Jainism - Knowledge

4871: 3146: 1766: 2301: 2397: 2944: 3993: 1893: 4663: 4071: 4346: 3260: 1628: 5010: 4848: 4011: 4025: 3168: 3124: 2905: 4832: 2213: 4400: 5248: 1456:, but similar to Buddhism. However, Jainism believes in the world of heavenly and hellish beings who are born, die and are reborn like earthly beings. The souls who live happily in the body of a heavenly celestial do so because of their positive karma. It is further stated that they possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms. However, once their past karmic merit is exhausted, it is explained that their souls are reborn again as humans, animals or other beings. The perfect enlightened souls 2138: 4987: 4111: 4129: 4153: 1905: 3341: 3965: 5224: 4922:, was a historical being, dated by the Jain tradition to the ninth century BCE; historians date him to the eighth or seventh century BCE. Mahāvīra is considered a contemporary of the Buddha, in around the sixth century BCE. The interaction between the two religions began with the Buddha; later, they competed for followers and the merchant trade networks that sustained them. Buddhist and Jain texts sometimes have the same or similar titles but present different doctrines. 1343: 4093: 2736: 2109:). A "one day" fast lasts about 36 hours, starting at sunset before the day of the fast and ending 48 minutes after sunrise the day after. Among laypeople, fasting is more commonly observed by women, as it shows their piety and religious purity, gains merit earning and helps ensure future well-being for their family. Some religious fasts are observed in a social and supportive female group. Long fasts are celebrated by friends and families with special ceremonies. 4516: 1917: 2755: 49: 21183: 1427: 4043: 16219: 5505: 5124: 588: 21193: 5450:(NFHS-4) conducted in 2015–16, Jains form the wealthiest community in India. According to its 2011 census, they have the country's highest literacy rate (87%) among those aged seven and older, and the most college graduates; excluding the retired, Jain literacy in India exceeded 97%. The female to male sex ratio among Jains is .940; among Indians in the 0–6 year age range the ratio was second lowest (870 girls per 1,000 boys), higher only than 1947: 2129: 898: 2573: 3556: 1327: 3716: 3748: 3636: 3572: 3412: 2720: 3780: 3732: 3588: 3524: 3492: 3460: 3444: 3380: 3700: 3652: 3540: 3508: 3476: 3396: 3348: 3764: 3604: 3428: 3684: 3668: 3364: 3620: 4057: 3979: 15057: 1561:(non-violence or non-injury) is a fundamental tenet of Jainism. It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless. In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill or harm any being, and non-violence is the highest religious duty. Jain texts such as 14938: 14908: 14878: 14848: 14818: 14797: 14776: 5297:(ability to recollect past lives) at the age of seven. Virchand Gandhi mentioned this feat at the Parliament of the World's Religions. He is best known because of his association with Mahatma Gandhi. They were introduced in Mumbai in 1891 and had various conversations through letters while Gandhi was in South Africa. Gandhi noted his impression of Shrimad Rajchandra in his autobiography, 2557: 4530: 3069:(monastery) and staying in its premises. Buddhist monastic rules forbid a monk to go outside without wearing the sangha's distinctive ruddy robe, or to use wooden bowls. In contrast, Jain monastic rules have either required nakedness (Digambara) or white clothes (Śvētāmbara), and they have disagreed on the legitimacy of the wooden or empty gourd as the begging bowl by Jain monks. 1935: 2228:, a religious death through ascetic abandonment of food and drinks. The Digambara Jains follow the same theme, but the life cycle and religious rituals are closer to a Hindu liturgy. The overlap is mainly in the life cycle (rites-of-passage) rituals, and likely developed because Jain and Hindu societies overlapped, and rituals were viewed as necessary and secular. 1206: 2361:), who may be a Hindu, to perform priestly duties at the temple. More elaborate worship includes offerings such as rice, fresh and dry fruits, flowers, coconut, sweets, and money. Some may light up a lamp with camphor and make auspicious marks with sandalwood paste. Devotees also recite Jain texts, particularly the life stories of the tirthankaras. 1864:) vow is a "religious death" ritual observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but rare in the modern age. In this vow, there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake to end one's life by choice and with dispassion, This is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul's future rebirths. 1810:, "intentional non-violence" or "noninjury": The first major vow taken by Jains is to cause no harm to other human beings, as well as all living beings (particularly animals). This is the highest ethical duty in Jainism, and it applies not only to one's actions, but demands that one be non-violent in one's speech and thoughts. 4708:'s four arms symbolise the four realms in which rebirth occurs according to Jainism: humans, heavenly beings, hellish beings and non-humans. The three dots on the top represent the three jewels mentioned in ancient texts: correct faith, correct understanding and correct conduct, believed to lead to spiritual perfection. 1678:'s teachings. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is", and "it is not", qualified with "perhaps", to understand Absolute Reality. The permanent being is conceptualized as 1801:(Jina, god), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about the faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, sincere desire for Jain teachings, recognition of fellow Jains, and admiration for their spiritual pursuits. Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism: 5034:

statues date back to the second century BCE. Archeological evidence suggests that Mathura was an important Jain center from the second century BCE. onwards. Inscriptions from as early as the first century CE already show the schism between Digambara and Śvētāmbara. There is inscriptional evidence for

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early colonial scholars stated that Jainism like Buddhism was, in part, a rejection of the Hindu caste system, but later scholars consider this a Western error. A caste system not based on birth has been a historic part of Jain society, and Jainism focused on transforming the individual, not society.

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Bhadrabahu returned, they found those who had remained at Magadha had started wearing white clothes, which was unacceptable to the others who remained naked. This is how Jains believe the Digambara and Śvētāmbara schism began, with the former being naked while the latter wore white clothes. Digambara

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There are many rituals in Jainism's various sects. According to Dundas, the ritualistic lay path among Śvētāmbara Jains is "heavily imbued with ascetic values", where the rituals either revere or celebrate the ascetic life of tirthankaras, or progressively approach the psychological and physical life

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Whether the begging utensils of a monk, such as robe and begging bowl, were justified and legitimate for a Jain monk and were not considered an impediment on the path to salvation, remained a bone of contention among various splinter groups within Jainism, and was partly responsible for the ultimate

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Jains have similar views with Hindus that violence in self-defence can be justified, and that a soldier who kills enemies in combat is performing a legitimate duty. Jain communities accepted the use of military power for their defence; there were Jain monarchs, military commanders, and soldiers. The

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and human existence. He claims that it is not about condoning activities such as killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right". The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there is no "perhaps" about them.

