International Seabed Authority

691:" to the 29th General Assembly of the International Seabed Authority (ISA) in Kingston, Jamaica. In his speech, President Whipps emphasized the importance of safeguarding the deep ocean from exploitation and modern-day colonialism. He highlighted Palau’s deep cultural and economic ties to the ocean and reiterated the call for an immediate moratorium on deep-sea mining, citing the associated environmental risks and uncertainties. In his speech he referred to the ocean as "Our greatest ally in our fight against climate change," highlighting its role as the largest carbon sink on the planet. He underscored the critical role deep ocean ecosystems play in global environmental health and advocated for prioritizing long-term sustainability over short-term economic gains. He urged the assembly to act responsibly on behalf of future generations, reinforcing the deep seabed’s status as the "common heritage of (hu)mankind." 600:

UNCLOS' foundational Article 136 principle "of common heritage to all mankind" to revise regulations and set conservation targets. In a 2018 Greenpeace Research Laboratories report the organization stressed the importance of protecting marine biodiversity from toxins released during seabed mining for natural gas and rare metals for photovoltaic cells. Greenpeace maintains the "pro-exploitation" ISA is not the appropriate authority to regulate deep sea mining (DSM). In 2019 Greenpeace activists protested outside the annual meeting of the International Seabed Authority in Jamaica, calling for a global ocean treaty to ban deep sea mining in ocean sanctuaries. Some of the activists had sailed to Jamaica aboard Greenpeace's ship, the Esperanza, which travelled from the "Lost City in the mid-Atlantic", an area Greenpeace says is threatened by exploratory mining the ISA authorized.

487: 771:. The sulphides are found around volcanic hot springs, especially in the western Pacific Ocean, while the crusts occur on oceanic ridges and elsewhere at several locations around the world. The Council decided in 2006 to prepare separate sets of regulations for sulphides and for crusts, with priority given to sulphides. It devoted most of its sessions in 2007 and 2008 to this task, but several issues remained unresolved. Chief among these were the definition and configuration of the area to be allocated to contractors for exploration, the fees to be paid to the Authority and the question of how to deal with any overlapping claims that might arise. Meanwhile, the Legal and Technical Commission reported progress on ferromanganese crusts. 615:(IISD), which covered past proceedings to maintain an independent record of the ISA. The decision came amid warnings from scientists that commercial ocean floor mining "would be “dangerous”, “reckless” and “irreversible” in its harm to the ecosystem. In its defense, the ISA said ENB's non-renewal was triggered by budget cuts. The Guardian also reported that Germany and environmentalists had raised questions about the lack of transparency by the ISA's Legal and Technical Commission (LTC), which conducts closed meetings to set standards and issue guidelines for seabed mining. 452: 440: 784:, in October 2007 produced a rationale and recommendations for the establishment of "preservation reference areas" in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, where nodule mining would be prohibited in order to leave the natural environment intact. In recent years, the ISA hosted workshops on enhancing the role of women in conducting deep-sea scientific studies, sustainable management of deep seabed resources, a series for Africa on resources and technologies for DSM and a session on sharing the economic benefits of DSM. 592: 796:, especially with regard to ferromanganese crusts and polymetallic sulphides, has picked up among several firms now operating in waters within the national zones of Papua New Guinea, Fiji and Tonga. Papua New Guinea was the first country in the world to grant commercial exploration licenses for seafloor massive sulphide deposits when it granted the initial license to Nautilus Minerals in 1997. Japan's new ocean policy emphasizes the need to develop 38: 635:

arguing that seabed mining was "predictable and manageable". Scientists and members of Lodge's staff objected to Lodge's appearance in a mining company video seeking investments in robotic exploration for minerals to manufacture electric vehicles. In the video, Lodge said his agency supported a 15-year exploration contract because "land-based resources are becoming increasingly difficult to access."

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Government of the Republic of Korea (24 June 2014); Institut français de recherche pour l’exploitation de la mer (Ifremer, France, 18 November 2014); the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources of Germany (6 May 2015); and the Government of India (26 September 2016) and the Government of the Republic of Poland (12 February 2018).

548:(COMRA) (China); Deep Ocean Resources Development Company (DORD) (Japan); Institut français de recherche pour l’exploitation de la mer (IFREMER) (France); the Government of India. In 2006, the Authority signed a 15-year contract with the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources of Germany. 663:

Because of these concerns, the United States pushed for modification of the Convention, obtaining a 1994 Agreement on Implementation that somewhat mitigates them and thus modifies the ISA's authority. Despite this change the United States has not ratified the Convention and so is not a member of ISA,

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Under UNCLOS, Part XI, Section 2. "The Area and its resources are the common heritage of mankind." As a result, ISA must ensure that activities in the Area are undertaken only for peaceful purposes and for the benefit of all humankind, with economic benefits shared equitably and special consideration

