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Morton's collection, published a study that concluded that "Morton did not manipulate his data to support his preconceptions, contra Gould." They identified and remeasured half of the skulls used in Morton's reports, finding that in only 2% of cases did Morton's measurements differ significantly from their own and that these errors either were random or gave a larger than accurate volume to
African skulls, the reverse of the bias that Dr. Gould imputed to Morton. Difference in brain size, however, does not necessarily imply differences in intelligence: women tend to have smaller brains than men yet have more neural complexity and loading in certain areas of the brain. This claim has been criticized by, among others, John S. Michael, who reported in 1988 that Morton's analysis was "conducted with integrity" while Gould's criticism was "mistaken".
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equatorial
Africans, who generally have smaller craniums as people from hot climates often have slightly smaller crania. He also compared equatorial Africans from the poorest and least educated areas of Africa with Asians from the wealthiest, most educated areas and colder climates. According to Z. Z. Cernovsky Rushton's own study shows that the average cranial capacity of North American blacks is similar to that of Caucasians from comparable climatic zones, though a previous work by Rushton showed appreciable differences in cranial capacity between North Americans of different race. This is consistent with the findings of Z. Z. Cernovsky that people from different climates tend to have minor differences in brain size.
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geographic region. About one-third of "white" Americans have detectable
African DNA markers, and about five percent of "black" Americans have no detectable "negroid" traits at all, craniofacial or genetic. Given three Americans who self-identify and are socially accepted as white, black and Hispanic, and given that they have precisely the same Afro-European mix of ancestries (one African great-grandparent), there is no objective test that will identify their group membership without an interview.
692:, especially in prehistoric times. Linguistics can follow the movement of languages and archaeology can follow the movement of artefact styles but neither can tell whether a culture's spread was due to a source population's physically migrating or to a destination population's simply copying the technology and learning the language. Anthropometry was used extensively by anthropologists studying human and racial origins: some attempted racial differentiation and
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2234:"The assignment of skeletal racial origin is based principally upon stereotypical features found most frequently in the most geographically distant populations. While this is useful in some contexts (for example, sorting skeletal material of largely West African ancestry from skeletal material of largely Western European ancestry), it fails to identify populations that originate elsewhere and misrepresents fundamental patterns of human biological diversity",
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1064:(1939) Coon classified Caucasoids into racial sub-groups named after regions or archaeological sites such as BrĂĽnn, Borreby, Alpine, Ladogan, East Baltic, Neo-Danubian, Lappish, Mediterranean, Atlanto-Mediterranean, Irano-Afghan, Nordic, Hallstatt, Keltic, Tronder, Dinaric, Noric and Armenoid. This typological view of race, however, was starting to be seen as out-of-date at the time of publication. Coon eventually resigned from the
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882:
926:, a collaborator of Virchow, stated in the same congress that the people of Europe, be them German, Italian, English or French, belonged to a "mixture of various races," furthermore declaring that the "results of craniology" led to "struggle against any theory concerning the superiority of this or that European race". Virchow later rejected measure of skulls as legitimate means of
483:("repeat offenders"). Previously police could only record general descriptions. Photography of criminals had become commonplace, but there was no easy way to sort the many thousands of photographs except by name. Bertillon's hope was that, through the use of measurements, a set of identifying numbers could be entered into a filing system installed in a single cabinet.