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This view, however, is not shared by all Jain sub-traditions. For example, the Terapanthi Jain tradition, with about 250,000 followers, considers both good karma such as compassionate charity, and bad karma such as sin, as binding one's soul to worldly morality. It states that any karma leads to a

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through a monistic or dualistic framework. In contrast, Jain thought denies the Hindu metaphysical concept of Brahman, and Jain philosophy considers the soul to be ever changing and bound to the body or matter for each lifetime, thereby having a finite size that infuses the entire body of a living

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discuss austerities in detail. Six outer and six inner practices are oft-repeated in later Jain texts. Outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying the flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a

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entered Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1927, but was forced to cover his body. He then led an India-wide tour as the naked monk with his followers, to various Digambara sacred sites, and was welcomed by kings of the Maharashtra provinces. Shantisagar fasted to oppose the restrictions imposed on Digambara

4331:(Pakistan). However, according to a UNESCO tentative world heritage site application, Nagarparkar was not a "major religious centre or a place of pilgrimage" for Jainism, but it was once an important cultural landscape before "the last remaining Jain community left the area in 1947 at Partition". 1705:

doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to "promote a universal religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other positions". Dundas states this is a misreading of historical texts and Mahāvīra's teachings. According to him, the "many pointedness,

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Jainism is similar to Buddhism in not recognizing the primacy of the Vedas and the Hindu Brahman. Jainism and Hinduism, however, both believe "soul exists" as a self-evident truth. Jains and Hindus have frequently intermarried, particularly in northern, central and western regions of India. Some

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which, according to them, required not even possession of clothes, i.e. complete nudity. In the fifth-century CE, the Council of Valabhi was organized by Śvētāmbara, which Digambara did not attend. At the council, the Śvētāmbara adopted the texts they had preserved as canonical scriptures, which

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Of the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest ascetic tradition. Ascetic life may include nakedness, symbolizing non-possession even of clothes, fasting, body mortification, and penance, to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed essential for

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The doctrine exists in Hinduism and Buddhism, but is most highly developed in Jainism. The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to "be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all

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It further claims the vibration draws karmic particles to the soul and creates bondages, but is also what adds merit or demerit to the soul. Jain texts state that souls exist as "clothed with material bodies", where it entirely fills up the body. Karma, as in other Indian religions, connotes in

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Colonial era reports and Christian missions variously viewed Jainism as a sect of Hinduism, a sect of Buddhism, or a distinct religion. Christian missionaries were frustrated at Jain people without pagan creator gods refusing to convert to Christianity, while colonial era Jain scholars such as

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are particularly popular among Śvētāmbaras, which they attribute to Bhadrabahu (c. 300 BCE). This ancient scholar is revered in the Digambara tradition, and they believe he led their migration into the ancient south Karnataka region and created their tradition. Śvētāmbaras believe instead that

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precept for a mendicant requires avoidance of touching or disturbing any living being including plants. It also mandates never swimming in water, nor lighting or fire or extinguish one, nor thrashing arms in the air as such actions can torment or hurt other beings that live in those states of

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The British colonial government in India and Indian princely states promoted religious tolerance. However, laws were passed that made roaming naked by anyone an arrestable crime. This drew popular support from the majority Hindu population, but particularly impacted Digambara monks. The Akhil

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and other scholars, Buddhism too was not a rejection or rebellion against any ancient caste system and it too was focused on individual's liberation from rebirths and suffering. The caste system in Buddhist societies and monasteries outside India have been documented. Gombrich states, "Some

11013: 2164:) a necessary practice, but its goals are very different from those in Buddhism and Hinduism. In Jainism, meditation is concerned more with stopping karmic attachments and activity, not as a means to transformational insights or self-realization in other Indian religions. According to 2073:

such as potatoes, onions, and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being. Jain monks and advanced lay people avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of

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applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property. Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form. Unchecked attachment to possessions is said to result in direct harm to one's personality.

2931:"Adoration to the Arhat Vardhamana. The daughter of the matron (?) courtesan Lonasobhika (Lavanasobhika), the disciple of the ascetics, the junior (?) courtesan Vasu has erected a shrine of the Arhat, a hall of homage (ayagasabha), cistern and a stone slab at the sanctuary of the 1586:

creatures", but resulting from "continual self-discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately affects one's salvation and release from rebirths. Jains believe that causing injury to any being in any form creates bad

2428:. This typically falls in August or September of the Gregorian calendar. It lasts eight days for Svetambaras, and ten days among the Digambaras. It is a time when lay people fast and pray. The five vows are emphasized during this time. Svetambaras recite the 1735:

which means non-attachment to worldly possessions. For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions. The ascetic is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident mendicant in the

2655:. Śvētāmbara has had more female than male mendicants, where Digambara has mostly had male monks and considers males closest to the soul's liberation. The Śvētāmbaras believe that women can also achieve liberation through asceticism and state that the 19th 5151:(1296–1316), as attested by the Jain texts held discussions with Jain sages and once specially summoned Acharya Mahasena to Delhi. One more prominent Jain figure Acharya Ramachandra Suri was also honored by him. During his reign, his governor of Gujarat, 2814:. The Digambara texts partially agree with older Śvētāmbara texts, but there are also gross differences between the texts of the two major Jain traditions. The Digambaras created a secondary canon between 600 and 900 CE, compiling it into four groups or 2097:, eating only one or two meals per day, drinking only boiled water for ten days, or fasting completely on the first and last days of the festival, mimicking the practices of a Jain mendicant for the period. Śvētāmbara Jains do similarly in the eight day 2700:, followed Digambara nudity along with several Śvētāmbara beliefs. In the modern era, according to Flügel, new Jain religious movements that are a "primarily devotional form of Jainism" have developed which resemble "Jain Mahayana" style devotionalism. 2469:. Jains consider this a day of atonement, granting forgiveness to others, seeking forgiveness from all living beings, physically or mentally asking for forgiveness and resolving to treat everyone in the world as friends. Forgiveness is asked by saying " 1573:

state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable. Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly.

1650:("doctrine"). The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects. It further states that reality can be experienced, but cannot be fully expressed with language. It suggests that human attempts to communicate are 11023: 1240:

Jainism the universal cause and effect law. However, it is envisioned as a material substance (subtle matter) that can bind to the soul, travel with the soul in bound form between rebirths, and affect the suffering and happiness experienced by the

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Jains believe that violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when the violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being.

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or non-violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond, Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Mahāvīra is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on

1476:(liberated souls). Only a soul with human body can attain enlightenment and liberation. The liberated beings are the supreme beings and are worshipped by all heavenly, earthly and hellish beings who aspire to attain liberation themselves. 5375:(victors), which means an omniscient person who teaches the path of salvation, and their followers are Jains. The majority of Jains currently reside in India. With four to five million followers worldwide, Jainism is small compared to 4384:

idols look similar, differentiated by their individual symbol, except for Parshvanatha whose head is crowned by a snake. Digambara images are naked without any beautification, whereas Śvētāmbara depictions are clothed and ornamented.

1842:, "non-possessiveness": This includes non-attachment to material and psychological possessions, avoiding craving and greed. Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations, own nothing and are attached to no one. 5209:

The Jain community were the traditional bankers and financiers, and this significantly impacted the Muslim rulers. However, they rarely were a part of the political power during the Islamic rule period of the Indian subcontinent.

1270:) is accepted as a truth, as in Hinduism but not Buddhism. The cycle of rebirths has a definite beginning and end in Jainism. Jain theosophy asserts that each soul passes through 8,400,000 birth-situations as they circle through 1658:, or valid "in some respect", but remain "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete". It concludes that in the same way, spiritual truths can be experienced but not fully expressed. It suggests that the great error is belief in 11437: 1986:, studying, meditation, and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body. Lists of internal and external austerities vary with the text and tradition. Asceticism is viewed as a means to control desires, and to purify the 1277:

Harming any life form is a sin in Jainism, with negative karmic effects. Jainism states that souls begin in a primordial state, and either evolve to a higher state or regress if driven by their karma. It further clarifies that

2994:, and leave it up to individual discretion to choose whether or not to believe in gods, to disagree with core teachings, and to choose whether to participate in prayers, rituals and festivals. They all consider values such as 1217:

According to Jainism, the existence of "a bound and ever changing soul" is a self-evident truth, an axiom which does not need to be proven. It maintains that there are numerous souls, but every one of them has three qualities

3278:, Rajasthan, is a good example of Jain architecture. Decorated manuscripts are preserved in Jain libraries, containing diagrams from Jain cosmology. Most of the paintings and illustrations depict historical events, known as 3064:

season, and celibacy, originating before the Buddha or the Mahāvīra. Jain and Hindu monastic communities have traditionally been more mobile and had an itinerant lifestyle, while Buddhist monks have favored belonging to a

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Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought. It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other".