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In addition to its legislative work, the Authority organizes annual workshops on various aspects of seabed exploration, with emphasis on measures to protect the marine environment from any harmful consequences. It disseminates the results of these meetings through publications. Studies over several

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Fifteen-year exploration contracts for polymetallic nodules were also granted to G-TECH Sea Mineral Resources NV (Belgium) on 14 January 2013; Marawa Research and Exploration Ltd (Kiribati) on 19 January 2015; Ocean Mineral Singapore Pte Ltd on 22 January 2015; UK Seabed Resources Ltd (two contracts

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In 2008, the Authority received two new applications for authorization to explore for polymetallic nodules, coming for the first time from private firms in developing island nations of the Pacific. Sponsored by their respective governments, they were submitted by Nauru Ocean Resources Inc. and Tonga

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UNCLOS defines the international seabed area—the part under ISA jurisdiction—as "the seabed and ocean floor and the subsoil thereof, beyond the limits of national jurisdiction" UNCLOS outlines the areas of national jurisdiction as a "12 nautical-mile territorial sea; an exclusive economic zone of up

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The Assembly elects a Secretary-General to serve a four-year term as the ISA's chief administrative officer, oversee Authority staff and issue an annual report to the Assembly. The Secretary-General is prohibited from holding a financial interest in any mining operations authorized by the Authority.

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and hydrothermal deposits within Japan's exclusive economic zone and calls for the commercialization of these resources within the next 10 years. Reporting on these developments in his annual report to the Authority in April 2008, Secretary-General Nandan referred also to the upward trend in demand

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The Authority has signed seven contracts for the exploration for polymetallic sulphides in the South West Indian Ridge, Central Indian Ridge and Mid-Atlantic Ridge with China Ocean Mineral Resources Research and Development Association (18 November 2011); the Government of Russia (29 October 2012);

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Although the ISA has yet to approve commercial mining contracts, the Authority anticipates commercial mining could begin as early as 2023–2024 with the completion of much-debated ISA regulations. In 2021, the Pacific Island nation of Nauru triggered a deadline that requires the ISA to approve final

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The 36-member Council, elected by the Assembly, authorizes contracts with governments and private corporations to explore and mine the international seabed and sets rules and procedures, subject to the Assembly's approval, for ISA governance. The council also nominates a Secretary-General, who then

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was the first country to call for a moratorium, or precautionary pause, on deep-sea mining until the impact of such a practice is better understood. By July 10, 2023, 17 countries had called for a deep-sea mining moratorium or pause, including Germany, New Zealand, Spain, France, Sweden, Fiji, and

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The exact nature of the ISA's mission and authority has been questioned by opponents of the Law of the Sea Treaty who are generally skeptical of multilateral engagement by the United States. In 2007, although the US Senate Foreign Relations Committee voted in favor of treaty ratification, the full

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In 2006 the Authority established an Endowment Fund to Support Collaborative Marine Scientific Research on the International Seabed Area. The Fund will aid experienced scientists and technicians from developing countries to participate in deep-sea research organized by international and national

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In 2013, the ISA approved amendments to its Mining Code on deep sea exploration, stating a prospector should take a precautionary approach to avoid polluting the ocean and should immediately inform the Secretary-General of any prospect-related incidents that threaten the marine environment. The

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The environmental organization Greenpeace has raised objections about deep seabed mining disrupting the habitats of newly reported species, from crabs to whales to snails that survive without eating and congregate near bioluminescent thermal vents. Greenpeace has urged the ISA to further develop

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As an observer, not an UNCLOS signatory, the U.S. will not be allowed to vote on approval of final commercial mining regulations and will be unable to sponsor companies to apply for contracts in international waters. This is because the ISA requires contractors be sponsored by a state that is a

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In 2001-2002 the ISA signed contracts with Yuzhmorgeologya (Russian Federation); Interoceanmetal Joint Organization (IOM) (Bulgaria, Cuba, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Poland and Russian Federation); the Government of the Republic of Korea; China Ocean Minerals Research and Development Association

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or trillions of potato-size lumps of matter formed over millions of years that contain nickel, manganese, copper, zinc and cobalt, as well as deep water coral, sponges and unusual species ("ghost octopus", crustaceans, worms and sea cucumbers) that in a near light-less environment attach to the

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reported that the ISA was scheduled to approve seabed mining, despite concerns by scientists and environmentalists about the environmental impact. ISA head Michael Lodge had criticized these groups, saying there was "a growing environmental absolutism and dogmatism bordering on fanaticism" and

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The Authority holds five contracts for the exploration of cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts in the Western Pacific Ocean with China Ocean Mineral Resources Research and Development Association (29 April 2014); Japan Oil Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC, 27 January 2014); Ministry of

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The Assembly, which consists of all members of the Authority, elects the 36-member Council, as well as the Secretary-General from among candidates the Council recommends. The Assembly also has the power to approve or reject the council's recommendations for the following: rules and regulations

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Environmentalists, scientists from 44 countries, Google, BMW and Volvo, World Wildlife Fund and several Pacific nations, including Fiji and Papua New Guinea, have called for a moratorium on deep-sea mining until more scientific research is conducted on its impact on the marine environment.

