
880:Muscarella, 113; EI I; EI II
488:
127:
7:
1256:"EI II" = Overlaet, Bruno,
456:Single plate with a winged
46:Horse bit cheekpiece with "
10:
1468:
1346:. Frankfurt am Main: 1984.
1106:Muscarella, 155â157; EI II
1097:Muscarella, 155â157; EI II
362:Master of Animals standard
1005:Muscarella, 114â115; EI I
817:Muscarella, 116â117; EI I
808:Muscarella, 115â116; EI I
272:capra aegagrus aegagrusis
1332:. Iranica Antiqua: 2005.
1196:Muscarella, 135, 184â191
1043:Muscarella, 136, 142â146
778:
1294:Muscarella, Oscar White
1244:Muscarella, Oscar White
960:Muscarella, 120, note 6
694:Nipple beaker or situla
69:objects decorated with
1339:. Penguin Books: 1954.
502:probably both used as
498:
413:
255:
185:
59:
51:
39:
1248:"Bronzes of Luristan"
942:EI I; Muscarella, 117
496:
411:
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180:A predecessor: early
179:
57:
50:" motif, about 700 BC
45:
33:
1272:Encyclopedia Iranica
1262:Encyclopedia Iranica
1252:Encyclopedia Iranica
519:repoussé and chasing
398:"Anthromorphic tube"
350:"Idol standard" type
1432:Kermanshah province
1214:Muscarella, 180â181
1187:Muscarella, 192â202
1178:Muscarella, 182â183
1169:Muscarella, 164â165
1151:Muscarella, 202â206
1079:Muscarella, 151â153
1061:Muscarella, 146â147
1014:Muscarella, 136â140
862:Muscarella, 125â126
799:Muscarella, 112â113
536:, perhaps shown in
225:Michael Rostovtzeff
209:Neo-Assyrian Empire
1349:Moorey, P. R. S.,
682:Ring, for harness?
499:
414:
291:art of Mesopotamia
260:confronted animals
256:
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122:confronted animals
60:
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40:
1427:Lorestan province
1356:Moorey, P. R. S.
1342:Meier-Arendt, W.
1308:, 9780870995255,
853:Frankfort, 344-45
595:Openwork pin head
571:Human on pin head
471:Master of Animals
404:Horse cheekpieces
283:Master of Animals
252:Master of Animals
118:Master of Animals
79:LorestÄn Province
48:Master of Animals
36:Master of Animals
16:(Redirected from
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231:Types of objects
147:Zagros Mountains
71:bronze sculpture
63:Luristan bronzes
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646:
645:
642:
635:
633:
630:
623:
621:
618:
611:
609:
606:
599:
597:
594:
587:
585:
582:
575:
573:
570:
563:
561:
551:
544:
490:
487:
486:
485:
482:
475:
473:
470:
463:
461:
455:
448:
446:
443:
436:
405:
402:
401:
400:
397:
390:
388:
385:
378:
376:
373:
366:
364:
361:
354:
352:
349:
342:
340:
337:
330:
328:
325:
318:
316:
313:
306:
240:
237:
232:
229:
213:climate change
194:Elamite Empire
173:
170:
129:
126:
75:Early Iron Age
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1464:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1410:
1409:
1407:
1397:
1394:
1393:
1384:
1380:
1377:Zahlhaas, G.
1376:
1373:
1369:
1366:
1362:
1359:
1355:
1352:
1348:
1345:
1341:
1338:
1334:
1331:
1327:
1324:
1320:
1319:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1275:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1240:
1236:
1230:
1225:
1211:
1202:
1193:
1184:
1175:
1166:
1157:
1148:
1139:
1130:
1121:
1112:
1103:
1094:
1085:
1076:
1067:
1058:
1049:
1040:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1020:
1011:
1002:
993:
984:
975:
966:
957:
948:
939:
930:
921:
912:
905:
901:
895:
886:
877:
868:
859:
850:
841:
832:
823:
814:
805:
796:
787:
783:
769:
764:
761:
757:
750:
745:
738:
733:
726:
721:
714:
709:
702:
697:
690:
685:
678:
673:
672:
671:
669:
665:
661:
657:
639:
634:
627:
622:
615:
610:
603:
598:
591:
586:
579:
574:
567:
562:
558:
554:
548:
543:
542:
541:
539:
535:
530:
528:
524:
520:
515:
513:
509:
505:
495:
479:
474:
467:
462:
459:
452:
447:
440:
435:
434:
433:
429:
427:
421:
419:
410:
394:
389:
386:Support piece
382:
377:
370:
365:
358:
353:
346:
341:
334:
329:
322:
317:
310:
305:
304:
303:
300:
294:
292:
288:
284:
279:
275:
273:
269:
265:
261:
253:
249:
245:
236:
228:
226:
220:
216:
214:
210:
205:
203:
199:
195:
191:
183:
178:
169:
167:
163:
159:
155:
150:
148:
142:
140:
136:
125:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
98:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
56:
49:
44:
37:
32:
19:
1452:Iron Age art
1378:
1371:
1364:
1357:
1350:
1343:
1336:
1329:
1322:
1310:Google books
1297:
1280:
1271:
1261:
1251:
1210:
1201:
1192:
1183:
1174:
1165:
1156:
1147:
1138:
1129:
1120:
1111:
1102:
1093:
1084:
1075:
1066:
1057:
1048:
1039:
1028:
1027:Capra hircus
1024:
1019:
1010:
1001:
992:
983:
974:
965:
956:
947:
938:
929:
920:
911:
903:
894:
889:EI I; EI III
885:
876:
867:
858:
849:
840:
831:
822:
813:
804:
795:
786:
652:
531:
516:
500:
430:
426:horse burial
422:
415:
295:
280:
276:
271:
257:
242:
234:
221:
217:
206:
187:
151:
143:
131:
106:Scythian art
99:
62:
61:
1447:Iranian art
1442:Persian art
1321:Amiet, P.,
1235:Asia portal
718:Halberd-axe
649:Other types
287:iconography
268:bezoar ibex
200:and on the
198:Mesopotamia
110:transhumant
1417:Bronzeware
1406:Categories
1306:0870995251
1289:0140561072
1221:References
656:whetstones
538:childbirth
483:Charioteer
190:Bronze Age
95:Lur people
83:Kermanshah
1242:"EI I" =
523:engraving
508:Surkh Dum
489:Pin heads
166:Near East
128:Discovery
73:from the
1270:, 2006,
1260:, 2006,
1250:, 1989,
906:, p. 171
900:Wisseman
559:pin head
254:standard
139:Anatolia
102:openwork
758:-axes,
756:halberd
668:halberd
664:situlae
660:quivers
557:mouflon
512:faience
289:in the
264:mouflon
182:Elamite
164:or the
135:Armenia
114:finials
91:Iranian
87:situlae
1304:
1287:
760:Louvre
521:work,
458:sphinx
1205:EI II
1142:EI II
826:EI, I
779:Notes
534:vulva
299:Janus
158:Crete
154:Samos
1302:ISBN
1285:ISBN
933:EI I
844:EI I
553:Ibex
527:cast
418:bits
162:Iran
156:and
137:and
81:and
67:cast
555:or
1408::
1381:.
1296:,
1279:,
1246:,
902:,
168:.
270:(
20:)
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