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wrote during a time of destruction of temples and persecution that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance".

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Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa.

1001:(non-living). Jains distinguish a substance from a complex body, or thing, by declaring the former a simple indestructible element, while the latter is a compound made of one or more substances that can be destroyed. 2636:

Digambara has ever since rejected. This council is believed to have solidified the historic schism between these two major traditions of Jainism. The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Prakrit

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is therefore a revered pilgrimage site. The Palitana temples are the holiest shrine for the Śvētāmbara Murtipujaka sect. Along with Shikharji the two sites are considered the holiest of all pilgrimage sites by the

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marking his forehead, are depicted. Other paintings show him presenting a pottery bowl to his followers; he is also seen painting a house, weaving, and being visited by his mother Marudevi. Each of the twenty-four

2432:, while Digambaras read their own texts. The festival is an occasion where Jains make active effort to stop cruelty towards other life forms, freeing animals in captivity and preventing the slaughter of animals. 11404: 2340:, and is found in all Jain sub-traditions. Typically, the Jain layperson enters the Derasar (Jain temple) inner sanctum in simple clothing and bare feet with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says the 3946:

temple is a fine example of Jain art with an early cave shelter, and a medieval rock-cut temple with excellent fresco paintings comparable to Ajantha. Inside are seventeen stone beds with second century BCE.

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museum. It is dated approximately to the third century BCE. Bronze images of Pārśva can be seen in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai, and in the Patna museum; these are dated to the second century BCE.

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defended Jainism against criticism and misrepresentation by Christian activists. Missionaries of Christianity and Islam considered Jain traditions idolatrous and superstitious. These criticisms, states

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The Śvētāmbaras believe that they have preserved 45 of the 50 original Jain scriptures (having lost an Anga text and four Purva texts), while the Digambaras believe that all were lost, and that Āchārya

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is considered authoritative by all traditions of Jainism. In the Digambara tradition, the texts written by Kundakunda are highly revered and have been historically influential, while the oldest being

1274:, going through five types of bodies: earth bodies, water bodies, fire bodies, air bodies and vegetable lives, constantly changing with all human and non-human activities from rainfall to breathing. 11470: 1359:(realms of existence). As in Buddhism and Hinduism, both time and the universe are eternal, but the universe is transient. The universe, body, matter and time are considered separate from the soul ( 10229: 1654:, "partial expression of the truth". According to it, one can experience the taste of truth, but cannot fully express that taste through language. It holds that attempts to express experience are 14340: 5194:. After the conquest of the fort, Akbar ordered the destruction of several Jain shrines and temples in Chittor. Similarly there were instances of desecration of Jain religious shrines under 5568:

negation of the "absolute non-violence" principle, given man's limited perspective. It recommends that the monk or nun seeking salvation must avoid hurting or helping any being in any form.

3000:(non-violence) to be important, link suffering to craving, individual's actions, intents, and karma, and believe spirituality is a means to enlightened peace, bliss and eternal liberation ( 5762: 2368:

and that certain sounds and words are inherently auspicious, powerful and spiritual. The most famous of the mantras, broadly accepted in various sects of Jainism, is the "five homage" (

1826:, "not stealing": A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given. Additionally, a Jain mendicant should ask for permission to take it if something is being given. 11427: 821:). The Śvētāmbara tradition in turn has two sub-traditions: Deravasi also known as Mandirmargis, and Sthānakavasī. The religion has between four and five million followers, known as 9773: 1740:

tradition. For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity. According to Natubhai Shah,

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images, some fixed, others moveable. These are stationed in the inner sanctum, one of the two sacred zones, the other being the main hall. One of the images is marked as the

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the presence of Jain monks in south India by the second or first centuries BCE, and archaeological evidence of Jain monks in Saurashtra in Gujarat by the second century CE.

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was female, which Digambara rejects. Early Jain images from Mathura depict Digambara iconography until late fifth century CE where Svetambara iconography starts appearing.

2479:" to others. This means, "If I have offended you in any way, knowingly or unknowingly, in thought, word or action, then I seek your forgiveness." The literal meaning of 1452:, and will exist forever. It is independent, having no creator, governor, judge, or destroyer. In this, it is unlike the Abrahamic religions and the theistic strands of 11394: 10942:

A glaring example of this sort of feeling is the destruction of several Hindu and Jain shrines, made at Chittor, during the course of invasion by the forces of Akbar

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is offered after praying to Mahāvīra in all Jain temples across the world. The Jain new year starts right after Diwali. Some other festivals celebrated by Jains are

1834:, "celibacy": Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks and nuns. For laypersons, the vow means chastity, faithfulness to one's partner. 11507: 11335: 4870: 3220:

tablet used in Jainism for donation and worship in the early centuries. These tablets are decorated with objects and designs central to Jain worship such as the

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While both Hinduism and Jainism believe "soul exists" to be a self-evident truth, most Hindu systems consider it to be eternally present, infinite and constant (

2416: 1363:). Their interaction explains life, living, death and rebirth in Jain philosophy. The Jain cosmic universe has three parts, the upper, middle, and lower worlds ( 1818:, "truth": This vow is to always speak the truth. Neither lie, nor speak what is not true, and do not encourage others or approve anyone who speaks an untruth. 14999: 12512: 10014: 9860: 5663:

modernists go so far as to say that the Buddha was against caste altogether: this is not the case, but is one of the mistakes picked up from western authors."

2374:) mantra which is believed to be eternal and existent since the first tirthankara's time. Medieval worship practices included making tantric diagrams of the 11460: 7029: 3302:

by the long locks of hair falling to his shoulders. Bull images also appear in his sculptures. In paintings, incidents from his life, like his marriage and

5307:, considered his magnum opus, containing the essence of Jainism in a single sitting of 1.5–2 hours. He expounds on the six fundamental truths of the soul: 3238:. They present simultaneous trends or image and symbol worship. Numerous such stone tablets were discovered during excavations at ancient Jain sites like 10871: 17650: 14324: 5155:

permitted the reconstruction of the temples razed during earlier Muslim conquests and himself made huge donation for the renovation of Jain temples.

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in the traditional Indian calendar. This typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar. The festivities include visiting Jain temples,

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Jainism differs from both Buddhism and Hinduism in its ontological premises. All believe in impermanence, but Buddhism incorporates the premise of

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In 1974, on the 2500th anniversary of the nirvana of Mahāvīra, the Jain community chose a single combined image for Jainism. It depicts the three

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Digambaras and Śvētāmbara differ in their practices and dress code, interpretations of teachings, and on Jain history especially concerning the

1248:. Karma is believed to obscure and obstruct the innate nature and striving of the soul, as well as its spiritual potential in the next rebirth. 21042: 9522: 21242: 13545:

Olson, Carl (2014), "The conflicting themes of nonviolence and violence in ancient Indian asceticism as evident in the practice of fasting",

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Digambara-Svetambara split, although it would be a grave oversimplification to reduce the roots of the split to just monks' robes and bowls.