642:, Lombroso tried to recognize criminals by measurements of their bodies. He concluded that skull and facial features were clues to genetic criminality and that these features could be measured with craniometers and calipers with the results developed into quantitative research. A few of the 14 identified traits of a criminal included large
706:(1853–1855), a founding work of racial segregationism that made three main divisions between races, based not on colour but on climatic conditions and geographic location, and privileged the "Aryan" race. Science has tested many theories aligning race and personality, which have been current since
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Other complications were: it was difficult to tell whether or not individuals arrested were first-time offenders; instruments employed were costly and liable to break down; skilled measurers were needed; errors were frequent and all but irremediable; and it was necessary to repeat measurements three
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as "Capoid". Finally, he split "Australoid" from "Mongoloid" along a line roughly similar to the modern distinction between sinodonts in the north and sundadonts in the south. He argued that these races had developed independently of each other over the past half-million years, developing into Homo
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Stephen Jay Gould (1941–2002) claimed Samuel Morton had fudged data and "overpacked" the skulls. A subsequent study by John
Michael concluded that "ontrary to Gould's interpretation... Morton's research was conducted with integrity." In 2011 physical anthropologists at the university of, which owns
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Several studies have demonstrated correlations between race and brain size, with varying results. In some studies, Caucasians were reported to have larger brains than other racial groups, whereas in recent studies and reanalysis of previous studies, East Asians were reported as having larger brains
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Observable craniofacial differences included: head shape (mesocephalic, brachycephalic, dolichocephalic) breadth of nasal aperture, nasal root height, sagittal crest appearance, jaw thickness, brow ridge size and forehead slope. Using this skull-based categorization, German philosopher
Christoph
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and
Blumenbach had examined multiple observable human characteristics in search of a typology. Bernier based his racial classification on physical type which included hair shape, nose shape and skin color. Linnaeus based a similar racial classification scheme. As anthropologists gained access to
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and high intellectual capacity, a small skull indicated a small brain and decreased intellectual capacity. Modern science has since confirmed that there is a correlation between cranium size (measured in various ways) and intelligence as measured by IQ tests, although it is a weak correlation at
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The concept of biologically distinct races has been rendered obsolete by modern genetics. Different methods of categorizing humans yield different groups, making them non-concordant. Neither will the craniofacial method pin-point geographic origins reliably, due to variation in skulls within a
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pattern but warning against using the findings as indicative of racial traits, "If one merely lists such means by geographical region or race, causes of similarity by genogroup and ecotype are hopelessly confounded". Rushton's findings have been criticized for confusing
African-Americans with
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that was named after him. The "Bertillonage" system was based on the finding that several measures of physical features, such as the dimensions of bony structures in the body, remain fairly constant throughout adult life. Bertillon concluded that when these measurements were made and recorded
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Bertillonage was before long represented in Paris by a collection of some 100,000 cards and became popular in several other countries' justice systems. England followed suit when in 1894, a committee sent to Paris to investigate the methods and its results reported favorably on the use of
1014:(New York: Knopf, 1962). Because of the inconsistencies in the old three-part system (Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid), Coon adopted a five-part scheme. He defined "Caucasoid" as a pattern of skull measurements and other phenotypical characteristics typical of populations in
864:
began to use anthropometric approaches to discredit the concept of fixed biological race. Boas used the cephalic index to show the influence of environmental factors. Researches on skulls and skeletons eventually helped liberate 19th century
European science from its
604:. Bertillon originally measured variables he thought were independent – such as forearm length and leg length – but Galton had realized that both were the result of a single causal variable (in this case, stature) and developed the statistical concept of
593:, where measurements were abandoned in 1897 after the fingerprint system was adopted throughout British India. Three years later England followed suit, and, as the result of a fresh inquiry ordered by the Home Office, relied upon fingerprints alone.
2014:
562:(elbow to tip of middle finger). It was possible, by exhaustion, to sort the cards on which these details were recorded (together with a photograph) until a small number produced the measurements of the individual sought, independently of name.
128:. Camper's measurements of facial angle were first made to compare the skulls of men with those of other animals. Camper claimed that antique statues presented an angle of 90°, Europeans of 80°, Central Africans of 70° and the orangutan of 58°.
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Morton claimed that
Caucasians had the biggest brains, averaging 87 cubic inches, Indians were in the middle with an average of 82 cubic inches and Negroes had the smallest brains with an average of 78 cubic inches. In 1873
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and skulls. More common among the studies was the report that
Africans had smaller skulls than either Caucasians or East Asians. Criticisms have been raised against a number of these studies regarding questionable methods.
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and in various attempts to correlate physical with racial and psychological traits. At various points in history, certain anthropometrics have been cited by advocates of discrimination and eugenics often as part of novel
355:(1799–1851) collected hundreds of human skulls from all over the world and started trying to find a way to classify them according to some logical criterion. Morton claimed that he could judge intellectual capacity by
162:(1824–1880), founder of the Anthropological Society in France in 1859. Paleoanthropologists still rely upon craniofacial anthropometry to identify species in the study of fossilized hominid bones. Specimens of
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1928:, see esp. p. 360: "he answer to the question whether races exist in humans is clear and unambiguous: no." That this view reflects the consensus among American anthropologists is stated in:
1042:). He discarded the term "Negroid" as misleading since it implies skin tone, which is found at low latitudes around the globe and is a product of adaptation, and defined skulls typical of
386:"vision"), a method to determine the personality and development of mental and moral faculties on the basis of the external shape of the skull. Cranioscopy was later renamed phrenology (
634:, who claimed to be able to scientifically identify links between the nature of a crime and the personality or physical appearance of the offender. The originator of the concept of a "
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Similar claims were previously made by Ho et al. (1980), who measured 1,261 brains at autopsy, and Beals et al. (1984), who measured approximately 20,000 skulls, finding the same
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Forensic Misclassification of Ancient Nubian Crania: Implications for Assumptions about Human Variation, Frank L'Engle Williams, Robert L. Belcher, and George J. Armelagos
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The Online Companion to California Newsreel's 3-part documentary about race and society, science and history, "Race — The Power of an Illusion", Ask the Experts section
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812:, etc.). "Homo africanus" (Congo, Florida) was excluded from discussion. His racial classification ("Teutonic", "Alpine" and "Mediterranean") was also used by
910:. Other historical studies alleging a Black–White difference in brain size include Bean (1906), Mall, (1909), Pearl, (1934) and Vint (1934). But in Germany
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System." These all claimed the ability to predict traits or intelligence and were intensively practised in the 19th and the first part of the 20th century.