290:, on 16 November 1994, the day the Convention came into force. The articles governing the Authority have been made "noting the political and economic changes, including market-oriented approaches, affecting the implementation" of the convention. The Authority obtained its 393:

Also established is a 30-member Legal and Technical Commission which advises the Council and a 15-member Finance Committee that deals with budgetary and related matters. All members are experts nominated by governments and elected to serve in their individual capacity.

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years covering the key mineral area of the Central Pacific resulted in a technical study on biodiversity, species ranges and gene flow in the abyssal Pacific nodule province, with emphasis on predicting and managing the impacts of deep seabed mining A workshop at

808:). In 2020, an international coalition of environmental groups urged the government of Norway to not only abandon plans for deep sea mining under national jurisdiction, but to also speak out against DSM Arctic mining before the International Seaboard Authority. 298:. The Authority operates by contracting with private and public corporations and other entities authorizing them to explore, and potentially exploit, specified areas on the deep seabed for mineral resources, such as cobalt, nickel and manganese. 261:

contain copper, cobalt and other minerals essential for powering electric batteries. To date, the Authority has not authorized any commercial mining contracts as it continues to deliberate over regulations amid global calls for a moratorium on

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Senate failed to ratify the treaty, with some Republicans arguing UNCLOS might threaten national security by interfering with ocean military operations and hinder seabed mining corporations by imposing environmental regulations.

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is naturally prolonged beyond that limit, in which case it may claim up to 350 nautical miles (650 km). ISA has no role in determining this boundary. Rather, this task is left to another body established by UNCLOS, the

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The number of countries against the imminent start of mining for metallic nodules on the seafloor increased to 32 during the 29th ISA annual assembly, with Austria, Guatemala, Honduras, Malta, and Tuvalu joining the list.

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Along with a Secretary-General, two principal organs establish the policies and govern the work of the Authority: the Assembly, in which all UNCLOS parties are represented, and a 36-member Council elected by the Assembly.

245:, defined as waters below 200 meters (656 feet), where photosynthesis is hampered by inadequate light. Governing approximately half of the total area of the world's oceans, the ISA oversees activities that might threaten 801:

and prices for cobalt, copper, nickel and manganese, the main metals that would be derived from seabed mining, and he noted that technologies being developed for offshore extraction could be adapted for deep sea mining.

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Each contractor is required to develop a contingency plan should something go wrong during exploration, report annually on its activities in its assigned area and propose a training program for developing countries .

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Funded by UNCLOS members and mining contractors, the Authority operates as an autonomous international organization with its own Assembly, Council, and Secretariat. The current Secretary-General of the agency is

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institutions. A campaign was launched in February 2008 to identify participants, establish a network of cooperating bodies and seek outside funds to augment the initial $ 3 million endowment from the Authority.

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Since its inception in 1994, the ISA has approved over two dozen ocean floor mining exploration contracts in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. The majority of these contracts are for exploration in the

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One of the main anti-ratification arguments being a charge that the ISA is flawed or unnecessary. In its original form, the Convention included certain provisions that some found objectionable, such as:

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Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation (10 March 2015), Companhia De Pesquisa de Recursos Minerais (9 November 2015) and the Government of the Republic of Korea (27 March 2018).

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which is to serve as the Authority's own mining operator, potentially generating "hundreds of millions of dollars in royalties" to be shared with developing nations." The environmental organization

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and its 1994 Agreement on Implementation. The ISA's dual mission is to authorize and control the development of mineral related operations in the international seabed, which is considered the "

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Recently, there has been much interest in the possibility of exploiting seabed resources in the Arctic Ocean, bordered by Canada, Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Russia and the United States (see

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Offshore Mining Limited. A 15-year exploration contract was granted by the Authority to Nauru Ocean Resources Inc. on 22 July 2011 and to Tonga Offshore Mining Limited on 12 January 2012.

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The ISA has signed 15-year contracts for exploration with 22 contractors seeking polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulphides and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts in the deep seabed.