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so deeply and systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism. As and when the benevolent principle of

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have been suggested as a link to ancient Jain culture, but very little is known about the Indus Valley iconography and script. The last two

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Royal patronage has been a key factor in the growth and decline of Jainism. In the second half of the first century CE, Hindu kings of the

9882: 5371:, which means to conquer. In the Jain context, monks have to conquer their senses and karma for liberation. Those who have succeeded are 5140: 1087:

for ascetics, but for most Jain laypersons, it is to accumulate good karma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation.

9991: 20030: 19957: 17175: 16276: 9803: 9763: 9626: 4419: 3830:(column of honor) is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples. Temple construction is considered a meritorious act. 3145: 9308: 2601:. Monks of the Digambara (sky-clad) tradition do not wear clothes. Female monastics of the Digambara sect wear unstitched plain white 19835: 16254: 10415: 5649:

to Jains, is recognized by all four Jain traditions as the earliest, most authoritative and comprehensive summary of their religion."

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remains scarce, notwithstanding there were several instances of cordial relations of Jains with prominent rulers of the Sultanate.

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connotes more than meditation, and for a Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of "assuming temporary ascetic status".

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Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia

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A symbol to represent the Jain community was chosen in 1975 as part of the commemoration of the 2,500th anniversary of Mahavira's

2525:(small oil lamps). The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance. Sweets are often distributed. On Diwali morning, 1597:

doctrine when faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns. According to

8474: 1765: 833:, where they numbered around 4.5 million at the 2011 census. Outside India, some of the largest Jain communities can be found in 11347: 5577:

Jain literature, like Buddhist and Hindu literature, has also debated the aspects of violence and non-violence in food creation.

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Monasticism is similar in all three traditions, with similar rules, hierarchical structure, not traveling during the four-month

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ritual is practiced at least three times a day by mendicants, while a layperson includes it with other ritual practices such as

1666:. The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" ( 1662:(one-sidedness), where some relative truth is treated as absolute. The doctrine is ancient, found in Buddhist texts such as the 16198: 10066: 5299: 5234: 1021:

connotes reality or truth in Jain philosophy and is the framework for salvation. According to Digambara Jains, there are seven

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in Uttar Pradesh, India. The practice of donating these tablets is documented from first century BCE to the third century CE.

2344:, completes his or her litany and prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and then departs. 21227: 20141: 14928: 14898: 14868: 14838: 14759: 14708: 14685: 14661: 14641: 14620: 14574: 14551: 14524: 14493: 14469: 14449: 14393: 14369: 14334: 14314: 14290: 14246: 14202: 14182: 14162: 14139: 14115: 14095: 14068: 14024: 13986: 13962: 13938: 13911: 13872: 13848: 13824: 13800: 13780: 13749: 13725: 13705: 13671: 13651: 13631: 13604: 13581: 13525: 13503: 13475: 13452: 13425: 13400: 13380: 13360: 13340: 13317: 13297: 13277: 13257: 13205: 13187: 13164: 13144: 13124: 13104: 13052: 13030: 13006: 12982: 12958: 12938: 12918: 12894: 12874: 12854: 12836: 12812: 12788: 12765: 12745: 12725: 12705: 12658: 12638: 12603: 12579: 12493: 12471: 12463: 12455: 12444: 12424: 12397: 12364: 12343: 12323: 12292: 12268: 12250: 12223: 12200: 12173: 12153: 12130: 12106: 12082: 12058: 11979: 11948: 11928: 11885: 11861: 11838: 11820: 11793: 11754: 11730: 11708: 11681: 11661: 11630: 11607: 11587: 11288: 10907: 10821: 9944: 2065:, meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production. 20606: 17645: 16203: 11549: 2300: 2285: 12514:

Shades of Enlightenment: A Jain Tantric Diagram and the Colours of the Tirthankaras, International Journal of Jain Studies

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to shrines, reading Jain texts and processions of Mahāvīra by the community. At his legendary birthplace of Kundagrama in

20724: 20005: 19606: 15016: 11492: 6787: 1408:, full of sorrow and religious decline, where the height of living beings shrinks. According to Jainism, after the sixth 934: 14402:

Truschke, Audrey (1 September 2015), "Dangerous Debates: Jain responses to theological challenges at the Mughal court",

12682:, vol. 12, Journal of the International College for Advanced Buddhist Studies, Kokusai Bukkyōgaku Daigakuin Daigaku 9982: 2035:, in autonomous regional Jain congregations. Jain monastic rules have encouraged the use of mouth cover, as well as the 803:, which hold different views on ascetic practices, gender, and the texts considered canonical. Both sub-traditions have 20934: 20664: 20546: 20000: 18585: 16539: 10648: 3861:

is considered one of the most beautiful Jain temples and is famous for its detailed carvings. According to Jain texts,

2866: 12886:

Harmless Souls: Karmic Bondage and Religious Change in Early Jainism with Special Reference to Umāsvāti and Kundakunda

4024: 3073:

Jain and Hindu communities have often been very close and mutually accepting. Some Hindu temples have included a Jain

2741:

The Suryaprajnaptisūtra, a fourth or third century BCE astronomy text of Śvētāmbara Jains. Above: its manuscript from

20984: 19810: 17060: 16157: 14728: 14594: 14222: 14044: 12559: 11106: 11052: 10848: 10768: 3546: 2943: 2396: 666: 618: 572: 73: 21037: 18595: 12534: 12518: 9850: 5191: 1609:

However, examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare.

776:(non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly 14983: 13309:

The Future of Peace and Justice in the Global Village: The Role of the World Religions in the Twenty-first Century

5303:, calling him his "guide and helper" and his "refuge in moments of spiritual crisis". Shrimad Rajchandra composed 782: 399: 20999: 20894: 20020: 20015: 19971: 19601: 18445: 17704: 16694: 9671: 7021: 5280: 1769: 1383:, rotates ceaselessly. In this part of the universe, it explains, there are six periods of time within two eons ( 14860:

Acharya Amritchandra's Purushartha Siddhyupaya: Realization of the Pure Self, With Hindi and English Translation

13332:

Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations

9704: 20854: 20679: 19952: 18971: 18912: 18799: 18678: 18610: 17038: 16676: 16595: 16152: 13623: 10652: 9567:. Archaeological Survey of India. Vol. 9. Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing. p. 31. 9312: 5600:

The first is desavakasika (staying in a restrained surrounding, cutting down worldly activities). The third is

5166:

in general were influenced by the Jain scholars and made patronage and grants for their pilgrimage sites under

5068:

of the eighth century converted to Jainism, and the Jain pilgrimage tradition was well established in his era.

4992: 3998: 3594: 3174: 2420:

by the Digambaras. It is celebrated from the 12th day of the waning moon in the traditional lunisolar month of

19091: 18966: 21222: 21004: 20419: 20156: 19820: 19669: 19591: 19013: 18055: 17608: 16247: 16121: 14751: 5447: 5424: 5276: 4110: 1522:(Correct Asceticism) as a fourth jewel, emphasizing belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation ( 21062: 20864: 18077: 16827: 16188: 15903: 15583: 15039: 13999: 5428: 5182:(1658–1707). Despite this, there were instances of religious bigotry during the Mughal rule towards Jains. 4978:

in the later part of his life. Jain texts state that he died intentionally at Shravanabelagola by fasting.