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Cernovsky, Z. Z. (1997) A critical look at intelligence research, In Fox, D. & Prilleltensky, I. (Eds.) Critical Psychology, London: Sage, ps 121-133.
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1900:
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Illustration from "The Speaking Portrait" (Pearson's Magazine, Vol XI, January to June 1901) demonstrating the principles of Bertillon's anthropometry
374:, which purported to determine character, personality traits, and criminality on the basis of the shape of the head. At the turn of the 19th century,
104:(1722–1789), distinguished both as an artist and as an anatomist, published some lectures that laid the foundation of much work. Camper invented the "
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Parra E.J.; et al. (2001). "Ancestral Proportions and Admixture Dynamics in Geographically Defined African Americans Living in South Carolina".
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Rushton J. Philippe (1992). "Cranial capacity related to sex, rank, and race in a stratified random sample of 6,325 U.S. military personnel".
154:"long and thin"), "brachycephalic" (short and broad) and "mesocephalic" (intermediate length and width). Scientific research was continued by
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Collins-Schramm Heather E (2002). "Markers that Discriminate Between European and African Ancestry Show Limited Variation Within Africa".
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about 0.2. Today, brain volume as measured with MRI scanners also find a correlation between brain size and intelligence at about 0.4.
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Wagner, Jennifer K.; Yu, Joon-Ho; Ifekwunigwe, Jayne O.; Harrell, Tanya M.; Bamshad, Michael J.; Royal, Charmaine D. (February 2017).
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Sapiens at different periods of time, resulting in different levels of civilization. This raised considerable controversy and led the
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Physiognomy claimed a correlation between physical features (especially facial features) and character traits. It was made famous by
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white race, dolichocephalic" to the "brachycephalic" (short and broad-headed) race. Between these Vacher de Lapouge identified the "
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ISO 15537: Principles for selecting and using test persons for testing anthropometric aspects of industrial products and designs,
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among various species. According to this technique, a "facial angle" was formed by drawing two lines: one horizontally from the
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to classify ancient human remains found in Europe. He classed skulls in three main categories; "dolichocephalic" (from the
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only a thousand years before this Noah's sons could not account for every race on earth. According to Morton's theory of
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characterized by a tall dolichocephalic skull, receded zygomas, large brow ridge and projecting-narrow nasal apertures.
1976:
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were not Negroid but Caucasoid and that Caucasians and Negroes were already distinct three thousand years ago. Since
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characterized by a medium brachycephalic skull, projecting zygomas, small brow ridge and small nasal apertures.
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1437:"Cultural Biases Reflected in the Hominid Fossil Record" (history), by Joshua Barbach and Craig Byron, 2005,
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Stewart A. "Kinanthropometry and body composition: A natural home for three dimensional photonic scanning".
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The system was soon adapted to police methods: it prevented impersonation and could demonstrate wrongdoing.
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2003:, The Human Species: An introduction to Biological Anthropology, 5th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003).
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systematically, every individual would be distinguishable. Bertillon's goal was a way of identifying
170:, for example, are virtually identical from the neck down but their skulls can easily be told apart.
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Beals Kenneth L.; et al. (1984). "Brain Size, Cranial Morphology, Climate, and Time Machines".
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hominid male, thinking it to be the remains of a bear. They gave the material to amateur naturalist
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Mémoire sur les différences de la situation du grand trou occipital dans l'homme et dans les animaux
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measurements for primary classification and recommended also the partial adoption of the system of
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318:", according to which each individual mirrors the evolution of the whole species during his life.
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Rushton J. P. (1990). "Race, Brain Size, and Intelligence: A Rejoinder to Cain and Vanderwolf".
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ISO 20685: 3-D scanning methodologies for internationally compatible anthropometric databases,
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Templeton, A. (2016). EVOLUTION AND NOTIONS OF HUMAN RACE. In Losos J. & Lenski R. (Eds.),
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Ariani, indogermani, stirpi mediterranee: aspetti del dibattito sulle razze europee (1870-1914)
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Shriver Mark D (2003). "Skin Pigmentation, Biogeographical Ancestry, and Admixture Mapping".
