338:, a prominent New Qing scholar, emphasizes he views the popular retort that New Qing History unduly separates the dynasty from China as a misunderstanding. Instead, it simply raises questions about the relationship between the two—with the concept of 'China' being fluid and multifaceted over time, not fixed; the school hopes to understand how the concept of 'China' evolved during the Qing dynasty, and does not attempt to argue that the Qing dynasty was not Chinese.
56:
94:. The Qing dynasty, however, "came to refer to their more expansive empire not only as the Great Qing but also, nearly interchangeably, as China" within a few decades of this development. Instead of the earlier (Ming) idea of an ethnic Han Chinese state, this new Qing China was a "self-consciously multi-ethnic state". Han Chinese scholars had some time to adapt this, but by the 19th century, the notion of China as a
71:, the Qing dynasty more than doubled the geographical extent of the Ming dynasty, which it displayed in 1644, and also tripled the Ming population, reaching a size of about half a billion people in its last years. The vast majority of its large territory, together with its immense and expanding population as well as the associated problems, would be bequeathed to its successor states, the
345:
accused the
American group of scholars of projecting particular American conceptions of race and identity onto China in an unjustified manner. Others within China instead support these perspectives, seeing the scholarship as opening new vistas within the study of Qing history. Inspired by New Qing History studies, the so-called "
304:
but had previously attracted little scholarly attention. In addition, a revitalized interest in the study of ethnicity led to a new understanding of non-Han peoples within
Chinese politics and society, also forming part of a broader rethinking of how the Chinese nation-state developed. This research
317:
dimension of Qing rule, to better incorporate the use of non-Han historical evidence, especially Manchu-language documents, and to pay additional attention to the greater trends in global history. Some argue that the Manchu rulers regarded Han China as merely a core part of a much wider empire that
344:
criticized this new approach for a perceived exaggeration of the dynasty's Manchu character, hewing towards the traditional position of sinicization, while scholars like Zhao Gang and Zhong Han have argued from the evidence that the Qing dynasty self-identified as China. Some
Chinese scholars have
277:) as more or less benevolent, as well as stronger and more advanced than the West. Although officially anti-imperialist and anti-feudalism, China's present leaders have often played on this popular sentiment to proclaim that their current policies serve to restore China's historical glory.
273:, in reaction to a traditionalist and nationalist views that reject the comparison of the imperial Chinese system with European-style colonialism. Instead, nationalists have often portrayed Imperial China (also known as the
1429:
225:
to organize China's past in terms of consecutive ruling houses that arose and collapsed. However, by the second half of the 20th century, Confucian historiography had lost favor at least in the West. Rather,
1493:
253:
A popular position among many
Chinese writers and scholars since the fall of the Qing has been that its rulers and administrators were largely to blame for China's weakness during the
238:, steadfastly maintained a perspective that split the history of China's past half millennium around 1842. All that fell before remained part of "traditional China", and with the
2049:
39:, laying the foundation for the modern Chinese state as a geographic and ethnic entity. Additionally, it had varying degrees of influence in surrounding countries (such as
1327:
2088:
288:
historiographical school that emerged in the mid-1990s and emphasizes the particular Manchu character of the dynasty. Earlier historians had emphasized a pattern of Han
395:
1422:
117:'Chinese nation') also lie in the Qing dynasty founded by the Manchus. While the dynasty assembled the territorial base for modern China, the 1727
2093:
1929:
1768:
1508:
1913:
1884:
1503:
959:
1585:
1124:
581:
542:
1466:
1573:
1558:
1260:
2296:
1635:
86:, and this understanding persisted among the Han Chinese into the early Qing dynasty, and the understanding was also shared by
2327:
1568:
855:
1797:
1548:
1461:
1185:
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1200:
923:
2013:
1382:
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1079:
575:
536:
261:, and a more favorable view has also emerged in popular culture. In the 21st century, scholars like American historian
257:. However, other scholars have emphasized various positive aspects of the Qing dynasty, such as the economy before the
305:
concluded that the Manchu rulers 'manipulated' their subjects by fostering a sense of Manchu identity, often adopting
75:
and the People's
Republic of China. For the Qing was many things, but the closing chapter of the 2000-year history of
2302:
2143:
2018:
1375:
952:
72:
2113:
82:
During the Ming dynasty, the name "China" (中華; 中國) was generally understood to refer to the political realm of the
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1473:
1160:
1046:
1814:
1680:
1448:
1195:
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1104:
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in 1961. Otherwise, China kept its territory intact as the Qing dynasty was transformed into a modern
Chinese
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2023:
1879:
1563:
1553:
1538:
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1365:
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2007:
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296:, taking advantage of archival holdings in this and other non-Chinese languages that had long been held in
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67:(1644–1912) was the largest political entity ever to center itself on China as known today. Succeeding the
1924:
1907:
1417:
1392:
1355:
1265:
1225:
977:
695:
Ping-ti Ho (1998). "In defense of
Sinicization: A Rebuttal of Evelyn Rawski's 'Reenvisioning the Qing'".
452:
Joseph
Esherick, "Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World", Page 229.
432:
366:
239:
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376:
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162:
122:
98:
with new, significantly extended borders had become the standard terminology for Han
Chinese writers.
2317:
2036:
1965:
1758:
1290:
1215:
1084:
1002:
371:
475:
250:, "modern China" was born. In contemporary China, there is also a similar view for such a division.
35:
has been significant and enduring. It is generally agreed that the Qing dynasty had major impact in
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1513:
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1285:
1119:
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154:
126:
896:"The Manchu-language Archives of the Qing Dynasty and the Origins of the Palace Memorial System"
511:
Haiyang Yu, "Glorious memories of imperial China and the rise of
Chinese populist nationalism."
2215:
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1984:
1809:
1027:
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1305:
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526:
786:
Ding, Yizhuang (2009). "Reflections on the "New Qing History" School in the United States".
2220:
2187:
2153:
2098:
1978:
1960:
1670:
1600:
1407:
1190:
91:
633:(1996). "Reenvisioning the Qing: The Significance of the Qing Period in Chinese History".
567:
The Return of Ideology: The Search for Regime Identities in Postcommunist Russia and China
313:
ones. The most critical academic interest of New Qing historians has been to discover the
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of various conquerors. In the 1980s and early 1990s, American scholars began learning the
8:
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2123:
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1995:
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95:
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24:
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234:, a historian who is essentially credited with founding modern Chinese history in the
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2001:
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822:"Paul: The "New Qing History" is not over yet, is the "New Ming History" coming?"
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1989:
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1936:
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937:
850:. History of Imperial China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
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and the fall of the Qing dynasty, the Republic of China promoted the
646:
2210:
1955:
1902:
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1720:
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44:
2195:
601:
599:
349:" has emerged, which similarly attempts to draw attention to the
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noted that "these were the origins of the China we know today".
55:
682:
Elliott: The Influence and Response of New Qing History Studies
297:
40:
596:
1919:
1478:
528:
China Horizon, The: Glory And Dream Of A Civilizational State
323:
36:
2089:
Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet
1578:
611:
413:
865:
Waley-Cohen, Joanna (2004). "The New Qing History".
129:). Although the dynasty reached its peak during the
2094:
Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory
455:
105:The immediate roots of the modern political term
2350:
401:
1494:Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations
740:"Zhong Han's Critique of the New Qing History"
1914:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China
1885:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
953:
524:
864:
605:
112:
960:
946:
737:
694:
563:
269:in the same league as the great powers of
1574:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
755:
1423:Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi
893:
617:
54:
2030:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries
967:
476:"Comparing Empires: Manchu Colonialism"
183:independence from the Republic of China
16:Manchu-led dynasty of China (1644–1912)
2351:
629:
473:
2328:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions
1569:Principles of the Constitution (1908)
941:
1549:Ministry of Posts and Communications
845:
785:
570:. U of Michigan Press. p. 111.
461:
419:
407:
2297:History of Qing (People's Republic)
926:from the original on 2 October 2022
848:China's Last Empire: The Great Qing
13:
2014:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor
1383:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)
1376:1909 Provincial Assembly elections
1256:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)
1080:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)
14:
2375:
2303:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty
2144:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)
2019:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty
1171:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)
545:from the original on 30 June 2020
265:have characterized the Qing as a
208:
27:and the last imperial dynasty in
2114:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking
1430:Articles of Favourable Treatment
1186:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)
584:from the original on 1 July 2020
531:. World Scientific. p. 80.
480:The International History Review
47:) and other parts of the world.
1161:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813
1047:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
814:
779:
731:
688:
684:] (Press release). Beijing.
669:
623:
557:
185:was also achieved in 1921, and
1815:Guest House of Imperial Envoys
1105:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas
738:Wong (汪榮祖), Young-tsu (2021).
518:
505:
467:
446:
425:
389:
133:, it later ceded regions like
1:
2249:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank
2024:Islam during the Qing dynasty
1880:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)
1564:Provincial military commander
1554:Nine Gates Infantry Commander
1539:Imperial Household Department
1366:Preparative Constitutionalism
1070:Sino-Russian border conflicts
744:Journal of Chinese Humanities
676:Mark Elliott (Aug 28, 2013).
513:Journal of Contemporary China
492:10.1080/07075332.1998.9640822
382:
2008:Researches on Manchu Origins
1413:Mongolian Revolution of 1911
1023:Transition from Ming to Qing
1013:Later Jin invasion of Joseon
879:10.1215/01636545-2004-88-193
7:
1908:Changzhou School of Thought
1418:1911 Revolution in Xinjiang
1393:Railway Protection Movement
1371:1909 Parliamentary election
1356:British expedition to Tibet
1266:Qing reconquest of Xinjiang
1226:Self-Strengthening Movement
1201:Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)
367:History of the Qing dynasty
360:
351:Inner Asian characteristics
157:. With the outbreak of the
125:(what was then part of the
123:northern border of Mongolia
50:
10:
2380:
2308:Legacy of the Qing dynasty
1196:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)
1135:Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)
1125:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa
1095:Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)
839:
800:10.2753/CSH0009-4633430208
788:Chinese Studies in History
377:Qing dynasty in Inner Asia
309:models of rule as much as
163:Five Races Under One Union
2318:Names of the Qing dynasty
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2229:
2186:
2179:
2048:
1966:Manchu Han Imperial Feast
1893:
1825:
1746:
1651:
1447:
1338:
1296:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)
1291:Gongche Shangshu movement
1236:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
1148:
1085:Chinese Rites controversy
1055:
985:
976:
757:10.1163/23521341-12340114
709:10.1017/S0021911800022713
474:Perdue, Peter C. (1998).
372:Names of the Qing dynasty
181:in December 1911. Actual
25:imperial dynasty of China
2239:Great Qing Treasure Note
2059:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)
1769:Administrative divisions
1586:Administrative divisions
1514:Flag of the Qing dynasty
894:—— (2001b),
697:Journal of Asian Studies
635:Journal of Asian Studies
515:23.90 (2014): 1174–1187.
221:was used by traditional
179:Bogd Khanate of Mongolia
59:The Qing dynasty in 1911
1835:Chengde Mountain Resort
1636:Three Eastern Provinces
1286:First Sino-Japanese War
1261:Northern Chinese Famine
1120:Lin Shuangwen rebellion
1018:Qing invasion of Joseon
846:—— (2009).
155:First Sino-Japanese War
2216:Great Qing Copper Coin
2104:Convention of Tientsin
2037:Annotated Bibliography
1985:Qing official headwear
1028:Battle of Shanhai Pass
912:10.1353/late.2001.0002
867:Radical History Review
255:century of humiliation
223:Chinese historiography
60:
2290:Draft History of Qing
2149:Treaty of Shimonoseki
1930:performance criticism
1534:Imperial Commissioner
1524:Great Qing Legal Code
1323:Eight-Nation Alliance
1306:Third plague pandemic
1216:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars
1140:White Lotus Rebellion
525:Zhang Weiwei (2016).
58:
2221:Great Qing Gold Coin
2154:Treaty of Tarbagatai
2099:Convention of Peking
1979:Pentaglot Dictionary
1961:Literary inquisition
1671:Ever Victorious Army
1504:Deliberative Council
1408:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil
1361:1905 Batang uprising
1301:Hundred Days' Reform
1191:Small Swords Society
177:and established the
92:Ming-Qing transition
31:, the legacy of the
2274:Anti-Qing sentiment
2124:Treaty of the Bogue
2064:Treaty of Nerchinsk
1996:Complete Tang Poems
1676:Green Standard Army
1559:Provincial governor
1529:Imperial Clan Court
1509:Diplomatic missions
1484:Consultative Bureau
1231:Tongzhi Restoration
1110:Afaqi Khoja revolts
1090:Ten Great Campaigns
998:Jurchen unification
900:Late Imperial China
608:, pp. 194–197.
564:Cheng Chen (2016).
422:, pp. 210–211.
165:principle, but the
127:Qing-Russian border
96:multinational state
2159:Treaty of Tientsin
1870:Western Qing tombs
1865:Eastern Qing tombs
1691:Peking Field Force
1435:Manchu Restoration
1328:Declaration of war
1281:Jindandao incident
1100:Lhasa riot of 1750
606:Waley-Cohen (2004)
246:and the resulting
232:Harvard University
228:John King Fairbank
175:their independence
90:rulers before the
61:
2346:
2345:
2257:
2256:
2169:Treaty of Whampoa
2164:Treaty of Wanghia
2139:Treaty of Nanking
2109:Li–Lobanov Treaty
2084:Chefoo Convention
2079:Burlingame Treaty
1950:Kangxi Dictionary
1855:Old Summer Palace
1686:Firearm Battalion
1489:Cup of Solid Gold
1443:
1442:
1388:Manchurian plague
1351:Late Qing reforms
1342:(1901–1912)
1276:Sikkim expedition
1206:Panthay Rebellion
1176:Taiping Rebellion
1152:(1801–1900)
1130:Sino-Nepalese War
1075:Dzungar–Qing Wars
1061:(1683–1799)
989:(1616–1683)
857:978-0-674-03612-3
620:, pp. 70–71.
353:of the preceding
248:Treaty of Nanking
119:Treaty of Kyakhta
115:
79:was one of them.
73:Republic of China
2371:
2323:New Qing History
2206:Qianlong Tongbao
2184:
2183:
2129:Treaty of Canton
2069:Unequal treaties
1875:Fuling Mausoleum
1474:Advisory Council
1403:Wuchang Uprising
1343:
1246:Tianjin Massacre
1211:Second Opium War
1153:
1115:Sino-Burmese War
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1040:Battle of Penghu
1008:Seven Grievances
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750:(1–2): 201–211.
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282:New Qing History
275:Celestial Empire
149:) following the
121:established the
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1943:History of Ming
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1311:Boxer Rebellion
1271:Sino-French War
1221:Amur Annexation
1166:First Opium War
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271:New Imperialism
267:colonial empire
263:Peter C. Perdue
244:First Opium War
240:Western "shock"
217:concept of the
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191:satellite state
159:1911 Revolution
135:Outer Manchuria
100:William T. Rowe
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29:Chinese history
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1251:Margary Affair
1248:
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1241:Mudan incident
1238:
1233:
1228:
1223:
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1203:
1198:
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1181:Nian Rebellion
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873:(1): 193–206.
862:
856:
841:
838:
835:
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813:
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730:
703:(1): 123–155.
687:
668:
641:(4): 829–850.
631:Rawski, Evelyn
622:
610:
595:
577:978-0472121991
576:
556:
538:978-1938134753
537:
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486:(2): 255–262.
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318:extended into
219:dynastic cycle
210:
209:Historiography
207:
199:United Nations
171:Outer Mongolia
108:Zhonghua minzu
77:Imperial China
52:
49:
15:
9:
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2:
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2279:Canton System
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2015:
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1826:Palaces &
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1519:Grand Council
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1339:20th century
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1179:
1177:
1174:
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1149:19th century
1147:
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1021:
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984:
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827:September 16,
823:
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749:
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579:
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534:
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529:
521:
514:
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497:September 12,
493:
489:
485:
481:
477:
470:
463:
458:
449:
434:
433:"Nationality"
428:
421:
416:
410:, pp. 1.
409:
404:
397:
392:
388:
378:
375:
373:
370:
368:
365:
364:
358:
356:
352:
348:
343:
339:
337:
333:
329:
325:
321:
316:
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308:
307:Central Asian
303:
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287:
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278:
276:
272:
268:
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260:
256:
251:
249:
245:
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236:United States
233:
229:
224:
220:
216:
206:
204:
200:
197:) joined the
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
131:High Qing era
128:
124:
120:
110:
109:
103:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
80:
78:
74:
70:
66:
57:
48:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
2359:Qing dynasty
2333:Treaty ports
2307:
2295:
2288:
2262:Other topics
2035:
2028:
2006:
1994:
1977:
1972:Peiwen Yunfu
1970:
1948:
1941:
1912:
1661:Beiyang Army
1643:Zongli Yamen
1499:Da-Qing Bank
1316:Red Lanterns
969:Qing dynasty
928:, retrieved
903:
899:
870:
866:
847:
825:. Retrieved
816:
794:(2): 92–96.
791:
787:
781:
769:. Retrieved
747:
743:
733:
700:
696:
690:
681:
677:
671:
638:
634:
625:
613:
586:. Retrieved
566:
559:
547:. Retrieved
527:
520:
512:
507:
495:. Retrieved
483:
479:
469:
457:
448:
436:. Retrieved
427:
415:
403:
391:
355:Ming dynasty
340:
336:Mark Elliott
290:sinicization
279:
252:
212:
203:nation state
195:Soviet Union
106:
104:
81:
69:Ming dynasty
65:Qing dynasty
62:
33:Qing dynasty
18:
2269:Aisin Gioro
2231:Paper money
1990:Qing poetry
1711:Wuwei Corps
1706:Shuishiying
1467:Family tree
906:(1): 1–70,
462:Rowe (2009)
420:Rowe (2009)
408:Rowe (2009)
334:. However,
315:Inner Asian
286:revisionist
88:Aisin Gioro
84:Han Chinese
2353:Categories
1937:Four Wangs
1828:mausoleums
1781:Golden Urn
1754:Inner Asia
1731:Xiang Army
1701:Hushenying
1626:Liangguang
1606:Liangjiang
1544:Lifan Yuan
1449:Government
771:August 23,
383:References
342:Ping-ti Ho
259:Opium Wars
151:Opium Wars
1759:Manchuria
1726:Huai Army
1716:Yong Ying
1601:Shaan-Gan
1057:High Qing
1003:Later Jin
920:144117089
887:144544216
808:161545950
766:245204710
725:162071050
663:162388379
588:23 August
549:23 August
438:March 25,
396:Zhao 2006
328:Manchuria
311:Confucian
215:Confucian
173:declared
2364:Legacies
2211:Hongqian
2180:Currency
2050:Treaties
1956:Kaozheng
1903:Booi Aha
1845:Hetu Ala
1798:Timeline
1793:Xinjiang
1764:Mongolia
1721:Chu Army
1696:New Army
1653:Military
1591:Viceroys
930:15 April
924:archived
582:Archived
543:Archived
361:See also
332:Xinjiang
320:Mongolia
187:Mongolia
153:and the
51:Overview
45:Mongolia
2196:Zhiqian
2188:Coinage
1925:Economy
1896:culture
1631:Yun-Gui
1621:Min-Zhe
1616:Sichuan
1611:Huguang
1457:Emperor
978:History
840:Sources
717:2659026
655:2646525
398:, p. 3.
302:Beijing
242:of the
193:of the
167:Mongols
1810:Taiwan
986:Early
971:topics
918:
885:
854:
806:
764:
723:
715:
661:
653:
574:
535:
298:Taipei
189:(as a
143:Taiwan
141:) and
139:Russia
41:Russia
21:Manchu
2002:Queue
1920:Dibao
1776:Tibet
1596:Zhili
1479:Amban
916:S2CID
883:S2CID
804:S2CID
762:S2CID
721:S2CID
713:JSTOR
680:[
659:S2CID
651:JSTOR
324:Tibet
284:is a
147:Japan
37:China
23:-led
19:As a
1738:Navy
1579:Ejen
1462:List
932:2022
852:ISBN
829:2023
773:2023
590:2019
572:ISBN
551:2019
533:ISBN
499:2023
440:2024
330:and
300:and
280:The
213:The
145:(to
137:(to
114:lit.
63:The
43:and
908:doi
875:doi
796:doi
752:doi
705:doi
643:doi
488:doi
230:of
169:in
2355::
922:,
914:,
904:22
902:,
898:,
881:.
871:88
869:.
802:.
792:43
790:.
760:.
746:.
742:.
719:.
711:.
701:57
699:.
657:.
649:.
639:55
637:.
598:^
580:.
541:.
484:20
482:.
478:.
357:.
326:,
322:,
205:.
961:e
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910::
889:.
877::
860:.
831:.
810:.
798::
775:.
754::
748:7
727:.
707::
665:.
645::
592:.
553:.
501:.
490::
442:.
111:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