2382:. The Jain tantric traditions use mantra and rituals that are believed to accrue merit for rebirth realms. 1563: 1266:

The conceptual framework of the Saṃsāra doctrine differs between Jainism and other Indian religions. Soul (

19101: 6800: 4092: 21072: 20784: 20779: 20551: 19074: 19035: 18590: 18504: 18072: 16444: 15984: 15943: 13864: 12613: 11046: 4128: 3795: 3340: 2935:

Arhats, together with her mother, her daughter, her son and her whole household in honour of the Arhats."

1449: 19106: 19096: 16037: 5724: 4700: 2821:

The most popular and influential texts of Jainism have been its non-canonical literature. Of these, the

19850: 19795: 19491: 18231: 17748: 16439: 16381: 15803: 15170: 14612: 14282: 13884:

Raj Bhakta Marg: the path of devotion to Srimad Rajcandra. A Jain community in the twenty first century

10062: 5695:, the first Tīrthaṅkara of Jainism, means "bull," and that images of bulls are found at seals from the 5344:

Bharatiya Jain Samaj opposed this law, claiming that it interfered with Jain religious rights. Acharya

3187:

Jainism has contributed significantly to Indian art and architecture. Jain arts depict life legends of

930: 795:

Jainism is one of the oldest religions still practiced today. It has two major ancient sub-traditions,

17829: 14978: 10914:

In 1527, the Urvahi Jinas were mutilated by the Mughal emperor Babar, a fact he records in his memoirs

21232: 21097: 20886: 20744: 20196: 19084: 18863: 18494: 18124: 17689: 16821: 16573: 16410: 16365: 15898: 15272: 14745: 14589:, The Director, Oriental Institute, on behalf of the Registrar, M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara, 10807: 10092: 5696: 5454:. Jain males have the highest work participation rates in India, while Jain females have the lowest. 5046:

of the seventh century championed Jainism, Buddhism and all traditions of Hinduism. The Pallava King

4838:, believed to have lived over 592.704×10 years ago, is considered the traditional founder of Jainism. 4773: 4662: 4345: 2688:

represented without clothes, and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm, are identified as the

2673:

of public nudity as well as their belief that women are incapable of attaining spiritual liberation.

2546: 1791:(great vows) for Jain mendicants. For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a 1632: 1627: 1296: 434: 352: 324: 19202: 3964: 2626:

Bhadrabahu, is believed to have stayed in Magadha. Later, as stated in tradition, when followers of

2069:

is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare. Jain monks, nuns and some followers avoid

2039:– a long stick with woolen threads – to gently remove ants and insects that may come in their path. 1994:

such as the Mahāvīra (Vardhamana) set an example by performing severe austerities for twelve years.

20601: 20561: 20516: 20306: 20296: 20101: 19855: 19680: 19616: 19586: 19476: 19241: 19150: 19118: 19079: 18991: 17898: 17155: 17091: 16561: 16546: 16240: 15837: 15460: 15165: 13840: 11339: 9536: 5404: 5128: 4912: 4725: 4320: 3738: 2806:

was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original canon. According to them, Digambara

1892: 1400:(descending, increasing sorrow and immorality). It states that the world is currently in the fifth 567: 17598: 15252: 3048:), but some Hindu scholars propose soul to be atomic. Hindu thought generally discusses Atman and 2336:). Terapanthi Digambaras limit their ritual worship to tirthankaras. The worship ritual is called 1257: 153: 21052: 20989: 20939: 20899: 20844: 20479: 20474: 20364: 20311: 20201: 20131: 19927: 19738: 19653: 18858: 18836: 18635: 18457: 17982: 17640: 17567: 17251: 16622: 16422: 16331: 16116: 15736: 15032: 14485: 14238: 12998: 12974: 12619: 12284: 12122: 12074: 10793: 5009: 5000: 3931: 3889: 2778:, much like the ancient Buddhist and Hindu texts, and to have originated from the sermons of the 2670: 2421: 1982:

source of temptation). Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assisting

13016: 12668: 5247: 4459: 987: 20919: 20814: 20774: 20754: 20611: 20586: 20491: 20464: 20414: 20384: 20374: 20291: 20256: 20241: 20226: 20181: 20116: 19790: 19721: 19626: 19621: 19362: 19285: 19047: 18929: 18853: 18650: 18640: 18499: 18467: 18405: 18376: 17893: 17888: 17585: 17545: 17330: 16671: 16666: 16646: 16642: 15815: 15773: 15718: 14990: 14276: 14148: 13715: 12735: 9892: 5384: 5376: 5057: 5056:

ridicules certain Shaiva sects and the Buddhists and expresses contempt for Jain ascetics. The

4847: 4134: 4076: 4042: 3908: 2590: 2401: 2019: 867: 861: 813: 474: 12535:"The violence of non-violence: a study of some Jain responses to non-Jain religious practices" 10855:

Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351) is mentioned in Jain texts as showing favour to Jain scholars

10811: 10758: 4918:

The historicity of first twenty two tirthankaras is not determined yet. The 23rd Tirthankara,

3191:

or other important people, particularly with them in a seated or standing meditative posture.

3167: 3123: 21160: 21105: 21022: 20974: 20949: 20749: 20571: 20566: 20434: 20424: 20246: 19922: 19865: 19685: 19631: 19052: 19030: 18949: 18890: 18556: 17995: 17856: 17018: 16617: 16529: 16193: 15964: 15832: 15741: 14502: 13920: 13517: 13434: 13413:

The Archaeology of Sacred Spaces: The temple in western India, 2nd century BCE–8th century CE

12612:

Jacobi, Hermann (1964), Max Muller (The Sacred Books of the East Series, Volume XXII) (ed.),

12019:

Cort, John E. (1995), "The Jain Knowledge Warehouses : Traditional Libraries in India",

11877: 11722: 11559: 10838: 9940: 9700: 9667: 9562: 9527: 8383: 5533: 5081: 5052: 4879:

Sculpture with Four Jinas (Rishabhanatha (Adinatha), Parshvanatha, Neminatha, and Mahavira),

4831: 4437: 3952: 3259: 2858:

attributed to Acharya pushpdanta and Bhutbali. Other important Digambara Jain texts include:

2489:

celebrates the birth of Mahāvīra. It is celebrated on the 13th day of the lunisolar month of

1707: 961:. Jains believe the universe is made up of six eternal substances: sentient beings or souls ( 611: 20: 17876: 17824: 14920:Ācārya Samantabhadra's Ratnakarandaka-śrāvakācāra: The Jewel-casket of Householder's Conduct 9638: 8479: 21150: 21140: 21125: 21032: 20959: 20929: 20904: 20869: 20829: 20824: 20799: 20669: 20591: 20541: 20521: 20511: 20399: 20346: 20321: 20171: 20166: 20146: 20111: 20096: 20040: 19815: 19748: 19716: 19596: 19531: 19397: 19275: 19128: 19008: 18907: 18819: 18787: 18782: 18630: 18362: 17657: 17241: 17001: 16612: 16556: 16507: 16492: 16345: 16178: 16142: 15928: 15923: 15893: 15878: 15858: 15827: 15798: 14560: 14533: 13249: 11014:"Virchand Gandhi – a Gandhi before Gandhi An unsung Gandhi who set course for his namesake" 9558: 9320: 5763:"Jainism Gains Traction In Japan, Thousands Travel To India To Transition From Zen To Jain" 5439:. Jainism also counts several non-Indian converts; for example, it is spreading rapidly in 5400: 5388: 5156: 4098: 4048: 3970: 3854: 2889: 2885: 2212: 2147: 926: 16854: 15373: 11207: 9795: 8740:

Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2000). "Āyāgapaṭas: Characteristics, Symbolism, and Chronology".