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The Authority's main legislative accomplishment has been the adoption, in the year 2000, of regulations governing exploration for polymetallic nodules. These resources, also called

1290: 950:"Seabed Council Hears Report of Finance Committee; Approves by Decision US$ 17 Million Budget for Authority for 2017–2018; Recommends Working Capital Fund Increase to $ 660,000" 2585: 1142: 3671: 2752: 455:

Clarion Clipperton Zone, 1.7 million square miles between Hawaii and Mexico, known for ocean floor nodules of cobalt, nickel, manganese and copper, as well as unusual species

241:", and to protect the ecosystem of the seabed, ocean floor and subsoil in "The Area" beyond national jurisdiction. The ISA is responsible for safeguarding the international 1520: 1180: 2381: 845:

OceanAction17746 – Enhancing the assessment of essential ecological functions of the deep sea oceans through long-term underwater oceanographic observatories in the Area;

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OceanAction17776 – Enhancing deep sea marine biodiversity assessment through the creation of online taxonomic atlases linked to deep sea mining activities in the Area

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on 8 February 2013 and 29 March 2016 respectively); Cook Islands Investment Corporation on 15 July 2016 and more recently China Minmetals Corporation on 12 May 2017.

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Statement by the Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority to the Eighteenth Meeting of States Parties to the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea.

1219: 2714: 498:(CCZ), in the Equatorial North Pacific Ocean, south and southeast of Hawaii, between Hawaii and Mexico. The quiet CCZ, as wide as the continental U.S., is home to 410:

has expressed concerns over the ISA's alleged conflict of interest as both regulator and business operator, though the ISA denies the conflict of interest charge.

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rock-like nodules for shelter. Contractors want to mine polymetallic nodules for battery storage for electric vehicles, smartphones, and solar and wind energy.

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Report of the Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority under article 166, paragraph 4, of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.

997: 3422: 1732: 3573: 3079: 274:, who was elected in 2016. On August 2, 2024, the ISA voted 79-34 to remove Lodge from his position because of his ties to private industry. Oceanographer 3321: 2774: 2466: 1543:"Decision of the Assembly of the International Seabed Authority Concerning the Appointment of the Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority" 1542: 1035: 1940: 1490: 612: 478:

Exploratory mining involves "deep-sea mapping, manned submersibles or remotely-operated vehicles, photographic and video systems, and drilling devices."

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must be elected by the full Assembly to serve a four-year term. The ISA's annual plenary sessions, which usually last two weeks, are held in Kingston.

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ISA Secretary-General Michael Lodge said Greenpeace's support for a global ocean treaty, not the ISA, to control deep sea mining did not make sense.

433: 266:. Scientists and environmentalists warn that such mining could wreak havoc on the ocean, a crucial carbon sink and home to rare and diverse species. 2444: 1260: 842:

OceanAction16494 – Fostering cooperation to promote the sustainable development of Africa's deep seabed resources in support of Africas Blue Economy

3111: 2875: 2715:"Opponents who argue UNCLOS would impose U.N. law on U.S. ignore long negotiation history and U.S. leadership in writing treaty | UNCLOSdebate.org" 2245: 2226: 1447: 3187: 3149: 3130: 2930: 3432: 858: 581:

Advocates for deep sea mining argue extraction of rare metals is critical for electric car batteries necessary to develop a fossil-free economy.

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Biodiversity, species ranges, and gene flow in the abyssal Pacific nodule province: predicting and managing the impacts of deep seabed mining.

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OceanAction15796 – Encouraging dissemination of research results through the ISA Secretary-General Award for Excellence in Deep-Sea Research

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Regulate deep seabed mining and ensure the marine environment is protected from any harmful effects which may arise from mining activities

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Statement of the President of the Council of the International Seabed Authority on the work of the Council during the fourteenth session.

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signatory to UNCLOS. U.S.-based military contractor Lockheed Martin, however, is participating in two British deep sea mining projects.

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Report on the International Seabed Authority's workshop on polymetallic nodule mining technology: current status and challenges ahead.

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Exploration contracts for polymetallic nodules have also been issued for contractors operating in the Central Indian Ocean Basin and

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In July 2019, the ISA's Legal and Trade Commission prepared "Draft regulations on exploitation of mineral resources in the Area."

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In response to criticism, ISA Secretary-General Michael Lodge defended ISA as a "transparent public forum of consensus-building."

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Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982

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governing seabed mining, distribution of financial benefits accrued from authorized mining and the Authority's annual budget.

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In 2022, The Guardian reported the ISA failed to renew the contract for Earth Negotiations Bulletin (ENB), a division of the

3495: 3466: 2667: 1283:"ISA Member States and contractors make contributions to the voluntary trust funds of ISA | International Seabed Authority" 3234: 2989:

Website of the Centre for Energy, Petroleum and Mineral Law and Policy (CEPMLP), volume 10, abstract 2 (18 December 2001).

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amended regulations also said a contractor can recover "a reasonable amount of material" for testing but not for sale.

2972: 2916: 2498:"An Overview of Seabed Mining Including the Current State of Development, Environmental Impacts, and Knowledge Gaps" 2998:

The University of Dundee (United Kingdom). Article on the Regulations (2001) by Michael W. Lodge, chief of the ISA

2689: 927: 805: 2775:"The 1994 Agreement explicitly dealt with and resolved concerns U.S. had with ratifying UNCLOS | UNCLOSdebate.org" 3419: 3343: 2642: 1724: 1394: 1367: 1337: 1312: 1060:

Chronological lists of ratifications of, accessions and successions to the Convention and the related Agreements.

