57:. Any biomass rich in cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin are commonly referred to as lignocellulosic biomass. Each component has a distinct chemical behavior. Being a composite of three very different components makes the processing of lignocellulose challenging. The evolved resistance to degradation or even separation is referred to as recalcitrance. Overcoming this recalcitrance to produce useful, high value products requires a combination of heat, chemicals, enzymes, and microorganisms. These carbohydrate-containing polymers contain different sugar monomers (six and five carbon sugars) and they are covalently bound to lignin.
20:
208:. In this process lignin and hemicellulose are typically separated from the plant material leaving the fibrous cellulose component to be processed for paper production, or 'chemical cellulose'. Through the pulp process most of the lignin is removed and discharged as waste material in the form of effluent/wastewater before then being used as low-value fuel to generate electricity and heat. In principle, the worldâs current sugar demand could be fulfilled by repurposing pulp and paper mills for lignocellulosic sugar production, making it a promising
330:
in countries where wood resources are already being overused, it is possible to utilize alternative sources of biomass such as invasive plants, agricultural and sawmills residues for the creation of new "green" composites. Biocomposites produced with lignocellulosic biomass as an alternative to conventional materials, are attracting attention because they are renewable and cheaper but also because they fit perfectly into the policy of the "cascade utilization" of the resources.
1552:
159:
111:
318:. Strain improvement methods have led to strains capable of producing significantly more cellulases than the original QM6a isolate; certain industrial strains are known to produce up to 100g of cellulase per litre of fungus, thus allowing for maximal extraction of sugars from lignocellulosic biomass. These sugars can then be fermented, leading to bio-ethanol.
132:. It is derived from 3-4 monomers, the ratio of which varies from species to species. The crosslinking is extensive. Being rich in aromatics, lignin is hydrophobic and relatively rigid. Lignin confers structural integrity to plants. Lignin is so heterogeneous and so recalcitrant that its value is almost exclusively measured as a fuel.
984:
148:
is a homopolymer of glucose. It is very poorly soluble in most solvents, so glucose is extracted through chemical and biological breakdown achieved by cellulolytic enzymes. This extraction is made easier by the fact that the strands of cellulose are integrated into, but not covalently attached to the
329:
Lignocellulosic biomasses has been considered in the production of biocomposites materials such as particle panels, wood-plastic composites, and cement/geopolymer wood composites. Even though the production of biocomposite materials rely mostly on wood resources, in less forest-covered countries or
244:
source of energy in the long run. However depending on the source of biomass, it will not be carbon neutral in the short term. For instance if the biomass is derived from trees, the time period to regrow the tree (on the order of decades) will see a net increase in carbon dioxide in the
992:
249:
upon the combustion of lignocellulosic ethanol. However, if woody material from annual crop residue is used, the fuel could be considered carbon-neutral. Aside from ethanol, many other lignocellulose-derived fuels are of potential interest, including
270:
stability and structural robustness to the cell walls of the plants. This robustness or "recalcitrance" is attributable to the crosslinking between the polysaccharides (cellulose and hemicellulose) and the lignin via
283:, and the phenols and phenylpropanols functionalities of the lignin. To extract the fermentable sugars, one must first disconnect the celluloses from the lignin, and then use acid or enzymatic methods to
142:
component of the lignin. This makes it difficult to extract the sugars necessary for conversion to biofuels. Next to cellulose hemicellulose is the second most abundant source of carbohydrates in a plant.
567:
GĂŒleç, Fatih; Parthiban, Anburajan; Umenweke, Great C.; Musa, Umaru; Williams, Orla; Mortezaei, Yasna; SukâOh, Hyun; Lester, Edward; Ogbaga, Chukwuma C.; Gunes, Burcu; Okolie, Jude A. (12 October 2023).
597:
Saladini, Fabrizio; Patrizi, Nicoletta; Pulselli, Federico M.; Marchettini, Nadia; Bastianoni, Simone (December 2016). "Guidelines for emergy evaluation of first, second and third generation biofuels".