2618:

Bhadrabahu predicted a twelve-year-long famine and moved to Karnataka with his disciples.

8: 21155: 21130: 21110: 21087: 21014: 20964: 20944: 20859: 20849: 20804: 20764: 20719: 20714: 20704: 20694: 20689: 20684: 20674: 20659: 20654: 20649: 20644: 20639: 20616: 20526: 20501: 20379: 20369: 20331: 20301: 20286: 20271: 20261: 20251: 20216: 20211: 20161: 20106: 20081: 20025: 19882: 19870: 19758: 19753: 19743: 19611: 19412: 19325: 19270: 19246: 19133: 19018: 18976: 18771: 18620: 18248: 18040: 17925: 17721: 17523: 17408: 17336: 17226: 17147: 16974: 16627: 16451: 16297: 16183: 16062: 16025: 15999: 15938: 15888: 15448: 15316: 14677: 14516: 14385: 14306: 14131: 14060: 14016: 13444: 12828: 12804: 12378: 12098: 11700: 11503: 11343: 11152: 10872:"What Aurangzeb did to preserve Hindu temples (and protect non-Muslim religious leaders)" 10656: 9316: 7196: 7194: 5283:. He worked to defend the rights of Jains and wrote and lectured extensively on Jainism. 4963: 4822: 4748: 4257: – Locations where divine events are believed to have occurred, such as: 4016: 3935: 3900: 3088:

Fynes (1996) argues that various Jain influences, particularly ideas on the existence of

3078: 2665:

Several scholars and scriptures of other religions as well as those of their counterpart

2321: 2062: 1043:, which is a mix of living and non-living), the bondage of karmic particles to the soul ( 517: 68: 21237: 15007: 13372:

Temple Architecture and Art of the Early Chalukyas: Badami, Mahakuta, Aihole, Pattadakal

5353:

and prompted their discontinuance. The laws were abolished by India after independence.

2904: 2027:(laywomen). The latter two support the ascetics and their monastic organizations called 1518:(Correct Conduct), meaning behavior consistent with the Five vows. Jain texts often add 21135: 21115: 21082: 20979: 20969: 20914: 20909: 20839: 20819: 20809: 20794: 20789: 20769: 20739: 20734: 20709: 20699: 20631: 20596: 20581: 20486: 20459: 20449: 20409: 20394: 20389: 20341: 20336: 20276: 20231: 20191: 20086: 20073: 19860: 19785: 19658: 19481: 19155: 19113: 18954: 18922: 18897: 18824: 18804: 18625: 18573: 18561: 18539: 18131: 18089: 17962: 17797: 17792: 17787: 17618: 17402: 17378: 16757: 16681: 16429: 16375: 16173: 16147: 16020: 15863: 15793: 15788: 15423: 15418: 14994: 14605: 14427: 14264: 13995: 13978: 13231: 13078: 12036: 11616: 11465: 11399: 10983: 10019: 9986: 9290: 8765: 7025: 5767: 5518: 5458: 5392: 5286: 5258: 5254: 5186:(1526–1530), the first Mughal emperor ordered the destruction of various Jain idols in 5092:

Shaivite sect. The Lingayats destroyed Jain temples and adapted them to their use. The

4742: 4454: 4360:; Parshvanatha, Rishabhanatha and Mahāvīra are among the more popular, often seated in 4350: 4270: 2058: 2052: 2048: 1261: 929:, and the actual realization of this principle plays out through the phenomena of both 682:. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four 63: 18243: 17802: 17430: 17160: 12304:

A History of Architecture in All Countries: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day

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Jainism has been praised for some of its practices and beliefs. Greatly influenced by

5367:

Followers of Jainism are called "Jains", a word derived from the Sanskrit verbal root

3926:

The second–first century BCE Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves are rich with carvings of

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Purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the path of three jewels:

800: 21192: 21186: 21120: 21077: 21067: 21057: 21047: 20954: 20874: 20834: 20759: 20729: 20621: 20576: 20556: 20531: 20506: 20469: 20454: 20429: 20404: 20316: 20266: 20221: 20206: 20186: 20176: 20151: 20091: 20035: 19800: 19576: 19172: 19143: 19067: 19062: 19023: 18961: 18917: 18902: 18885: 18880: 18875: 18814: 18549: 18435: 18201: 18171: 18151: 17972: 17777: 17758: 17753: 17699: 17662: 17383: 17298: 17221: 17119: 17109: 17077: 17065: 17033: 17010: 16992: 16888: 16743: 16651: 16637: 16600: 16588: 16417: 16336: 16288: 16042: 15933: 15873: 15868: 15853: 15820: 15810: 15624: 15511: 15262: 15116: 15109: 15086: 14951: 14924: 14894: 14864: 14834: 14755: 14724: 14704: 14681: 14657: 14637: 14616: 14590: 14570: 14547: 14520: 14489: 14465: 14445: 14431: 14419: 14389: 14365: 14330: 14310: 14286: 14242: 14218: 14198: 14178: 14158: 14135: 14111: 14091: 14087: 14083:

A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century

14064: 14040: 14020: 13982: 13958: 13954: 13934: 13930: 13907: 13868: 13844: 13820: 13796: 13776: 13745: 13721: 13701: 13667: 13647: 13627: 13600: 13577: 13521: 13499: 13471: 13448: 13421: 13396: 13376: 13356: 13336: 13313: 13293: 13273: 13253: 13201: 13183: 13160: 13140: 13120: 13100: 13082: 13048: 13026: 13002: 12978: 12954: 12934: 12914: 12890: 12870: 12850: 12832: 12808: 12784: 12761: 12741: 12721: 12701: 12654: 12634: 12599: 12575: 12555: 12506:, Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India 12489: 12467: 12459: 12451: 12440: 12420: 12393: 12360: 12339: 12319: 12288: 12264: 12246: 12219: 12196: 12169: 12149: 12126: 12102: 12078: 12054: 12008: 11975: 11944: 11924: 11881: 11857: 11834: 11816: 11812: 11789: 11750: 11726: 11704: 11690: 11677: 11657: 11626: 11603: 11599:

Shared Characters in Jain, Buddhist and Hindu Narrative: Gods, Kings and Other Heroes

11583: 11331: 11284: 11112: 11102: 10975: 10933: 10903: 10844: 10817: 10764: 9282: 8757: 6792: 5436: 5432: 5420: 5076:, constructed a Jain temple, even though he was not a Jain. During the 11th century, 4675: 4602: 3943: 2611:. Śvētāmbara (white-clad) monastics, on the other hand, wear seamless white clothes. 2471: 2233: 2057:

The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being

1754: 1557: 1550: 1462: 1191:, the first two are indirect knowledge and the remaining three are direct knowledge. 1099: 902: 737: 731: 303: 247: 242: 183: 171: 103: 18655: 18253: 17913: 17667: 15187: 13950:

Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture

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A Thousand Petalled Lotus: Jain Temples of Rajasthan: Architecture & Iconography

12355:(2002), "Terapanth Śvētāmbara Jain Tradition", in Melton, J.G.; Baumann, G. (eds.), 10058: 5604:(fasting on the 8th and 14th days on lunar waxing and waning cycles). The fourth is 4056: 1396: 1027: 963: 198: 21217: 21145: 21027: 20924: 20536: 20496: 20444: 20439: 20356: 20326: 20236: 20126: 19990: 19942: 19937: 19501: 19466: 19439: 19197: 19182: 19057: 18981: 18831: 18809: 18717: 18578: 18357: 18320: 18176: 18161: 18109: 17903: 17883: 17851: 17846: 17817: 17812: 17736: 17726: 17555: 17519: 17511: 17482: 17395: 17315: 17310: 17273: 17263: 17189: 17127: 16969: 16806: 16656: 16314: 16080: 16052: 15959: 15883: 15778: 15765: 15710: 15675: 15518: 15413: 15364: 15354: 15247: 15236: 15221: 15211: 15202: 15160: 15148: 14694: 14543: 14411: 13613: 13554: 13516:, (in Prakrit and English) Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series (vol-19), Mumbai: 13326: 13223: 13070: 12691: 12374: 12028: 12000: 11903: 10967: 8749: 5659: 5486: 5440: 5408: 5380: 5362: 5332: 5073: 5047: 4986: 4959: 4445: 4377: 4312: 4174: 4147: 4062: 3904: 3893: 3846: 3813: 3562: 3017: 2959: 2507: 2502: 2494: 2325: 1882: 1587: 1569: 1485: 1200: 1045: 1013: 975: 879: 846: 830: 777: 679: 637: 604: 527: 512: 502: 406: 133: 118: 113: 108: 32: 18794: 6401: 4452:. This statue was voted first in the SMS poll Seven Wonders of India conducted by 4399: 3978: 2253:

achieved. Out of the 24 tirthankaras, Jains predominantly worship four: Mahāvīra,

21196: 19825: 19805: 19295: 19187: 19177: 18846: 18514: 18305: 18285: 18216: 18181: 18114: 17834: 17807: 17782: 17731: 17709: 17502: 17445: 17216: 16733: 16534: 16460: 16400: 16355: 16324: 16223: 16074: 16004: 15979: 15685: 15680: 15665: 15645: 15483: 15475: 15401: 15336: 15096: 15011: 14918: 14888: 14858: 14828: 14786: 14741: 14737: 14718: 14698: 14671: 14651: 14631: 14584: 14564: 14537: 14506: 14479: 14459: 14439: 14379: 14359: 14326:

The Metaphysics of Paradox: Jainism, Absolute Relativity, and Religious Pluralism

14300: 14232: 14212: 14192: 14172: 14152: 14125: 14105: 14081: 14054: 14034: 14010: 13972: 13948: 13924: 13901: 13858: 13834: 13814: 13810: 13790: 13770: 13759: 13735: 13691: 13681: 13661: 13641: 13617: 13594: 13571: 13535: 13493: 13465: 13438: 13411: 13390: 13370: 13350: 13330: 13307: 13287: 13267: 13243: 13177: 13173: 13154: 13134: 13114: 13090: 12992: 12968: 12948: 12928: 12904: 12884: 12864: 12822: 12798: 12778: 12774: 12755: 12715: 12695: 12648: 12628: 12589: 12569: 12479: 12434: 12410: 12333: 12313: 12302: 12278: 12236: 12213: 12192: 12186: 12182: 12163: 12143: 12116: 12092: 12068: 12048: 11965: 11957: 11938: 11918: 11907: 11871: 11851: 11806: 11802: 11779: 11763: 11740: 11694: 11671: 11651: 11640: 11620: 11597: 11577: 11499: 11432: 11278: 11146: 11067: 10927: 10897: 10867: 9929: 5510: 5272: 5262: 5230: 5148: 5144: 5093: 4891: 4715:, heaven, the human world and hell. The semi-circular topmost portion symbolizes 4589: 4463: 4116: 3984: 3916: 3690: 3093: 2709: 2666: 2579: 2530: 2486: 2275: 2194:

in a Jain temple and doing charity work. According to Johnson, as well as Jaini,

2165: 2118: 892: 873: 697:, whom the tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago, the twenty-third 592: 507: 376: 362: 85: 10088: 4562:

is a condensed reference to the initials "A-A-A-U-M" of the five parameshthis: "

3923:, there are 26 caves, 200 stone beds, 60 inscriptions, and over 100 sculptures. 1783:

Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are called

1387:), and in the first eon the universe generates, and in the next it degenerates. 19947: 19840: 19780: 19496: 19471: 19256: 19160: 19042: 18986: 18939: 18352: 18300: 18196: 18166: 18146: 18141: 18136: 18119: 18015: 17935: 17918: 17871: 17861: 16905: 16568: 16551: 16370: 16350: 16319: 16096: 15994: 15969: 15783: 15700: 15670: 15604: 15538: 15506: 15493: 15488: 15433: 15299: 15294: 15153: 15138: 15068: 12687: 12389: 11896:

Gleanings from a Comparative Reading of Early Canonical Buddhist and Jain Texts

5528: 5462: 5396: 5097: 5043: 4996: 4967: 4361: 4340: 3885: 3838: 3626: 3291: 3023: 2854: 2798:

by the Śvētāmbara Jains, and a form of sonic resonance by the Digambara Jains.

2775: 2534: 2425: 2391: 2370: 2105:. The practice is believed to remove karma from one's soul and provides merit ( 2070: 1977: 1680: 1421: 1316: 788: 726: 441: 427: 413: 392: 257: 203: 143: 98: 17908: 17170: 15533: 15000:"Youngest Jain Sadhviji to Observe 285 Fasts in 11 Months – Muktavali Tapasya" 14415: 9127: 9125: 8806: 4903: 4826: 4152: 3256:

with various beings concentrically placed, is an important theme of Jain art.