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In 2012, the Authority adopted Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Crusts.

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The Authority has a Secretariat of 37 authorized posts and a 2022 biennial budget of approximately $ 10,000,000.

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Workshop on Designing Marine Protected Areas for Seamounts and the Abyssal Nodule Province in Pacific High Seas.

1613:"ISA Assembly elects Ms. Leticia Carvalho of Brazil as a new Secretary-General - International Seabed Authority" 978: 3525: 3505: 3313: 3046: 1553: 1513:"Statement on the passing of former ISA Secretary-General Nii Allotey Odunton | International Seabed Authority" 1482: 1027: 230: 77: 1932: 728:. They occur as potato-sized lumps scattered about on the surface of the ocean floor, mainly in the central 1773: 3538: 949: 899: 470:

commercial mining regulations by July 2023 or allow contractors to mine under existing draft regulations.

3543: 2436: 1252: 1080:"What is the "deep" ocean? : Ocean Exploration Facts: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research" 238: 3108: 2242: 2223: 3553: 3489: 3184: 3146: 3127: 889: 1933:"The world is set to debate seabed mining regulations, but the U.S. will be on the outside looking in" 833:

OceanAction15467 – Enhancing the role of women in marine scientific research through capacity building

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in October 1996. The Authority has 167 members and the European Union, composed of all parties to the

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reported that the International Seabed Authority faced criticisms over conflicts of interest. The

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Tonga Offshore Mining Limited : application for approval of a plan of work for exploration.

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In 2017, the Authority registered seven voluntary commitments with the UN Oceans Conference for

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In 2010, the ISA adopted Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Polymetallic Sulphides.

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The Council of the Authority began work in August 2002 on another set of regulations, covering

516: 2266: 1725:"Nautilus Minerals Propose Joint Venture with the Enterprise | International Seabed Authority" 3445: 3016: 2803: 653: 512: 1864:"The Functions and Work of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf | Readings" 3568: 2382:"Deep-sea mining could start in two years after Pacific nation of Nauru gives UN ultimatum" 2050: 884: 520: 258: 2318: 1379: 451: 8: 1863: 684: 436:, which examines scientific data submitted by coastal states that claim a broader reach. 427:

to 200 nautical miles and a continental shelf", unless a nation can demonstrate that its

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was elected to replace Lodge and will serve as the Secretary-General from 2025 to 2028.

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Nauru Ocean Resources Inc.: application for approval of a plan of work for exploration.

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Investigation into manganese nodule mining on the seabed in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone

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Opponents argue seabed mining could wreak havoc on the world's oceans, which act as a

3458: 2529: 2080: 2068: 1694: 1587: 1427: 797: 527:, and contracts for exploration for cobalt-rich crusts in the Western Pacific Ocean. 428: 95: 2194: 1961: 1803: 3583: 3361: 2519: 2509: 2058: 879: 709: 499: 364: 275: 2496:

Miller, Kathryn A.; Thompson, Kirsten F.; Johnston, Paul; Santillo, David (2018).

1833: 3452: 3439: 3426: 3413: 3401: 3270: 3191: 3172: 3153: 3134: 3115: 2995: 2976: 2810: 2646: 2249: 2230: 2039:"Seabed mining is coming — bringing mineral riches and fears of epic extinctions" 1969: 1761: 1066: 869: 793: 664:

although it sends sizable delegations to participate in meetings as an observer.

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Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Polymetallic Nodules in the Area.

2745:"U.S. would be obligated to transfer technology under UNCLOS | UNCLOSdebate.org" 2659: 3578: 3242: 2288: 2131: 2101: 2063: 2038: 760: 444: 356: 233:

of 167 member states and the European Union. It was established under the 1982

2411:"Seabed regulator accused of deciding deep sea's future 'behind closed doors'" 1408:

Observer status for the International Seabed Authority in the General Assembly

1313:"International Seabed Authority elects new secretary-general Leticia Carvalho" 3640: 3212: 2533: 2514: 2497: 1591: 781: 729: 515:. The ISA has issued exploration contracts for polymetallic sulphides in the 352: 271: 158: 123: 110: 1580:"Agency Votes to Replace Official Accused of Rushing Start of Seabed Mining" 3017:"The Mining Code: Exploration Regulations | International Seabed Authority" 2969: 2931:"With deep-sea mining applications set to open, fears grow for the Pacific" 2072: 733: 330: 246: 16:

Intergovernmental body to regulate mineral-related activities on the seabed

1635:"International Seabed Authority | international organization | Britannica" 585: 2524: 2467:"One scientist's mission to save the 'super weird' snails under the sea" 443:

Member states represented in blue; observer states in yellow (note: the

2548:"Greenpeace ship sets sail to highlight risk of mining below the waves" 998:"Deep-sea mining is making the seabed the hottest real estate on Earth" 919: 407: 325:

There have been three Secretary-Generals since ISA's creation in 1996:

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Developing a Regulatory Framework for Mineral Exploitation in the Area

3347: 2957:"Nations join ranks to delay deep-sea mining approval by UN regulator" 2917:"Nations join ranks to delay deep-sea mining approval by UN regulator" 591: 2639: 1665:"The Legal and Technical Commission | International Seabed Authority" 982: 713: 3284:"Environmentalists call on Norway to stop plans for deep-sea mining" 3054: 839:

OceanAction16538 – Abyssal Initiative for Blue Growth (with UN-DESA)

3563: 242: 37: 2825:"Palau is the first nation to ratify treaty to protect high seas" 2165:"Minerals: Polymetallic Nodules | International Seabed Authority" 1424:

The Outlaw Ocean: Crime and Survival in the Last Untamed Frontier

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crusts, which are rich sources of such minerals as copper, iron,

756: 287: 1834:"Law of the Sea | international law [1982] | Britannica" 1143:"Secret deep sea mining data to reveal what lives in the abyss" 768: 725: 721: 717: 588:

absorbing a quarter of the world's carbon emissions each year.

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Fernandez, Surangel S. Whipps, Jr and Daniela (10 July 2023).

2495: 2437:"Seabed Mining May Solve Our Energy Crisis. But At What Cost?" 2008:"China leads the race to exploit deep sea minerals: U.N. body" 1477: 1475: 1473: 1253:"Seabed Mining May Solve Our Energy Crisis. But At What Cost?" 459: 286:

The Authority held its inaugural meeting in its host country,

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DEEP TROUBLE: The murky world of the deep sea mining industry

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in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone but with some deposits in the

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UN: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982).

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In August 2024 the ISA Assembly elected the oceanographer

1981: 205: 3314:"The Arctic This Week Take Five: Week of April 12, 2021" 2804:

U.S. Senate panel backs Law of the Sea treaty | Reuters.

2611:"U.N. deep sea mining body rejects Greenpeace criticism" 2289:"Exploration Contracts | International Seabed Authority" 2132:"Exploration Contracts | International Seabed Authority" 2102:"Exploration Contracts | International Seabed Authority" 1695:"The Finance Committee | International Seabed Authority" 1137: 1135: 367:

of Brazil as Secretary-General for the term 2025−-2028.

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Future financing of the International Seabed Authority

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Intergovernmental organizations established by treaty

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Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons

2195:"Exploration areas | International Seabed Authority" 1804:"Exploration areas | International Seabed Authority" 2263:"Contractors | International Seabed Authority" 787: 613:

International Institute for Sustainable Development

606: 3156:Document ISBA/14/C/7, prepared by the Secretariat. 2376: 2374: 621: 539: 402:The convention also established a body called the 3047:"ISBA/25/C/WP.1 | International Seabed Authority" 2851:"Deep Sea Mining Isn't a Viable Climate Solution" 2578:"Greenpeace, JET protest against deep sea mining" 1774:"UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF THE SEA" 865:Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf 861:(United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea) 595:Greenpeace's Esperanza. Photo: Jean-Pierre Bazard 434:Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf 3638: 2891:"Deep-sea mining's future rests on crucial vote" 1891: 1889: 981:. International Seabed Authority. Archived from 3407:Overview – Convention & Related Agreements. 2660:"U.S. Senate panel backs Law of the Sea treaty" 2371: 296:United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 3622:Organisation internationale de la Francophonie 530: 170:Assembly of the International Seabed Authority 3474: 3011: 3009: 3007: 2970:Mining Code | International Seabed Authority. 2823:Alberts, Elizabeth Claire (29 January 2024). 2405: 2403: 2159: 2157: 2096: 2094: 2092: 2090: 1886: 506: 3677:International organisations based in Jamaica 2874:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1361: 310: 235:UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 3080:"Summary report 25 February – 1 March 2019" 2649:National Center for Public Policy Research. 1247: 1245: 1214: 1212: 1210: 1208: 1206: 1204: 1202: 1200: 1198: 460:Exploration contracts and commercial mining 3617:Community of Portuguese Language Countries 3481: 3467: 3121: 3004: 2605: 2603: 2400: 2154: 2087: 995: 689:Upholding the Common Heritage of Humankind 481: 307:given to the needs of developing nations. 3662:United Nations General Assembly observers 2848: 2523: 2513: 2062: 2036: 1926: 1924: 1922: 1920: 1422:Urbina, Ian (2019). "The Next Frontier". 774: 639:United States' non-ratification of UNCLOS 573:Environmental concerns and climate crisis 3446:The Mining Code: Exploration Regulations 2252:Document ISBA/14/LTC/L.3, 21 April 2008. 2233:Document ISBA/14/LTC/L.2, 21 April 2008. 1242: 1195: 1055: 1053: 820: 672:Palau's advocacy against deep-sea mining 590: 485: 450: 438: 227:Autorité internationale des fonds marins 3074: 3072: 2822: 2600: 1352: page 10. Mr. Robertson 1110:"Home | International Seabed Authority" 3639: 3000:United Nations Office of Legal Affairs 2914: 2477:from the original on 10 September 2021 1917: 1577: 1421: 792:In recent years, however, interest in 687:of Palau delivered an address titled " 3462: 1050: 494:Most areas of exploration are in the 292:observer status to the United Nations 3273:Document ISBA/14/A/2, 14 April 2008. 3069: 1874:from the original on 4 December 2021 1448:"Summary report 17–21 February 2020" 1412: page 22. 24 October 1996. 680:the Federated States of Micronesia. 319: 3137:Document ISBA/14/C/11, 5 June 2008. 2690:"U.S. WILL NOT SIGN SEA LAW TREATY" 1090:from the original on 20 August 2022 13: 3534:Bank for International Settlements 3372:from the original on 28 April 2022 3294:from the original on 24 April 2022 3235:"| International Seabed Authority" 3205:"| International Seabed Authority" 3090:from the original on 24 April 2022 3027:from the original on 28 April 2022 2755:from the original on 22 April 2022 2725:from the original on 22 April 2022 2670:from the original on 20 April 2022 2621:from the original on 25 April 2022 2588:from the original on 24 April 2022 2558:from the original on 23 April 2022 2447:from the original on 21 April 2022 2349:"DEEP SEABED MINERALS CONTRACTORS" 2329:from the original on 2 August 2020 2299:from the original on 26 April 2022 2205:from the original on 22 April 2022 2175:from the original on 18 April 2021 2142:from the original on 26 April 2022 2112:from the original on 26 April 2022 2018:from the original on 23 April 2022 1943:from the original on 23 April 2022 1930: 1844:from the original on 29 April 2022 1814:from the original on 22 April 2022 1784:from the original on 22 April 2022 1735:from the original on 20 April 2022 1705:from the original on 28 April 2022 1675:from the original on 22 April 2022 1645:from the original on 19 April 2022 1523:from the original on 22 April 2022 1293:from the original on 31 March 2022 1263:from the original on 21 April 2022 1230:from the original on 19 April 2022 1183:from the original on 20 April 2022 1120:from the original on 21 April 2020 1038:from the original on 22 April 2022 1008:from the original on 28 April 2021 895:United Nations Trusteeship Council 388: 249:and harm the marine environment. 14: 3688: 3667:Organizations established in 1994 3388: 3324:from the original on 5 March 2022 2888: 2037:Heffernan, Olive (24 July 2019). 1493:from the original on 2 March 2022 811: 656:in addition to ISA administration 257:between Hawaii and Mexico, where 3442:(Greenpeace International, 2020) 3175:ISA Technical Study No. 3, 2007. 3084:IISD Earth Negotiations Bulletin 2915:Wright, Stephen (31 July 2024). 2785:from the original on 7 July 2022 1458:from the original on 24 May 2022 1452:IISD Earth Negotiations Bulletin 1426:. Alfred A. Knopf. p. 473. 930:from the original on 26 May 2023 806:Territorial claims in the Arctic 788:National trends in seabed mining 607:Concern over transparency issues 302:"Common Heritage of All Mankind" 36: 27: 3354: 3336: 3306: 3276: 3257: 3227: 3197: 3178: 3159: 3140: 3102: 3039: 2982: 2963: 2949: 2923: 2908: 2882: 2842: 2816: 2797: 2767: 2737: 2707: 2682: 2652: 2633: 2570: 2540: 2489: 2459: 2429: 2341: 2311: 2281: 2255: 2236: 2217: 2187: 2124: 2030: 2000: 1974: 1955: 1856: 1826: 1796: 1766: 1747: 1717: 1687: 1657: 1627: 1605: 1571: 1535: 1505: 1440: 1415: 1395:United Nations General Assembly 1388: 1368:United Nations General Assembly 1338:United Nations General Assembly 1331: 1305: 1275: 1165: 827:Sustainable Development Goal 14 622:Charges of conflict of interest 540:List of exploratory contractors 421: 229:) is a Kingston, Jamaica-based 183:United Nations General Assembly 3647:International Seabed Authority 3549:International Seabed Authority 3395:International Seabed Authority 2353:INTERNATIONAL SEABED AUTHORITY 1578:Lipton, Eric (2 August 2024). 1552:. 21 July 2016. Archived from 1550:International Seabed Authority 1149:. 24 July 2019. Archived from 1102: 1072: 1020: 996:Jon Copley (7 November 2020). 989: 971: 957:International Seabed Authority 942: 924:International Seabed Authority 912: 767:, silver and gold, as well as 703: 567: 473: 239:common heritage of all mankind 215:International Seabed Authority 78:Intergovernmental organization 22:International Seabed Authority 1: 1982:"The Clarion-Clipperton Zone" 1897:"The Clarion-Clipperton Zone" 1483:"UNCLOS - Part XI, Section 4" 1028:"UNCLOS - Part XI, Section 2" 905: 712:, contain varying amounts of 698: 659:Mandatory technology transfer 464: 397: 124:17.964767531°N 76.791708055°W 3539:International Criminal Court 2265:. Isa.org.jm. Archived from 979:"Documents and Publications" 900:Antarctic Treaty Secretariat 683:On July 29, 2024, President 7: 3544:International Monetary Fund 3490:International organizations 2829:Mongabay Environmental News 2502:Frontiers in Marine Science 852: 652:Use of collected money for 531:Requirements of contractors 370: 129:17.964767531; -76.791708055 10: 3693: 3554:World Customs Organization 2319:"中国大洋协会与国际海底管理局签订富钴结壳勘探合同" 2064:10.1038/d41586-019-02242-y 890:Seabed Arms Control Treaty 507:Other areas of exploration 379: 3657:Mining law and governance 3597: 3559:Inter-Parliamentary Union 3523: 3504: 413: 311:Governance and operations 281: 201: 188: 174: 164: 152: 139: 102: 91: 83: 73: 55: 47: 35: 26: 3589:World Trade Organization 3412:5 September 2023 at the 3269:17 December 2008 at the 3190:17 December 2008 at the 3133:17 December 2008 at the 2994:19 February 2008 at the 2809:14 February 2009 at the 2645:9 September 2018 at the 2515:10.3389/fmars.2017.00418 2248:17 December 2008 at the 2229:17 December 2008 at the 1868:Review of Island Studies 3612:Commonwealth of Nations 3194:Document ISBA/14/LTC/2. 3152:2 December 2008 at the 3118:New York, 16 June 2008. 3114:1 December 2008 at the 1962:Discovery and Formation 875:Clarion-Clipperton Zone 517:South West Indian Ridge 496:Clarion-Clipperton Zone 482:Clarion-Clipperton Zone 255:Clarion-Clipperton Zone 3425:11 August 2022 at the 2640:Law of the Sea Treaty. 1760:29 August 2022 at the 1084:oceanexplorer.noaa.gov 1069:UN: regularly updated. 775:Workshops and research 685:Surangel S. Whipps Jr. 596: 491: 456: 448: 447:also holds membership) 231:intergovernmental body 226: 61:; 29 years ago 3451:28 April 2022 at the 3438:12 April 2022 at the 3400:19 April 2022 at the 1968:31 March 2022 at the 1397: Session 51 1385: 17 August 1994. 1370: Session 48 1358: 7 October 1994. 1340: Session 49 1065:14 April 2009 at the 821:Voluntary commitments 654:wealth redistribution 594: 513:Western Pacific Ocean 489: 454: 442: 59:16 November 1994 3569:New Development Bank 3318:The Arctic Institute 3171:23 July 2008 at the 2779:www.unclosdebate.org 2749:www.unclosdebate.org 2719:www.unclosdebate.org 2473:. 26 February 2020. 885:International waters 880:Polymetallic nodules 521:Central Indian Ridge 500:polymetallic nodules 259:polymetallic nodules 247:biological diversity 3598:Cultural IGOs 2975:22 May 2008 at the 2666:. 31 October 2007. 2582:jamaica-gleaner.com 2055:2019Natur.571..465H 2014:. 23 October 2019. 342:Nii Allotey Odunton 120: / 23: 2694:The New York Times 2269:on 25 January 2013 1988:. 15 December 2017 1838:www.britannica.com 1639:www.britannica.com 1584:The New York Times 597: 525:Mid-Atlantic Ridge 492: 457: 449: 148:168 states parties 21: 3634: 3633: 3630: 3629: 3506:Intergovernmental 3350:on 30 April 2009. 3320:. 16 April 2021. 3290:. 12 April 2021. 2049:(7766): 465–468. 1383: A/RES/48/263 1226:. 19 April 2022. 1224:Los Angeles Times 710:manganese nodules 628:Los Angeles Times 429:continental shelf 320:Secretary-General 211: 210: 192:(2017 & 2018) 154:Secretary-General 3684: 3605: 3584:World Bank Group 3521: 3520: 3517: 3499: 3483: 3476: 3469: 3460: 3459: 3382: 3381: 3379: 3377: 3358: 3352: 3351: 3346:. 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