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actions of others are also affected by in-group favoritism. People may perceive the same action very differently depending on whether the action was executed by a member of the same group or a member of a different group. In fact, people tend to evaluate actions of their own group or team members much more favorably than those of outgroup members. An illustrative example of the way this phenomenon takes place can be demonstrated just by arbitrarily assigning a person to a distinct and objectively meaningless novel group; this alone is sufficient to create intergroup biases in which members of the perceiver's own group are preferentially favored. This phenomenon was demonstrated in an empirical study conducted by
Molenberghs and colleagues in 2013. In the study, participants were arbitrarily divided into two teams where they watched videos of individuals of competing teams and individuals from their own team perform hand actions. Participants were then asked to judge the speed of the hand movements. On average participants judged members of their own teams to be faster, although the hand movements were the exact same speed across the board. Similarly, Hastorf and Cantril conducted a pioneering study in 1954, where students of both Princeton and Dartmouth viewed a contentious football game between their two teams. Although they had watched the same motion picture of the game, their versions of what transpired were so starkly different it appeared as though they had watched two totally different games.
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expense of encoding individuating information. This suggests out-group or unfamiliar faces may not be "faces" with the same intensity as in-group faces. Prior research has also shown that the devaluation and dehumanization of outgroup members is exacerbated when the initial encoding and configural processing of an outgroup face is impeded. So not only does this initial encoding process dehumanize outgroup members, it also contributes to a homogeneity effect, whereby outgroup members are perceived as more similar to each other than ingroup members.
47:
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often accompanies in-group favoritism, as it requires one to have an affinity towards their in-group. Some research suggests that out-group derogation occurs when an out-group is perceived as blocking or hindering the goals of an in-group. It has also been argued that out-group derogation is a natural consequence of the categorization process.
209:
cross-race recognition study recorded blood oxygenation level-dependent signal (BOLD) activity from black and white participants while they viewed and attempted to remember pictures of unfamiliar black faces, white faces and objects. They found that participants in this study exhibited greater activity in the
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being diverse, e.g. "they are alike; we are diverse". This is especially likely to occur in regard to negative characteristics. Under certain conditions, in-group members can be perceived as being similar to one another in regard to positive characteristics. This effect is called in-group homogeneity.
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located in the inferior temporal cortex of the brain linked to object and face recognition, when viewing same race faces compared to other race faces. Lower activity in the FFA reflects a failure to encode outgroup members at the individual level rather than the categorical level, which comes at the
194:
This refers to the fact that under certain conditions, people will prefer and have affinity for one's in-group over the out-group, or anyone viewed as outside the in-group. This can be expressed in one's evaluation of others, linking, allocation of resources, and many other ways. How we perceive the
275:
This generally refers to the tendency of groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members, although polarization toward the most central beliefs has also been observed. It has been shown that this effect is related to a psychologically salient in-group and
241:
Discrimination between in-groups and out-groups is a matter of favoritism towards an in-group and the absence of equivalent favoritism towards an out-group. Out-group derogation is the phenomenon in which an out-group is perceived as being threatening to the members of an in-group. This phenomenon
232:
Categorization of people into social groups increases the perception that group members are similar to one another. An outcome of this is the out-group homogeneity effect. This refers to the perception of members of an out-group as being homogenous, while members of one's in-group are perceived as
208:
level, where in-group favoritism and out-group bias occurs very early in perception. This process can begin by simply viewing a person's face. Research indicates that individuals are faster and more accurate at recognizing faces of ingroup vs. outgroup members. For example, researchers in a
137:. Tajfel and colleagues found that people can form self-preferencing in-groups within a matter of minutes and that such groups can form even on the basis of completely arbitrary and invented discriminatory characteristics, such as preferences for certain paintings.
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Some may wonder why in-group favoritism takes place, even in arbitrarily assigned groups where group members have nothing in common other than the group to which they were assigned. Research points to unconscious decision-making processes that takes place at the
70:
Professionals on the field (players, officials, coaches, mascots and cheerleaders) vs. the paying customers in the stands who are denied access to the facility's secure nucleus except by invitation from a high-status
122:, sports team, political party, gender, sexual orientation, religion, or nation. It has been found that the psychological membership of social groups and categories is associated with a wide variety of phenomena.
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People have been shown to be differentially influenced by in-group members. That is, under conditions where group categorization is psychologically salient, people will shift their beliefs in line with in-group
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The psychological categorization of people into in-group and out-group members is associated with a variety of phenomena. The following examples have all received a great deal of academic attention.
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features of such systems. However, there is evidence that elements of favoritism are flexible in that they can be erased by changes in social categorization. One study in the field of
1620:
F. J. Gil-White (August–October 2001). "Are Ethnic Groups
Biological "Species" to the Human Brain? Essentialism in Our Cognition of Some Social Categories".
1357:
Quattrone, George A.; Jones, Edward E. (1980). "The perception of variability within in-groups and out-groups: Implications for the law of small numbers".
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Technical staff involved in facilities maintenance and operations vs. sporting staff (referees, timekeepers, statisticians and in-game adjudicators).
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Zhong, Chen-Bo; Phillips, Katherine W.; Leonardelli, Geoffrey J.; Galinsky, Adam D. (2008). "Negational categorization and intergroup behavior".
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valence categories, where the exact membership of the in-group and out-group are socially contingent (hence vulnerable to the instruments of
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G. J. Lewis; T. C. Bates (November 2010). "Genetic
Evidence for Multiple Biological Mechanisms Underlying In-Group Favoritism".
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Media with organizational endorsement and affiliation who enjoy special player access to one team vs. non-affiliated media.
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Ranks of the wealthy ownership and their senior executive staff, with access to private box suites vs. high-priced talent.
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Tajfel, Henri; Billig, M. G.; Bundy, R. P.; Flament, Claude (1971). "Social categorization and intergroup behaviour".
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Fans in attendance at the stadium vs. people spectating the match via external means, e.g. television/radio coverage.
144:, there is an established literature about the innate propensity of the human brain to divide the world into
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is a social group with which an individual does not identify. People may for example identify with their
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Molenberghs, Pascal; Halász, Veronika; Mattingley, Jason B.; Vanman, Eric J.; Cunnington, Ross (2013).
348:
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133:. The significance of in-group and out-group categorization was identified using a method called the
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1430:
1218:"Scarcity disrupts the neural encoding of Black faces: A socioperceptual pathway to discrimination"
17:
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Golby, Alexandra J.; Gabrieli, John D. E.; Chiao, Joan Y.; Eberhardt, Jennifer L. (August 2001).
930:
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1161:"Implicit Race Bias Decreases the Similarity of Neural Representations of Black and White Faces"
1028:"Individuation Motivation and Face Experience Can Operate Jointly to Produce the Own-Race Bias"
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suggests that biological mechanisms may exist which favor a coexistence of both flexible and
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Fans and professionals affiliated with one team vs. those affiliated with the opposing team.
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741:"Seeing is believing: Neural mechanisms of action–perception are biased by team membership"
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288:, in-group favoritism is seen as an evolved mechanism selected for the advantages of
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Race in the Making: Cognition, Culture, and the Child's
Construction of Human Kinds
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Ostrom, Thomas M.; Carpenter, Sandra L.; Sedikides, Constantine; Li, Fan (1993).
973:"Differential responses in the fusiform region to same-race and other-race faces"
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Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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1428:(Fall 1999). "The Psychology of Prejudice: In-group Love and Out-group Hate?".
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L. Cosmides; J. Tooby; R. Kurzban (April 1, 2003). "Perceptions of race".
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Kubota, Jennifer T; Banaji, Mahzarin R; Phelps, Elizabeth A (July 2012).
1075:"Recognition of own-race and other-race faces by three-month-old infants"
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affiliation. It has been argued that characteristics such as gender and
1671:"Can race be erased? Coalitional computation and social categorization"
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Leyens, Jacques-Philippe; Yzerbyt, Vincent; Schadron, Georges (1994).
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and colleagues beginning in the 1970s during his work in formulating
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Brosch, Tobias; Bar-David, Eyal; Phelps, Elizabeth A. (2013-01-08).
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Tajfel, Henri; Billig, M. G.; Bundy, R. P.; Flament, Claude (1971).
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152:), and the intensity exists along a spectrum from mild to complete
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931:"Recognition of faces of ingroup and outgroup children and adults"
1460:; Rubin, Mark; Willis, Hazel (February 2002). "Intergroup Bias".
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1122:"Differential processing of in-group and out-group information"
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Tajfel, H. (1974). "Social identity and intergroup behaviour".
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fans and professionals vs. those who are not fans of the sport.
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673:. Penguin. pp. 38–39, 84–93, 116–117, 387–493, 570–632.
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The
Psychology of Prejudice: From Attitudes to Social Action
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Tajfel, H. (1970). Experiments in
Intergroup Discrimination
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Neural mechanisms of in-group favoritism and out-group bias
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Neuroimaging
Personality, Social Cognition, and Character
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R. Kurzban; J. Tooby; L. Cosmides (December 18, 2001).
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Sangrigoli, Sandy; de
Schonen, Scania (October 2004).
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Corenblum, B.; Meissner, Christian A. (March 2006).
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Behave: The
Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst
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1216:Krosch, Amy R.; Amodio, David M. (November 2019).
50:Multiple layers of in-groups and out-groups in an
30:"Us and them" redirects here. For other uses, see
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889:"The Neural Mechanisms of Prejudice Intervention"
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1026:Young, Steven G.; Hugenberg, Kurt (2011-05-31).
887:Senholzi, Keith B.; Kubota, Jennifer T. (2016),
800:"Social categorization and intergroup behaviour"
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707:(9th, illustrated, revised ed.). London:
846:The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology
1360:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1222:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
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1126:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1032:Social Psychological and Personality Science
840:Hastorf, Albert H.; Cantril, Hadley (1954).
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57:People in this stadium form an in-group of
1508:Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
1079:Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
539:"Experiments in intergroup discrimination"
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514:See "Kandinsky versus Klee experiment",
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701:; Akert, R. D.; Sommers, S. R. (2015).
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125:The terminology was made popular by
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106:as being a member. By contrast, an
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901:10.1016/b978-0-12-800935-2.00018-x
280:Postulated role in human evolution
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566:10.1038/scientificamerican1170-96
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479:Social dominance orientation
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1632:University of Chicago Press
1463:Annual Review of Psychology
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37:For use in cladistics, see
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1267:"The neuroscience of race"
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631:Social Science Information
349:Basking in reflected glory
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104:psychologically identifies
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1330:Thousand Oaks, California
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276:outgroup categorization.
160:" group (such as through
1781:Sociological terminology
1746:10.1177/0956797610387439
1521:10.1177/0146167208315457
1431:Journal of Social Issues
1177:10.1177/0956797612451465
1044:10.1177/1948550611409759
1444:10.1111/0022-4537.00126
816:10.1002/ejsp.2420010202
616:10.1002/ejsp.2420010202
379:Common ingroup identity
296:are inflexible or even
286:evolutionary psychology
1698:10.1073/pnas.251541498
399:False consensus effect
213:(FFA), an area of the
135:minimal group paradigm
131:social identity theory
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1733:Psychological Science
1165:Psychological Science
374:Collective narcissism
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1623:Current Anthropology
1404:. pp. 110–112.
1336:. pp. 104–107.
537:Taijfel, H. (1970).
439:Paradox of tolerance
359:Benevolent prejudice
334:Ambivalent prejudice
324:Amity-enmity complex
302:behavioural genetics
237:Out-group derogation
228:Outgroup homogeneity
168:Associated phenomena
27:Sociological notions
1806:Collective identity
1689:2001PNAS...9815387K
1683:(26): 15387–15392.
1426:Brewer, Marilynn B.
1271:Nature Neuroscience
1235:10.1037/pspa0000168
977:Nature Neuroscience
745:Human Brain Mapping
558:1970SciAm.223e..96T
546:Scientific American
186:Closure (sociology)
182:In-group favoritism
176:In-group favoritism
1400:. Washington, DC:
271:Group polarization
265:Group polarization
211:fusiform face area
102:to which a person
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1740:(11): 1623–1628.
1334:SAGE Publications
910:978-0-12-800935-2
758:10.1002/hbm.22044
709:Pearson Education
704:Social psychology
680:978-1-59420-507-1
414:Hostile prejudice
364:Cultural identity
222:Group homogeneity
88:social psychology
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699:Wilson, T. D.
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552:(5): 96–102.
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1168:
1164:
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1132:(1): 21–34.
1129:
1125:
1115:
1082:
1078:
1068:
1038:(1): 80–87.
1035:
1031:
1021:
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976:
938:
934:
924:
914:, retrieved
892:
882:
849:
845:
807:
803:
793:
748:
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703:
689:
669:
659:
637:(2): 65–93.
634:
630:
624:
607:
603:
597:
586:the original
549:
545:
532:
518:
510:
493:
474:Social class
459:Scapegoating
424:Microculture
329:Antilocution
319:Allosemitism
306:essentialist
283:
274:
259:social norms
255:
240:
231:
206:neurological
202:
193:
171:
145:
139:
127:Henri Tajfel
124:
107:
100:social group
95:
85:
43:
1791:Dichotomies
1634:: 515–553.
1470:: 575–604.
695:Aronson, E.
429:Nationalism
146:us and them
71:individual.
32:Us and Them
1775:Categories
916:2020-12-07
523:(1971) in
503:References
484:Subculture
469:Shibboleth
409:Homophobia
404:Groupthink
180:See also:
150:propaganda
112:peer group
1381:0022-3514
1291:1097-6256
1244:1939-1315
1185:0956-7976
1146:1939-1315
1099:0021-9630
1060:145427030
1052:1948-5506
997:1097-6256
866:0096-851X
824:1099-0992
767:1097-0193
651:143666442
495:Uchi-soto
489:Tribalism
449:Prejudice
308:systems.
298:essential
294:ethnicity
290:coalition
142:neurology
120:community
108:out-group
92:sociology
1762:27351021
1754:20974715
1717:11742078
1656:53592867
1580:11343153
1572:12691766
1537:14610644
1529:18391025
1492:11830211
1484:11752497
1309:22735516
1252:31233317
1203:23300228
1107:15335342
1013:16699355
1005:11477432
955:16243349
874:13128974
785:22290781
667:(2017).
574:24927662
434:Nepotism
389:Endogamy
369:Cronyism
312:See also
156:of the "
96:in-group
54:stadium:
18:In-group
1685:Bibcode
1300:3864590
1194:3864653
776:6870530
582:5482577
554:Bibcode
394:Elitism
339:Autarky
158:othered
1760:
1752:
1715:
1705:
1654:
1646:
1603:
1578:
1570:
1535:
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907:
872:
864:
822:
783:
773:
765:
715:
677:
649:
580:
572:
520:et al.
516:Tajfel
464:Sexism
454:Racism
188:; and
116:family
1758:S2CID
1708:65039
1652:S2CID
1644:JSTOR
1630:(4).
1576:S2CID
1533:S2CID
1488:S2CID
1056:S2CID
1009:S2CID
647:S2CID
589:(PDF)
570:JSTOR
542:(PDF)
98:is a
94:, an
1750:PMID
1713:PMID
1601:ISBN
1568:PMID
1525:PMID
1480:PMID
1406:ISBN
1377:ISSN
1338:ISBN
1305:PMID
1287:ISSN
1248:PMID
1240:ISSN
1199:PMID
1181:ISSN
1142:ISSN
1103:PMID
1095:ISSN
1048:ISSN
1001:PMID
993:ISSN
951:PMID
905:ISBN
870:PMID
862:ISSN
820:ISSN
781:PMID
763:ISSN
713:ISBN
675:ISBN
578:PMID
90:and
1742:doi
1703:PMC
1693:doi
1636:doi
1560:doi
1517:doi
1472:doi
1440:doi
1369:doi
1295:PMC
1279:doi
1230:doi
1226:117
1189:PMC
1173:doi
1134:doi
1087:doi
1040:doi
985:doi
943:doi
897:doi
854:doi
812:doi
771:PMC
753:doi
639:doi
612:doi
562:doi
550:223
284:In
164:).
140:In
86:In
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