265:
One barrier to the production of ethanol from biomass is that the sugars necessary for fermentation are trapped inside the lignocellulose. Lignocellulose has evolved to resist degradation and to confer
645:
Christopher M. Fellows, Trevor C. Brown, William O.S. Doherty (2011). "Lignocellulosics as a
Renewable Feedstock for Chemical Industry: Chemicals from Lignin". In Rashmi Sanghi, Vandana Singh (ed.).
26:, the lignin-rich component of sugarcane, is a form of lignocellulosic biomass. Its combustion helps to power the sugar mill. In this photograph, the bagasse is under the blue plastic. Location:
295:, or wood sugar. Unlike hexoses such as glucose, pentoses are difficult to ferment. The problems presented by the lignin and hemicellulose fractions are the foci of much contemporary research.
505:
P. Alvira; E. Tomas-Pejo; M. Ballesteros; M. J. Negro (2010). "Pretreatment
Technologies for an Efficient Bioethanol Production Process Based on Enzymatic Hydrolysis: A Review".
308:, as well as genetic-engineering-based strain improvement to allow the fungus to simply be placed in the presence of lignocellulosic biomass and break down the matter into
304:, known for its cellulolytic abilities. Multiple avenues are being explored including the design of an optimised cocktail of cellulases and hemicellulases isolated from
570:"Progress in lignocellulosic biomass valorization for biofuels and valueâadded chemical production in the EU : A focus on thermochemical conversion processes"
92:
are crops with a high yield of lignocellulosic biomass produced as a raw material for the production of second-generation biofuel; examples include switchgrass (
326:
Some chemicals could be obtained from lignocellulosic biomass. Almost all are derived from the sugars obtained by hydrolysis of the cellulose component.
952:
678:
209:
1429:
298:
A large sector of research into the exploitation of lignocellulosic biomass as a feedstock for bio-ethanol focuses particularly on the fungus
169:
Many crops are of interest for their ability to provide high yields of biomass. Some can be harvested multiple times each year. These include
855:"Rapid repurposing of pulp and paper mills, biorefineries, and breweries for lignocellulosic sugar production in global food catastrophes"
985:"Biofuels turn to fungus - Interview with Frédéric Monot and Antoine Margeot, Applied Chemistry and Physical Chemistry Division at IFPEN"
1434:
138:
is composed of branched polysaccharides. A particular problem is that hemicellulose is covalently linked to lignin, usually through
478:
E. Palmqvist; B. Hahn-Hagerdal (2000). "Fermentation of
Lignocellulosic Hydrolysates. II: inhibitors and Mechanisms of Inhibition".
1015:"Top Value Added Chemicals from Biomass Volume IâResults of Screening for Potential Candidates from Sugars and Synthesis Gas"
853:
Throup, James; GarcĂa MartĂnez, Juan B.; Bals, Bryan; Cates, Jacob; Pearce, Joshua M.; Denkenberger, David C. (2022-01-01).
224:, has a long history as a source of energy. Since the middle of the 20th century, the interest of biomass as a precursor to
1502:
64:. Virgin biomass includes plants. Waste biomass is produced as a low value byproduct of various industrial sectors such as
41:), so called lignocellulosic biomass. It is the most abundantly available raw material on the Earth for the production of
1089:
953:"Breaking the Biological Barriers to Cellulosic Ethanol: A Joint Research Agenda. Report from the December 2005 Workshop"
349:
Wyman, Charles E.; Dale, Bruce E.; Elander, Richard T.; Holtzapple, Mark; Ladisch, Michael R.; Lee, Y. Y. (2005-12-01).
662:
121:
Lignocellulose consists of three components, each with properties that pose challenges to commercial applications.
934:
Barbara A. Tokay "Biomass
Chemicals" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2002, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.