3131: 2823: 993: 849:

is also home to a fast-growing community of converts. Major festivals include

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Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices

13074: 12357:

Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices

12209: 12012: 11847: 11428:"Delhi and Punjab richest states, Jain wealthiest community: National survey" 11116: 11018: 10979: 9286: 8761: 7206: 6796: 5548: 5538: 5163: 4901:

as the reinforcer of Jain Dharma in the current time cycle. It is one of the

4898: 4835: 4798:

599 – c. 527 BCE) are historical figures. Mahavira was a contemporary of the

4765: 4755: 4432: 4196: 4192: 3159: 3077:

within its premises in a place of honour, while temple complexes such as the

2979: 2677: 2563: 2262: 2170: 1904: 1602: 1445: 1122:

or the word of scriptures). These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such as

922: 842: 786:(the function of souls is to help one another) is the faith's motto, and the 712: 287: 252: 217: 58: 18544: 15523: 12552:

A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English

12004: 11898:, vol. 26, Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 10660: 5823: 5415:(2.01%). Outside India, Jain communities can be found in most areas hosting 4601:

is a set of eight auspicious symbols: in the Digambara tradition, these are

4283: – Places associated with the lives of great men, such as: 2174:

is a practice of "brief periods in meditation" in Jainism that is a part of

1806: 385: 20010: 19912: 19773: 19461: 19456: 19434: 19424: 19305: 18737: 18672: 18615: 18600: 18566: 18191: 18099: 17137: 17028: 17023: 16874: 16844: 16718: 16686: 16434: 16405: 16392: 16057: 16047: 15655: 15566: 15561: 15548: 15498: 15465: 15428: 15131: 15121: 14973: 13882: 12259:

Dundas, Paul (2003a), "Jainism and Buddhism", in Buswell, Robert E. (ed.),

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A Comprehensive History of Jainism: From the Earliest Beginnings to AD 1000

10971: 10937: 10754: 9271:"Plant Souls in Jainism and Manichaeism The Case for Cultural Transmission" 9122: 9079: 9043: 8399: 5337: 5061: 5016: 4919: 4784: 4682: 4597: 4505: 4473: 4441: 3948: 3842: 3722: 3275: 3267: 3263: 3248: 3239: 3155: 3039:

where all souls are identical as Brahman and posited as interconnected one

2991: 2951: 2918: 2848: 2794: 2619: 2254: 2207: 1830: 1622: 1179: 1166: 909: 768: 701: 694: 562: 292: 262: 123: 93: 18238: 16925: 15237: 14807: 13559: 13286:

Matilal, Bimal Krishna (1998), Ganeri, Jonardon; Tiwari, Heeraman (eds.),

12591:

Religions in Focus: New Approaches to Tradition and Contemporary Practices

11096: 11065: 8550: 7457: 7257: 5340:, were flawed and ignored similar practices within sects of Christianity. 3311:

is associated with distinctive emblems, which are listed in such texts as

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Reality (English Translation of Srimat Pujyapadacharya's Sarvarthasiddhi)

14355: 12232: 11961: 9532: 9250: 6863: 6389: 5543: 5350: 5345: 5304: 5223: 5159:(1325–1351) according to the Jain chronicles favoured the Jain scholars. 5132: 5089: 5039: 5026:

The third century BCE emperor Ashoka, in his pillar edicts, mentions the

4937: 4911:, and according to the twentieth-century scholar of comparative religion 4894:

of obscure origins. Jains claim it to be eternal, and consider the first

4760: 4324: 4236: 4204: 3939: 3875: 3826: 3332: 3228: 3101: 3097: 3015:("no eternal self or soul"). Hinduism incorporates an eternal unchanging 2652: 2520: 2519:). Jain temples, homes, offices, and shops are decorated with lights and 2364:

Traditional Jains, like Buddhists and Hindus, believe in the efficacy of

1698: 1598: 1342: 1184: 1051: 552: 448: 334: 282: 138: 19251: 19192: 18295: 17716: 17550: 17099: 13389:

Miller, Christopher Patrick; Long, Jeffery D.; Reading, Michael (2019).

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Integrative Religious Education in Europe: A Study-of-Religions Approach

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Guardians of the Transcendent: An Ethnology of a Jain Ascetic Community

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Kishore, Kanika (16 June 2015), "Symbol and Image Worship in Jainism",

12780:

Gender and Salvation: Jain Debates on the Spiritual Liberation of Women

9270: 8917: 8769: 6602: 5443:, where more than 5,000 families have converted between 2010 and 2020. 5412: 5199: 5085: 4975: 4637: 4468: 4292: 4262: 4224: 4030: 3754: 3642: 3578: 3418: 3205:, are usually shown with them. The earliest known Jain image is in the 3089: 2932: 2914: 2872: 2860: 2754: 2641: 2572: 2465: 2463:

The last day involves a focused prayer and meditation session known as

2410: 2151: 2093:, and may be practiced according to one's ability. Digambaras fast for 1983: 1878: 1856: 1838: 1726: 1706:

multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahāvīra is about the nature of

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Brief View of the Caste System of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh

13269:

Logic, Language and Reality: Indian Philosophy and Contemporary Issues

13235: 12040: 8941: 8905: 7744: 4719:, a zone beyond the three realms. The Jain swastika and the symbol of 4515: 1079:). The true insight in Jain philosophy is considered as "faith in the 48: 19845: 19641: 19556: 19546: 19417: 19372: 19357: 19290: 19138: 18605: 18527: 18487: 18477: 18440: 18415: 18395: 18290: 18156: 18010: 18000: 17772: 17630: 17440: 17425: 17390: 17373: 17355: 17268: 17048: 16964: 16943: 16938: 16915: 16910: 16869: 16864: 16801: 16738: 16661: 16632: 16583: 16524: 16477: 16032: 15695: 15650: 15619: 15571: 15556: 15311: 15281: 15104: 15081: 14957: 13741: 13697: 13590: 13567: 13417: 13096: 13044: 13022: 12910: 12845:

Jambuvijaya, Muni (2002), Piotr Balcerowicz & Marek Mejor (ed.),

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Proselytization Revisited: Rights Talk, Free Markets and Culture Wars

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A History of Indian Literature, 500–1399: From Courtly to the Popular

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which affects one's rebirth, future well-being and causes suffering.

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and forecasts that the universe evolves without violating the law of

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Human Rights and the World's Major Religions: The Buddhist tradition

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The Open Court, Vol. 16, Nr. 4 "The Death of Mr. Virchand R. Gandhi"

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recreated the oldest-known Digambara Jain texts, including the four

2792:(heard knowledge). The spoken scriptural language is believed to be 2505:

is observed by Jains as the anniversary of Mahāvīra's attainment of

2249:(incarnation), but the highest state of omniscience that an ascetic 19648: 19392: 19382: 19237: 18727: 18707: 18534: 18410: 18265: 17839: 17593: 17533: 17452: 17360: 17347: 17325: 17305: 17283: 17278: 17258: 17198: 17165: 17104: 16948: 16933: 16811: 16772: 16728: 16519: 16456: 16360: 16263: 16218: 16106: 16101: 15614: 15588: 15321: 13227: 12032: 11395:"Thousands of Japanese making a smooth transition from Zen to Jain" 11309: 10521: 8847: 8845: 8264: 6979: 6977: 6975: 6973: 6420: 6418: 6416: 5523: 5504: 5195: 5175: 5152: 5112: 5069: 4791: 4705: 4631: 4626: 4545: 4493: 4489: 4405: 4373: 4248: 4244: 4216: 4120: 4034: 3858: 3706: 3658: 3514: 3482: 3402: 3354: 3234: 3197: 3113: 2971: 2963: 2837: 2760: 2693: 2341: 2270: 2217: 2066: 1453: 1379:(time) is without beginning and eternal; the cosmic wheel of time, 1220: 958: 762: 587: 297: 9281:(1/2). Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO): 21–44. 7618: 6749: 6747: 6745: 6743: 2676:

Excavations at Mathura revealed Jain statues from the time of the

2128: 2081:

Jains fast particularly during festivals. This practice is called

1946: 19917: 19521: 19486: 19407: 19320: 19261: 19165: 18868: 18722: 18472: 18425: 18310: 18186: 18005: 17472: 17246: 16796: 16762: 16605: 16306: 15455: 15231: 15226: 15197: 14974:"Jainism | Definition, Beliefs, History, Literature, & Facts" 14941: