184:
actions of others are also affected by in-group favoritism. People may perceive the same action very differently depending on whether the action was executed by a member of the same group or a member of a different group. In fact, people tend to evaluate actions of their own group or team members much more favorably than those of outgroup members. An illustrative example of the way this phenomenon takes place can be demonstrated just by arbitrarily assigning a person to a distinct and objectively meaningless novel group; this alone is sufficient to create intergroup biases in which members of the perceiver's own group are preferentially favored. This phenomenon was demonstrated in an empirical study conducted by
Molenberghs and colleagues in 2013. In the study, participants were arbitrarily divided into two teams where they watched videos of individuals of competing teams and individuals from their own team perform hand actions. Participants were then asked to judge the speed of the hand movements. On average participants judged members of their own teams to be faster, although the hand movements were the exact same speed across the board. Similarly, Hastorf and Cantril conducted a pioneering study in 1954, where students of both Princeton and Dartmouth viewed a contentious football game between their two teams. Although they had watched the same motion picture of the game, their versions of what transpired were so starkly different it appeared as though they had watched two totally different games.
207:
expense of encoding individuating information. This suggests out-group or unfamiliar faces may not be "faces" with the same intensity as in-group faces. Prior research has also shown that the devaluation and dehumanization of outgroup members is exacerbated when the initial encoding and configural processing of an outgroup face is impeded. So not only does this initial encoding process dehumanize outgroup members, it also contributes to a homogeneity effect, whereby outgroup members are perceived as more similar to each other than ingroup members.
36:
231:
often accompanies in-group favoritism, as it requires one to have an affinity towards their in-group. Some research suggests that out-group derogation occurs when an out-group is perceived as blocking or hindering the goals of an in-group. It has also been argued that out-group derogation is a natural consequence of the categorization process.
198:
cross-race recognition study recorded blood oxygenation level-dependent signal (BOLD) activity from black and white participants while they viewed and attempted to remember pictures of unfamiliar black faces, white faces and objects. They found that participants in this study exhibited greater activity in the
222:
being diverse, e.g. "they are alike; we are diverse". This is especially likely to occur in regard to negative characteristics. Under certain conditions, in-group members can be perceived as being similar to one another in regard to positive characteristics. This effect is called in-group homogeneity.
206:
located in the inferior temporal cortex of the brain linked to object and face recognition, when viewing same race faces compared to other race faces. Lower activity in the FFA reflects a failure to encode outgroup members at the individual level rather than the categorical level, which comes at the
183:
This refers to the fact that under certain conditions, people will prefer and have affinity for one's in-group over the out-group, or anyone viewed as outside the in-group. This can be expressed in one's evaluation of others, linking, allocation of resources, and many other ways. How we perceive the
264:
This generally refers to the tendency of groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members, although polarization toward the most central beliefs has also been observed. It has been shown that this effect is related to a psychologically salient in-group and
230:
Discrimination between in-groups and out-groups is a matter of favoritism towards an in-group and the absence of equivalent favoritism towards an out-group. Out-group derogation is the phenomenon in which an out-group is perceived as being threatening to the members of an in-group. This phenomenon
221:
Categorization of people into social groups increases the perception that group members are similar to one another. An outcome of this is the out-group homogeneity effect. This refers to the perception of members of an out-group as being homogenous, while members of one's in-group are perceived as
197:
level, where in-group favoritism and out-group bias occurs very early in perception. This process can begin by simply viewing a person's face. Research indicates that individuals are faster and more accurate at recognizing faces of ingroup vs. outgroup members. For example, researchers in a
126:. Tajfel and colleagues found that people can form self-preferencing in-groups within a matter of minutes and that such groups can form even on the basis of completely arbitrary and invented discriminatory characteristics, such as preferences for certain paintings.
192:
Some may wonder why in-group favoritism takes place, even in arbitrarily assigned groups where group members have nothing in common other than the group to which they were assigned. Research points to unconscious decision-making processes that takes place at the
59:
Professionals on the field (players, officials, coaches, mascots and cheerleaders) vs. the paying customers in the stands who are denied access to the facility's secure nucleus except by invitation from a high-status
111:, sports team, political party, gender, sexual orientation, religion, or nation. It has been found that the psychological membership of social groups and categories is associated with a wide variety of phenomena.
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People have been shown to be differentially influenced by in-group members. That is, under conditions where group categorization is psychologically salient, people will shift their beliefs in line with in-group
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The psychological categorization of people into in-group and out-group members is associated with a variety of phenomena. The following examples have all received a great deal of academic attention.
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features of such systems. However, there is evidence that elements of favoritism are flexible in that they can be erased by changes in social categorization. One study in the field of
1609:
F. J. Gil-White (August–October 2001). "Are Ethnic Groups
Biological "Species" to the Human Brain? Essentialism in Our Cognition of Some Social Categories".
1346:
Quattrone, George A.; Jones, Edward E. (1980). "The perception of variability within in-groups and out-groups: Implications for the law of small numbers".
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Technical staff involved in facilities maintenance and operations vs. sporting staff (referees, timekeepers, statisticians and in-game adjudicators).
1494:
Zhong, Chen-Bo; Phillips, Katherine W.; Leonardelli, Geoffrey J.; Galinsky, Adam D. (2008). "Negational categorization and intergroup behavior".
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valence categories, where the exact membership of the in-group and out-group are socially contingent (hence vulnerable to the instruments of
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G. J. Lewis; T. C. Bates (November 2010). "Genetic
Evidence for Multiple Biological Mechanisms Underlying In-Group Favoritism".
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Media with organizational endorsement and affiliation who enjoy special player access to one team vs. non-affiliated media.
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Ranks of the wealthy ownership and their senior executive staff, with access to private box suites vs. high-priced talent.
407:
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Tajfel, Henri; Billig, M. G.; Bundy, R. P.; Flament, Claude (1971). "Social categorization and intergroup behaviour".
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Fans in attendance at the stadium vs. people spectating the match via external means, e.g. television/radio coverage.
133:, there is an established literature about the innate propensity of the human brain to divide the world into
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20:
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is a social group with which an individual does not identify. People may for example identify with their
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Molenberghs, Pascal; Halász, Veronika; Mattingley, Jason B.; Vanman, Eric J.; Cunnington, Ross (2013).
337:
92:
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122:. The significance of in-group and out-group categorization was identified using a method called the
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1419:
1207:"Scarcity disrupts the neural encoding of Black faces: A socioperceptual pathway to discrimination"
788:
960:
Golby, Alexandra J.; Gabrieli, John D. E.; Chiao, Joan Y.; Eberhardt, Jennifer L. (August 2001).
919:
367:
274:
1150:"Implicit Race Bias Decreases the Similarity of Neural Representations of Black and White Faces"
1017:"Individuation Motivation and Face Experience Can Operate Jointly to Produce the Own-Race Bias"
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123:
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suggests that biological mechanisms may exist which favor a coexistence of both flexible and
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Fans and professionals affiliated with one team vs. those affiliated with the opposing team.
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730:"Seeing is believing: Neural mechanisms of action–perception are biased by team membership"
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277:, in-group favoritism is seen as an evolved mechanism selected for the advantages of
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Race in the Making: Cognition, Culture, and the Child's
Construction of Human Kinds
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Ostrom, Thomas M.; Carpenter, Sandra L.; Sedikides, Constantine; Li, Fan (1993).
962:"Differential responses in the fusiform region to same-race and other-race faces"
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653:
432:
372:
35:
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Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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1417:(Fall 1999). "The Psychology of Prejudice: In-group Love and Out-group Hate?".
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L. Cosmides; J. Tooby; R. Kurzban (April 1, 2003). "Perceptions of race".
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Kubota, Jennifer T; Banaji, Mahzarin R; Phelps, Elizabeth A (July 2012).
1064:"Recognition of own-race and other-race faces by three-month-old infants"
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affiliation. It has been argued that characteristics such as gender and
1660:"Can race be erased? Coalitional computation and social categorization"
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Leyens, Jacques-Philippe; Yzerbyt, Vincent; Schadron, Georges (1994).
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and colleagues beginning in the 1970s during his work in formulating
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Brosch, Tobias; Bar-David, Eyal; Phelps, Elizabeth A. (2013-01-08).
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Tajfel, Henri; Billig, M. G.; Bundy, R. P.; Flament, Claude (1971).
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141:), and the intensity exists along a spectrum from mild to complete
977:
920:"Recognition of faces of ingroup and outgroup children and adults"
1449:; Rubin, Mark; Willis, Hazel (February 2002). "Intergroup Bias".
727:
382:
327:
1493:
1111:"Differential processing of in-group and out-group information"
618:
Tajfel, H. (1974). "Social identity and intergroup behaviour".
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fans and professionals vs. those who are not fans of the sport.
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662:. Penguin. pp. 38–39, 84–93, 116–117, 387–493, 570–632.
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The
Psychology of Prejudice: From Attitudes to Social Action
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514:
Tajfel, H. (1970). Experiments in
Intergroup Discrimination
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Neural mechanisms of in-group favoritism and out-group bias
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Neuroimaging
Personality, Social Cognition, and Character
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590:
1658:
R. Kurzban; J. Tooby; L. Cosmides (December 18, 2001).
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Sangrigoli, Sandy; de
Schonen, Scania (October 2004).
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Corenblum, B.; Meissner, Christian A. (March 2006).
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Behave: The
Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst
1253:
1205:Krosch, Amy R.; Amodio, David M. (November 2019).
39:Multiple layers of in-groups and out-groups in an
19:"Us and them" redirects here. For other uses, see
917:
878:"The Neural Mechanisms of Prejudice Intervention"
1761:
1581:
1015:Young, Steven G.; Hugenberg, Kurt (2011-05-31).
876:Senholzi, Keith B.; Kubota, Jennifer T. (2016),
789:"Social categorization and intergroup behaviour"
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1345:
1014:
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696:(9th, illustrated, revised ed.). London:
835:The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology
1349:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1211:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1204:
1115:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1021:Social Psychological and Personality Science
829:Hastorf, Albert H.; Cantril, Hadley (1954).
646:
46:People in this stadium form an in-group of
1497:Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
1068:Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
528:"Experiments in intergroup discrimination"
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1222:
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924:Journal of Experimental Child Psychology
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503:See "Kandinsky versus Klee experiment",
34:
1588:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Mit Press.
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690:; Akert, R. D.; Sommers, S. R. (2015).
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1465:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135109
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793:European Journal of Social Psychology
593:European Journal of Social Psychology
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179:You are either with us, or against us
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114:The terminology was made popular by
408:List of terms for ethnic out-groups
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95:as being a member. By contrast, an
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1391:American Psychological Association
950:
890:10.1016/b978-0-12-800935-2.00018-x
269:Postulated role in human evolution
14:
1806:
819:
714:
555:10.1038/scientificamerican1170-96
28:Ingroup and outgroup (cladistics)
1314:Stereotypes and Social Cognition
1080:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00319.x
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831:"They saw a game; a case study"
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1:
1553:10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00057-3
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1785:Prejudice and discrimination
1541:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
468:Social dominance orientation
7:
1621:University of Chicago Press
1452:Annual Review of Psychology
300:
26:For use in cladistics, see
10:
1811:
1383:Jackson, Lynne M. (2011).
1362:10.1037/0022-3514.38.1.141
1256:"The neuroscience of race"
936:10.1016/j.jecp.2005.09.001
632:10.1177/053901847401300204
620:Social Science Information
338:Basking in reflected glory
257:
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93:psychologically identifies
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18:
1582:L. A. Hirschfeld (1996).
1319:Thousand Oaks, California
1127:10.1037/0022-3514.64.1.21
265:outgroup categorization.
149:" group (such as through
1770:Sociological terminology
1735:10.1177/0956797610387439
1510:10.1177/0146167208315457
1420:Journal of Social Issues
1166:10.1177/0956797612451465
1033:10.1177/1948550611409759
1433:10.1111/0022-4537.00126
805:10.1002/ejsp.2420010202
605:10.1002/ejsp.2420010202
368:Common ingroup identity
285:are inflexible or even
275:evolutionary psychology
1687:10.1073/pnas.251541498
388:False consensus effect
202:(FFA), an area of the
124:minimal group paradigm
120:social identity theory
72:
1722:Psychological Science
1154:Psychological Science
363:Collective narcissism
38:
1612:Current Anthropology
1393:. pp. 110–112.
1325:. pp. 104–107.
526:Taijfel, H. (1970).
428:Paradox of tolerance
348:Benevolent prejudice
323:Ambivalent prejudice
313:Amity-enmity complex
291:behavioural genetics
226:Out-group derogation
217:Outgroup homogeneity
157:Associated phenomena
16:Sociological notions
1795:Collective identity
1678:2001PNAS...9815387K
1672:(26): 15387–15392.
1415:Brewer, Marilynn B.
1260:Nature Neuroscience
1224:10.1037/pspa0000168
966:Nature Neuroscience
734:Human Brain Mapping
547:1970SciAm.223e..96T
535:Scientific American
175:Closure (sociology)
171:In-group favoritism
165:In-group favoritism
1389:. Washington, DC:
260:Group polarization
254:Group polarization
200:fusiform face area
91:to which a person
73:
1729:(11): 1623–1628.
1323:SAGE Publications
899:978-0-12-800935-2
747:10.1002/hbm.22044
698:Pearson Education
693:Social psychology
669:978-1-59420-507-1
403:Hostile prejudice
353:Cultural identity
211:Group homogeneity
77:social psychology
48:American football
41:American football
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983:
979:
978:10.1038/90565
975:
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945:
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823:
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771:
766:
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748:
743:
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735:
731:
724:
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709:
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694:
689:
688:Wilson, T. D.
685:
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649:
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637:
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629:
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621:
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568:
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560:
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541:(5): 96–102.
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510:
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343:Belongingness
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68:
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37:
33:
29:
22:
1726:
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1604:
1584:
1577:
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1313:
1306:
1263:
1259:
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1214:
1210:
1200:
1157:
1153:
1143:
1121:(1): 21–34.
1118:
1114:
1104:
1071:
1067:
1057:
1027:(1): 80–87.
1024:
1020:
1010:
969:
965:
927:
923:
913:
903:, retrieved
881:
871:
838:
834:
796:
792:
782:
737:
733:
692:
678:
658:
648:
626:(2): 65–93.
623:
619:
613:
596:
592:
586:
575:the original
538:
534:
521:
507:
499:
482:
463:Social class
448:Scapegoating
413:Microculture
318:Antilocution
308:Allosemitism
295:essentialist
272:
263:
248:social norms
244:
229:
220:
195:neurological
191:
182:
160:
134:
128:
116:Henri Tajfel
113:
96:
89:social group
84:
74:
32:
1780:Dichotomies
1623:: 515–553.
1459:: 575–604.
684:Aronson, E.
418:Nationalism
135:us and them
60:individual.
21:Us and Them
1764:Categories
905:2020-12-07
512:(1971) in
492:References
473:Subculture
458:Shibboleth
398:Homophobia
393:Groupthink
169:See also:
139:propaganda
101:peer group
1370:0022-3514
1280:1097-6256
1233:1939-1315
1174:0956-7976
1135:1939-1315
1088:0021-9630
1049:145427030
1041:1948-5506
986:1097-6256
855:0096-851X
813:1099-0992
756:1097-0193
640:143666442
484:Uchi-soto
478:Tribalism
438:Prejudice
297:systems.
287:essential
283:ethnicity
279:coalition
131:neurology
109:community
97:out-group
81:sociology
1751:27351021
1743:20974715
1706:11742078
1645:53592867
1569:11343153
1561:12691766
1526:14610644
1518:18391025
1481:11830211
1473:11752497
1298:22735516
1241:31233317
1192:23300228
1096:15335342
1002:16699355
994:11477432
944:16243349
863:13128974
774:22290781
656:(2017).
563:24927662
423:Nepotism
378:Endogamy
358:Cronyism
301:See also
145:of the "
85:in-group
43:stadium:
1674:Bibcode
1289:3864590
1183:3864653
765:6870530
571:5482577
543:Bibcode
383:Elitism
328:Autarky
147:othered
1749:
1741:
1704:
1694:
1643:
1635:
1592:
1567:
1559:
1524:
1516:
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1397:
1368:
1329:
1296:
1286:
1278:
1239:
1231:
1190:
1180:
1172:
1133:
1094:
1086:
1047:
1039:
1000:
992:
984:
942:
896:
861:
853:
811:
772:
762:
754:
704:
666:
638:
569:
561:
509:et al.
505:Tajfel
453:Sexism
443:Racism
177:; and
105:family
1747:S2CID
1697:65039
1641:S2CID
1633:JSTOR
1619:(4).
1565:S2CID
1522:S2CID
1477:S2CID
1045:S2CID
998:S2CID
636:S2CID
578:(PDF)
559:JSTOR
531:(PDF)
87:is a
83:, an
1739:PMID
1702:PMID
1590:ISBN
1557:PMID
1514:PMID
1469:PMID
1395:ISBN
1366:ISSN
1327:ISBN
1294:PMID
1276:ISSN
1237:PMID
1229:ISSN
1188:PMID
1170:ISSN
1131:ISSN
1092:PMID
1084:ISSN
1037:ISSN
990:PMID
982:ISSN
940:PMID
894:ISBN
859:PMID
851:ISSN
809:ISSN
770:PMID
752:ISSN
702:ISBN
664:ISBN
567:PMID
79:and
1731:doi
1692:PMC
1682:doi
1625:doi
1549:doi
1506:doi
1461:doi
1429:doi
1358:doi
1284:PMC
1268:doi
1219:doi
1215:117
1178:PMC
1162:doi
1123:doi
1076:doi
1029:doi
974:doi
932:doi
886:doi
843:doi
801:doi
760:PMC
742:doi
628:doi
601:doi
551:doi
539:223
273:In
153:).
129:In
75:In
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