800:"Recent advances in removal of lignin from paper industry wastewater and its industrial applications â A review"
1186:
1532:
1522:
1449:
959:
165:
is a so-called energy crop, being highly efficient (fast-growing) at turning solar radiation into biomass
1241:
1576:
854:
799:
350:
1507:
1215:
443:
Y. Sun, J. Cheng (2002). "Hydrolysis of
Lignocellulosic Materials for Ethanol Production: a Review".
129:
1385:
397:
99:
1481:
1454:
1082:
205:
287:
the newly freed celluloses to break them down into simple monosaccharides. Another challenge to
1439:
540:
D. M. Alonso; J. Q. Bond; J. A. Dumesic (2010). "Catalytic
Conversion of Biomass to Biofuels".
27:
1033:"Sustainable Green Composites: Value Addition to Agricultural Residues and Perennial Grasses"
644:
396:
Zhou, Chun-Hui; Xia, Xi; Lin, Chun-Xiang; Tong, Dong-Shen; Beltramini, Jorge (2011-10-17).
288:
229:
175:
913:
8:
1537:
259:
246:
19:
60:
Lignocellulosic biomass can be broadly classified as virgin biomass, waste biomass, and
1581:
1555:
1356:
1181:
1169:
1075:
882:
835:
772:
737:
672:
300:
1403:
491:
456:
102:. The biofuels generated from these energy crops are sources of sustainable energy.
1476:
1368:
1054:
917:
886:
874:
839:
827:
819:
777:
759:
715:
694:"Extraction and modification of hemicellulose from lignocellulosic biomass: A review"
658:
522:
460:
425:
417:
378:
370:
255:
241:
1586:
1408:
1319:
1159:
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487:
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409:
366:
362:
94:
1252:
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1379:
1329:
692:
Lu, Yuchan; He, Qiao; Fan, Guozhi; Cheng, Qunpeng; Song, Guangsen (2021-01-01).
1014:
654:
624:
Horst H. Nimz, Uwe
Schmitt, Eckart Schwab, Otto Wittmann, Franz Wolf "Wood" in
611:
504:
870:
754:
1570:
1527:
1193:
1058:
939:
878:
823:
763:
719:
633:
421:
398:"Catalytic conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to fine chemicals and fuels"
374:
135:
50:
1469:
1339:
1176:
1134:
1114:
950:
921:
831:
781:
526:
464:
429:
382:
237:
139:
89:
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710:
693:
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1464:
1459:
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1230:
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1164:
1149:
1124:
280:
69:
65:
1373:
1309:
1154:
1119:
900:
Carroll, Andrew; Somerville, Chris (June 2009). "Cellulosic
Biofuels".
413:
267:
162:
85:
1049:
1032:
351:"Coordinated development of leading biomass pretreatment technologies"
1497:
1413:
1314:
1139:
1098:
582:
569:
553:
284:
221:
180:
158:
145:
46:
1397:
1362:
1287:
1277:
1220:
1031:
Nagarajan, Vidhya; Mohanty, Amar K.; Misra, Manjusri (2013-03-04).
539:
81:
77:
596:
1304:
1298:
1247:
1129:
1106:
315:
309:
291:
is the high percentage of pentoses in the hemicellulose, such as
251:
233:
188:
184:
170:
110:
73:
42:
38:
23:
798:
Haq, Izharul; Mazumder, Payal; Kalamdhad, Ajay S. (2020-09-01).
1350:
1282:
1198:
1144:
292:
125:
54:
852:
736:
Zeng, Yining; Himmel, Michael E.; Ding, Shi-You (2017-11-30).
1324:
1267:
1257:
1210:
276:
272:
114:
1067:
477:
279:
linkages. Ester linkages arise between oxidized sugars, the
1292:
1262:
566:
348:
1272:
951:
U.S. Department of Energy Office of
Science (June 2006).
738:"Visualizing chemical functionality in plant cell walls"
45:. It is composed of two kinds of carbohydrate polymers,
128:
is a heterogeneous, highly crosslinked polymer akin to
1030:
236:
is an attractive route to fuels that supplements the
797:
899:
204:Lignocellulosic biomass is the feedstock for the
1568:
442:
1430:Bioconversion of biomass to mixed alcohol fuels
183:, which is a source of the readily fermentable
117:is one form of hemicellulose found in hardwood.
735:
626:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
395:
1083:
647:Green Chemistry for Environmental Remediation
691:
677:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1037:ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering
1090:
1076:
199:
1435:Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage
1048:
771:
753:
709:
581:
228:fuels has increased. To be specific, the
153:
982:
600:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
220:Lignocellulosic biomass, in the form of
157:
109:
18:
105:
1569:
618:
53:, and an aromatic-rich polymer called
1071:
914:10.1146/annurev.arplant.043008.092125
793:
791:
731:
729:
574:Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining
1503:Cellulosic ethanol commercialization
344:
342:
983:Monot, Frederic; Margeot, Antoine.
187:and the lignocellulosic by-product
13:
788:
726:
14:
1598:
339:
1551:
1550:
1024:
1007:
976:
944:
928:
893:
859:Food and Bioproducts Processing
846:
685:
638:
149:lignin-hemicellulose component.
902:Annual Review of Plant Biology
816:10.1016/j.biortech.2020.123636
698:Green Processing and Synthesis
590:
560:
533:
519:10.1016/j.biortech.2009.11.093
498:
471:
436:
389:
367:10.1016/j.biortech.2005.01.010
232:of lignocellulosic biomass to
194:
1:
1097:
492:10.1016/S0960-8524(99)00161-3
457:10.1016/S0960-8524(01)00212-7
333:
179:. The premier energy crop is
37:refers to plant dry matter (
7:
1533:Issues relating to biofuels
1523:Energy return on investment
628:2005, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.
321:
215:
10:
1603:
742:Biotechnology for Biofuels
655:10.1002/9781118287705.ch18
612:10.1016/j.rser.2016.07.073
130:phenol-formaldehyde resins
1546:
1508:Energy content of biofuel
1490:
1422:
1338:
1229:
1105:
871:10.1016/j.fbp.2021.10.012
755:10.1186/s13068-017-0953-3
1482:Thermal depolymerization
1455:Industrial biotechnology
940:10.1002/14356007.a04_099
634:10.1002/14356007.a28_305
402:Chemical Society Reviews
1450:FischerâTropsch process
1440:Biomass heating systems
206:pulp and paper industry
200:Pulp and paper industry
989:IFP Energies nouvelles
804:Bioresource Technology
355:Bioresource Technology
166:
154:Dedicated energy crops
118:
31:
28:Proserpine, Queensland
711:10.1515/gps-2021-0065
161:
113:
22:
649:. pp. 561â610.
289:biomass fermentation
176:Miscanthus giganteus
106:Chemical composition
1538:Sustainable biofuel
995:on January 27, 2018
260:gamma-valerolactone
240:. Biomass can be a
507:Bioresour. Technol
480:Bioresour. Technol
445:Bioresour. Technol
414:10.1039/C1CS15124J
301:Trichoderma reesei
247:Earth's atmosphere
167:
119:
76:, straw etc.) and
32:
1577:Biological matter
1564:
1563:
1477:Sabatier reaction
1050:10.1021/sc300084z
513:(13): 4851â4861.
408:(11): 5588â5617.
361:(18): 1959â1966.
312:
1594:
1554:
1553:
1398:Pongamia pinnata
1092:
1085:
1078:
1069:
1068:
1063:
1062:
1052:
1028:
1022:
1021:
1019:
1011:
1005:
1004:
1002:
1000:
991:. Archived from
980:
974:
973:
971:
970:
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958:. Archived from
957:
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925:
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891:
890:
850:
844:
843:
795:
786:
785:
775:
757:
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724:
723:
713:
689:
683:
682:
676:
668:
642:
636:
622:
616:
615:
594:
588:
587:
585:
583:10.1002/bbb.2544
564:
558:
557:
554:10.1039/c004654j
548:(9): 1493-1513.
537:
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530:
502:
496:
495:
475:
469:
468:
440:
434:
433:
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387:
386:
346:
310:
95:Panicum virgatum
16:Plant dry matter
1602:
1601:
1597:
1596:
1595:
1593:
1592:
1591:
1567:
1566:
1565:
1560:
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1518:Energy forestry
1486:
1418:
1380:Jatropha curcas
1341:
1334:
1242:Camelina sativa
1232:
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1101:
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1066:
1029:
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1017:
1013:
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669:
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639:
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472:
441:
437:
394:
390:
347:
340:
336:
324:
218:
202:
197:
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35:Lignocellulose
17:
12:
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5:
1600:
1590:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1562:
1561:
1559:
1558:
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1424:
1420:
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1371:
1369:Chinese tallow
1366:
1359:
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1335:
1333:
1332:
1327:
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1260:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1237:
1235:
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1224:
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1216:Water hyacinth
1213:
1208:
1207:
1206:
1196:
1191:
1190:
1189:
1184:
1174:
1173:
1172:
1162:
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1111:
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1103:
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470:
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335:
332:
323:
320:
242:carbon neutral
217:
214:
210:resilient food
201:
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196:
193:
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152:
151:
150:
143:
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107:
104:
100:elephant grass
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1528:Food vs. fuel
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1171:
1170:vegetable oil
1168:
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965:on 2017-02-07
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664:9781118287705
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601:
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72:, sugarcane
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1513:Energy crop
1460:Pellet fuel
1445:Biorefinery
1409:Switchgrass
1253:Coconut oil
1231:Energy from
1165:Cooking oil
1150:Biogasoline
1125:Babassu oil
606:: 221â227.
451:(1): 1â11.
195:Application
88:discards).
70:corn stover
66:agriculture
1571:Categories
1423:Technology
1404:Salicornia
1387:Miscanthus
1310:Sugar beet
1182:cellulosic
1155:Bioliquids
1135:Biobutanol
969:2008-01-19
810:: 123636.
748:(1): 263.
542:Green Chem
334:References
268:hydrolytic
173:trees and
163:Miscanthus
86:paper mill
1582:Cellulose
1498:Agflation
1391:giganteus
1320:Sunflower
1315:Sugarcane
1233:foodstock
1140:Biodiesel
1099:Bioenergy
1059:2168-0485
887:243485968
879:0960-3085
865:: 22â39.
840:219607347
824:0960-8524
764:1754-6834
720:2191-9550
673:cite book
486:: 25-33.
422:1460-4744
375:0960-8524
306:T. reesei
285:hydrolyze
222:wood fuel
181:sugarcane
146:cellulose
47:cellulose
1556:Category
1491:Concepts
1374:Duckweed
1363:Camelina
1340:Non-food
1288:Rapeseed
1278:Palm oil
1221:Wood gas
1194:Methanol
1187:mixtures
1107:Biofuels
999:July 17,
922:19014348
832:32527619
782:29213316
527:20042329
465:12058826
430:21863197
383:16112483
322:Research
316:monomers
313:-glucose
216:Biofuels
82:saw mill
78:forestry
43:biofuels
1587:Biomass
1305:Soybean
1299:Sorghum
1248:Cassava
1177:Ethanol
1160:Biomass
1130:Bagasse
1115:Alcohol
773:5708085
252:butanol
234:ethanol
189:bagasse
185:sucrose
74:bagasse
39:biomass
24:Bagasse
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1283:Potato
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258:, and
226:liquid
171:poplar
126:lignin
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55:lignin
1470:stove
1325:Wheat
1268:Maize
1258:Grape
1211:Straw
1120:Algae
1018:(PDF)
963:(PDF)
956:(PDF)
883:S2CID
836:S2CID
277:ether
273:ester
115:Xylan
1465:mill
1414:Wood
1293:Rice
1263:Hemp
1204:corn
1055:ISSN
1001:2015
918:PMID
875:ISSN
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679:link
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