1546:"The Mismeasure of Science: Stephen Jay Gould versus Samuel George Morton on Skulls and Bias"
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One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
37:, use for identification, use for the purposes of understanding human physical variation in
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characterized by a short dolichocephalic skull, receded zygomas and wide nasal apertures.
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bias. This school of physical anthropology generally went into decline during the 1940s.
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Meiners in his The Outline of History of Mankind (1785) identified three racial groups:
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could be predicted according to the body type. A basically anthropometric division of
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Bertillonage exhibited certain defects and was gradually supplanted by the system of
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methods of skull measure they developed racial classification based on skull shape.
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Lewis Jason E.; DeGusta D.; Meyer M.R.; Monge J.M.; Mann A.E.; et al. (2011).
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Report of Home Office Committee on the Best Means of Identifying Habitual Criminals
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Skull Wars: Kennewick Man, Archaeology, and the Battle for Native American Identity
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Folia Anthropologica: tudományos és módszertani folyóirat. 9: 5–17. ISSN 1786-5654
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Life on the Color Line: The True Story of a White Boy who Discovered he was Black
2015:"Galileo wept: A critical assessment of the use of race of forensic anthropolopy"
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An Inquiry into the Distinctive Characteristics of the Aboriginal Race of America
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Michael, John S. (April 1988). "A New Look at Morton's Craniological Research".
1010:. Coon, a 20th-century craniofacial anthropometrist, used the technique for his
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A head-measuring tool designed for anthropological research in the early 1910s.
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Anthropometric Survey of Army Personnel: Methods and Summary Statistics 1988
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Insider – The Female Brain, By Ivory E. Welcome, MBA Candidate December 2009
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1300:. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 119–120.
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quoted an 1892 discussion with him concerning these criticisms, also citing
573:(1893), demonstrating how to take measurements for his identification system
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ISO 15535: General requirements for establishing anthropometric databases,
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Cosgrove, Kelly P.; Mazure, Carolyn M.; Staley, Julie K. (October 2007).
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Michael J. S. (1988). "A New Look at Morton's Craniological Research".
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to be discovered, demonstrated mankind's deep ancestry outside Europe.
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2323:"Anthropometric History: an Overview of a Quarter Century of Research"
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10.1002/1096-8644(200101)114:1<18::aid-ajpa1002>3.0.co;2-2
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120:; and the other perpendicularly from the advancing part of the upper
1424:("The Power of the Prejudice: Essay on Racism and its Doubles", Tel
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ISO 7250: Basic human body measurements for technological design,
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An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus
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2210:(New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002); Gregory Howard Williams,
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Instructions signalétiques pour l'identification anthropométrique
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398:(1776–1832), who wrote extensively on "Drs. Gall and Spurzheim's
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SchĂĽltke, Elisabeth (May 2009). "Theodor Kocher's craniometer".
902:(1824–1880) found the same pattern described by Samuel Morton's
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Phylogeography is the science of identifying and tracking major
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carried Morton's ideas further. Charles Darwin, who thought the
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856:. During the 1920s and 1930s, though, members of the school of
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1920:(pp. 346-361). Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press.
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and many forms of anthropometry were used for the advocacy of
1918:
How Evolution Shapes Our Lives: Essays on Biology and Society
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2012:
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Vacher de Lapouge became one of the leading inspirations of
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In 1856, workers found in a limestone quarry the skull of a
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An Essay upon the Causes of the Different Colours of People
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Rushton, J. Philippe; Ankney, C. Davison (1 January 2009).
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La Force du préjugé – Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles
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La couleur et le sang – Doctrines racistes à la française
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was rewritten in 1939 by Harvard physical anthropologist
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islanders collected by J. P. Kleiweg de Zwaan, circa 1910
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1932:"Anthropologists' views on race, ancestry, and genetics"
646:, forward projection of jaw, low sloping forehead; high
1222:"Whole Brain Size and General Mental Ability: A Review"
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to reject his approach without mentioning him by name.
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of "a Negro head …, a Caucasian skull …, a Mongol head"
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The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy
1898:
How Caucasoids Got Such Big Crania and How They Shrank
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relied on anthropometric measurements to distinguish
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Anthropometry demonstrated in an exhibit from a 1921
302:' (1858–1940) discovery in 1891 in Indonesia of the "
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according to the cephalic index of its inhabitants.
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1368:
1097:The Bertillon system was used by the detectives in
716:(French people), alleged descendants of the Nordic
378:(1758–1822) developed "cranioscopy" (Ancient Greek
2434:
2375:
197:(1799–1851), whose two major monographs were the
3377:
2378:Bodyspace: anthropometry, ergonomics, and design
2306:National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
1981:American Association of Physical Anthropologists
1973:American Association of Physical Anthropologists
1697:
1654:
1395:"The Mismeasure of Man" Stephen Jay Gould (1981)
1066:American Association of Physical Anthropologists
494:, from a visit to Bertillon's laboratory in 1893
1805:
1803:
1801:
1740:
1386:"From Savage to Negro" (1998) Lee D. Baker p.14
2382:. London; Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis.
2300:International Organization for Standardization
2293:International Organization for Standardization
2286:International Organization for Standardization
2279:International Organization for Standardization
2272:International Organization for Standardization
2112:
3206:An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races
2420:
1910:
1820:
1508:
1355:Indextabellen zum anthropometrischen Gebrauch
703:An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races
445:theories is today popular among people doing
1798:
962:Race, identity and cranio-facial description
650:, flattened or upturned nose; handle-shaped
229:the races had been separate from the start.
754:became popular, one prominent figure being
405:During the 1940s anthropometry was used by
321:
3198:Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question
2427:
2413:
2155:
1994:
1460:
1458:
3222:The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century
2159:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
1955:
1936:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
1631:
1571:
1561:
1502:
1245:
452:
274:. By comparing skeletons of apes to man,
266:who turned the fossils over to anatomist
90:Memoir on the Different Positions of the
2373:
1374:
1286:
1269:
1267:
1265:
1182:
965:
880:
675:
564:
485:
461:
335:
172:
63:
2394:(A classic review of human body sizes.)
1537:
1455:
918:" in the 1885 Anthropology Congress in
770:into various, hierarchized, different "
245:, opposed Nott and Gliddon in his 1871
3378:
2813:Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
2317:
1878:University of California Press, 2002,
1823:Personality and Individual Differences
872:
666:Phylogeography, race and human origins
2408:
2208:Just Lucky I Guess: A Memoir of Sorts
2013:Diana Smay, George Armelagos (2000).
1691:
1431:
1262:
1226:International Journal of Neuroscience
1091:
498:The system involved 10 measurements;
190:compared skeletons of apes to humans.
33:includes its use as an early tool of
2006:
1053:American Anthropological Association
766:and his social role", 1899) divided
183:Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature
180:: In the frontispiece from his 1863
3365:Pre-modern conceptions of whiteness
1977:"AAPA Statement on Race and Racism"
1334:Rughe anomale speciali ai criminali
1169:Josiah C. Nott and George Gliddon,
784:(Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the "
351:was compared with anthropometrics.
314:(1834–1919) became famous for his "
13:
2252:
1876:What it means to be 98% Chimpanzee
1199:10.1227/01.NEU.0000344003.72056.7F
612:times to arrive at a mean result.
124:to the most prominent part of the
14:
3442:
3406:Race and intelligence controversy
3270:The Myth of the Twentieth Century
3190:The Outline of History of Mankind
1750:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
1428:, La DĂ©couverte, 1987, 644 pages.
458:Bertillon, Galton and criminology
50:Craniometry and paleoanthropology
3238:Heredity in Relation to Eugenics
1327:Studi comparati di antropometria
1310:Antropometria di 400 delinquenti
1274:
1193:(5): 1001–4, discussion 1004–5.
522:from head to seat when seated),
344:was inventor of the craniometer.
108:," a measure meant to determine
16:Historical uses of anthropometry
2311:Anthropometry Procedures Manual
2228:
2217:
2200:
2149:
2106:
2063:
1891:
1868:
1841:
1814:
1648:
1599:
1588:
1487:
571:Identification anthropométrique
292:(1859). He also developed the "
3230:Race Life of the Aryan Peoples
2436:Historical definitions of race
1624:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.03.001
1412:("Colour and Blood: Doctrines
1398:
1389:
1380:
1213:
1176:
1163:
914:'s study led him to denounce "
728:, considered to be indigenous
615:
359:. A large skull meant a large
156:Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire
1:
3254:The Passing of the Great Race
2401:, March 2010; 28(5): 455–457.
1137:
131:Swedish professor of anatomy
46:or based upon pseudoscience.
3153:Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer
1862:10.1016/0160-2896(92)90017-l
1835:10.1016/0191-8869(90)90186-u
1563:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001071
710:(1658–1722) contrasted the
630:(1835–1909), the founder of
7:
2868:Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt
2833:Houston Stewart Chamberlain
2783:Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
2342:10.1127/0003-5548/2009/0027
1302:This cites as authorities:
1110:
632:anthropological criminology
135:(1796–1860) first used the
80:, who wrote many essays on
10:
3447:
2399:Journal of Sports Sciences
2374:Pheasant, Stephen (1986).
2330:Anthropologischer Anzeiger
2314:. CDC: Atlanta, USA; 2007.
2192:: CS1 maint: postscript (
1046:as "Congoid" and those of
760:L'Aryen et son rĂ´le social
669:
638:" and arguing in favor of
619:
325:
209:(1844) concluded that the
166:and athletic specimens of
78:Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton
53:
18:
3312:
3171:
2963:Georges Vacher de Lapouge
2740:
2638:
2494:
2451:
2442:
2127:10.1007/s00439-002-0896-y
2084:10.1007/s00439-002-0818-z
2022:Transforming Anthropology
1238:10.1080/00207450802325843
756:Georges Vacher de Lapouge
569:A chart from Bertillon's
306:", the first specimen of
3335:History of anthropometry
3103:Charles Gabriel Seligman
2928:Frederick Ludwig Hoffman
2616:Sinodonty and Sundadonty
2214:(New York: Dutton, 1995)
2034:10.1525/tran.2000.9.2.19
1741:Rushton, Ankney (1996).
1127:Historical race concepts
1034:, and Northeast Africa (
526:(crown to forehead) and
421:, he also believed that
394:: study) by his student
322:Typology and personality
289:On the Origin of Species
239:single-origin hypothesis
19:Not to be confused with
3411:Biological anthropology
3391:History of neuroscience
2793:Daniel Garrison Brinton
1420:, 2002, 203 pages, and
1317:Manual of Anthropometry
1297:Encyclopædia Britannica
732:people subordinated by
538:, and "lengths" of the
490:A Bertillon record for
474:introduced a system of
441:derived from Sheldon's
60:biological anthropology
3431:History of measurement
3138:Thomas Griffith Taylor
2893:Reginald Ruggles Gates
1926:10.2307/j.ctv7h0s6j.26
1907:, by Leonard Lieberman
1122:Anthropometric history
975:
970:Plaster face casts of
906:by weighing brains at
890:
822:(1899), made a map of
774:", spanning from the "
685:
640:biological determinism
574:
514:of raised right arm),
495:
467:
453:Forensic anthropometry
345:
294:Pithecometra principle
278:(1825–1895) backed up
191:
73:
21:Anthropometric history
3278:Annihilation of Caste
3182:in Different Climates
3133:William Graham Sumner
3113:Samuel Stanhope Smith
3058:James Cowles Prichard
2690:Racial discrimination
1496:The Mismeasure of Man
1406:Pierre-André Taguieff
969:
884:
858:cultural anthropology
720:, and members of the
679:
568:
489:
465:
419:criminal anthropology
339:
326:Further information:
316:recapitulation theory
286:, first expressed in
268:Hermann Schaaffhausen
176:
141:physical anthropology
67:
54:Further information:
3330:Great chain of being
3048:Ludwig Hermann Plate
3013:Samuel George Morton
2828:Samuel A. Cartwright
2678:in the United States
1700:Current Anthropology
1657:Current Anthropology
1511:Current Anthropology
1329:(2 vols., 1881–1882)
887:Samuel George Morton
816:(1867–1941) who, in
758:(1854–1936), who in
506:(distance from left
429:into the categories
409:when evaluating his
353:Samuel George Morton
349:Intelligence testing
264:Johann Karl Fuhlrott
195:Samuel George Morton
3286:The Races of Europe
3214:The Races of Europe
2993:Dominick McCausland
2943:Thomas Henry Huxley
2888:Stanley Marion Garn
2768:Robert Bennett Bean
2496:Historical concepts
1493:Stephen Jay Gould,
1443:ArchaeologyInfo-003
1439:ArchaeologyInfo.com
1061:The Races of Europe
1012:The Origin of Races
1004:The Races of Europe
885:An 1839 drawing by
873:Race and brain size
819:The Races of Europe
470:In 1883, Frenchman
284:theory of evolution
243:evolutionary theory
100:). Six years later
82:comparative anatomy
3396:History of science
3158:Alexander Winchell
3088:Henric Sanielevici
2948:Calvin Ira Kephart
2918:Hans F. K. GĂĽnther
2903:Arthur de Gobineau
2803:Alice Mossie Brues
2700:Racial stereotypes
2264:2022-06-21 at the
2241:2007-07-03 at the
1948:10.1002/ajpa.23120
1903:2009-09-02 at the
1762:10.3758/bf03210739
1448:2011-05-16 at the
1418:Mille et une nuits
1154:David Hurst Thomas
1092:In popular culture
1044:sub-Saharan Africa
976:
891:
801:Homo mediterraneus
698:Arthur de Gobineau
686:
575:
530:temple to temple)
496:
472:Alphonse Bertillon
468:
346:
248:The Descent of Man
192:
94:in Man and Animals
86:Académie française
74:
3426:Scientific racism
3421:Human body weight
3373:
3372:
3302:The Race Question
3148:John H. Van Evrie
3073:William Z. Ripley
3043:Charles Pickering
2988:Felix von Luschan
2958:Robert E. Kuttner
2858:Charles Davenport
2727:Whiteness studies
2453:Color terminology
2445:Scientific racism
2389:978-0-85066-352-5
2051:on 18 August 2018
1975:(27 March 2019).
1884:978-0-520-24064-3
1464:Andrea Orsucci, "
1160:, 2001, pp. 38–41
1132:Scientific racism
1082:Leonard Lieberman
1074:Stephen Jay Gould
814:William Z. Ripley
798:, etc.) and the "
752:scientific racism
734:right of conquest
589:, then in use in
376:Franz Joseph Gall
370:was also used in
272:paleoanthropology
221:had washed up on
211:ancient Egyptians
207:Crania Aegyptiaca
92:Occipital Foramen
56:Paleoanthropology
39:paleoanthropology
3438:
3181:
3128:Lothrop Stoddard
3123:Morris Steggerda
3098:Ilse Schwidetzky
3093:Heinrich Schmidt
3078:Alfred Rosenberg
3038:Isaac La Peyrère
2843:Carleton S. Coon
2818:Charles Caldwell
2773:François Bernier
2656:in Latin America
2429:
2422:
2415:
2406:
2405:
2393:
2381:
2367:
2365:
2364:
2358:
2352:. Archived from
2327:
2246:
2232:
2226:
2221:
2215:
2206:Carol Channing,
2204:
2198:
2197:
2191:
2183:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2110:
2104:
2103:
2067:
2061:
2060:
2058:
2056:
2050:
2044:. Archived from
2019:
2010:
2004:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1969:
1959:
1914:
1908:
1895:
1889:
1874:Marks, Jonathan
1872:
1866:
1865:
1856:(3–4): 401–413.
1845:
1839:
1838:
1818:
1812:
1807:
1796:
1795:
1793:
1792:
1786:
1780:. Archived from
1747:
1738:
1732:
1731:
1695:
1689:
1688:
1652:
1646:
1645:
1635:
1612:Biol. Psychiatry
1603:
1597:
1592:
1586:
1585:
1575:
1565:
1541:
1535:
1534:
1506:
1500:
1491:
1485:
1484:
1462:
1453:
1435:
1429:
1402:
1396:
1393:
1387:
1384:
1378:
1372:
1366:
1301:
1280:
1278:
1277:
1271:
1260:
1259:
1249:
1217:
1211:
1210:
1180:
1174:
1171:Types of Mankind
1167:
1161:
1151:
1078:Richard Lewontin
1008:Carleton S. Coon
916:Nordic mysticism
904:Crania Americana
895:Crania Americana
740:François Bernier
690:human migrations
396:Johann Spurzheim
357:cranial capacity
199:Crania Americana
158:(1772–1844) and
88:, published his
44:social movements
3446:
3445:
3441:
3440:
3439:
3437:
3436:
3435:
3376:
3375:
3374:
3369:
3308:
3246:Castes in India
3167:
3163:Ludwig Woltmann
3118:Herbert Spencer
3008:Lewis H. Morgan
2978:Cesare Lombroso
2853:Jan Czekanowski
2838:Sonia Mary Cole
2778:Renato Biasutti
2736:
2715:Nazism and race
2634:
2611:Proto-Mongoloid
2490:
2447:
2438:
2433:
2390:
2362:
2360:
2356:
2325:
2266:Wayback Machine
2255:
2253:Further reading
2250:
2249:
2243:Wayback Machine
2233:
2229:
2222:
2218:
2205:
2201:
2185:
2184:
2154:
2150:
2111:
2107:
2068:
2064:
2054:
2052:
2048:
2017:
2011:
2007:
2001:John Relethford
1999:
1995:
1985:
1983:
1915:
1911:
1905:Wayback Machine
1896:
1892:
1873:
1869:
1846:
1842:
1819:
1815:
1808:
1799:
1790:
1788:
1784:
1745:
1739:
1735:
1696:
1692:
1653:
1649:
1604:
1600:
1593:
1589:
1556:(6): e1001071.
1542:
1538:
1507:
1503:
1492:
1488:
1482:
1463:
1456:
1450:Wayback Machine
1436:
1432:
1403:
1399:
1394:
1390:
1385:
1381:
1373:
1369:
1290:, ed. (1911). "
1275:
1273:
1272:
1263:
1218:
1214:
1181:
1177:
1168:
1164:
1152:
1145:
1140:
1113:
1094:
1048:Southern Africa
964:
936:Aurel von Törok
932:Paul Kretschmer
875:
708:Boulainvilliers
674:
668:
628:Cesare Lombroso
624:
618:
600:and, latterly,
460:
455:
447:weight training
415:Cesare Lombroso
407:William Sheldon
334:
324:
217:indicated that
62:
52:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3444:
3434:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3371:
3370:
3368:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3316:
3314:
3310:
3309:
3307:
3306:
3298:
3290:
3282:
3274:
3266:
3258:
3250:
3242:
3234:
3226:
3218:
3216:(Ripley, 1899)
3210:
3202:
3194:
3186:
3175:
3173:
3169:
3168:
3166:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3108:Giuseppe Sergi
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3068:Gustaf Retzius
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3018:Josiah C. Nott
3015:
3010:
3005:
3003:Ashley Montagu
3000:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2983:Bertil Lundman
2980:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2933:Earnest Hooton
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2898:George Gliddon
2895:
2890:
2885:
2883:Francis Galton
2880:
2875:
2873:Anténor Firmin
2870:
2865:
2863:Joseph Deniker
2860:
2855:
2850:
2848:Georges Cuvier
2845:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2744:
2742:
2738:
2737:
2735:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2723:
2722:
2720:Racial hygiene
2717:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2687:
2682:
2681:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2669:
2668:
2663:
2653:
2644:
2642:
2636:
2635:
2633:
2632:
2631:
2630:
2620:
2619:
2618:
2613:
2603:
2598:
2597:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2511:
2506:
2500:
2498:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2457:
2455:
2449:
2448:
2443:
2440:
2439:
2432:
2431:
2424:
2417:
2409:
2403:
2402:
2395:
2388:
2371:
2368:
2315:
2303:
2296:
2289:
2282:
2275:
2268:
2254:
2251:
2248:
2247:
2227:
2216:
2199:
2148:
2115:Human Genetics
2105:
2072:Human Genetics
2062:
2005:
1993:
1942:(2): 318–327.
1909:
1890:
1867:
1840:
1829:(8): 785–794.
1813:
1797:
1733:
1712:10.1086/203138
1706:(3): 301–330.
1690:
1669:10.1086/203646
1663:(2): 349–354.
1647:
1598:
1587:
1536:
1523:10.1086/203646
1517:(2): 349–354.
1501:
1486:
1471:2012-12-18 at
1454:
1430:
1414:à la française
1397:
1388:
1379:
1367:
1365:
1364:
1358:
1351:
1348:Anthropometria
1344:
1337:
1330:
1320:
1313:
1288:Chisholm, Hugh
1261:
1232:(5): 692–732.
1212:
1175:
1162:
1142:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1135:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1119:
1112:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1093:
1090:
1000:
999:
993:
987:
963:
960:
924:Josef Kollmann
912:Rudolf Virchow
874:
871:
781:Homo europaeus
694:classification
672:Phylogeography
670:Main article:
667:
664:
620:Main article:
617:
614:
587:Francis Galton
492:Francis Galton
476:identification
459:
456:
454:
451:
400:physiognomical
342:Theodor Kocher
323:
320:
280:Charles Darwin
251:, arguing for
235:George Gliddon
231:Josiah C. Nott
137:cephalic index
133:Anders Retzius
51:
48:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3443:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3386:Anthropometry
3384:
3383:
3381:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3340:Miscegenation
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3317:
3315:
3311:
3305:
3303:
3299:
3297:
3295:
3291:
3289:
3287:
3283:
3281:
3279:
3275:
3273:
3271:
3267:
3265:
3263:
3259:
3257:
3255:
3251:
3249:
3247:
3243:
3241:
3239:
3235:
3233:
3231:
3227:
3225:
3223:
3219:
3217:
3215:
3211:
3209:
3207:
3203:
3201:
3199:
3195:
3193:
3191:
3187:
3185:
3183:
3177:
3176:
3174:
3170:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3143:Paul Topinard
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
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3083:Benjamin Rush
3081:
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3053:Alfred Ploetz
3051:
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3033:Oscar Peschel
3031:
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3028:Roger Pearson
3026:
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2998:John Mitchell
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2372:
2369:
2359:on 2016-03-05
2355:
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2336:(4): 341–56.
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2121:(4): 387–99.
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1787:on 2019-02-12
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1473:archive.today
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1375:Chisholm 1911
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1350:(Milan, 1900)
1349:
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1293:
1292:Anthropometry
1289:
1284:
1283:public domain
1270:
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1117:Anthropometry
1115:
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859:
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843:
839:
838:Nazi ideology
835:
832:
827:
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821:
820:
815:
811:
807:
803:
802:
797:
793:
789:
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748:
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744:Carl Linnaeus
741:
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727:
723:
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709:
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695:
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663:
661:
657:
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645:
641:
637:
636:born criminal
633:
629:
623:
613:
609:
607:
603:
599:
594:
592:
588:
585:suggested by
584:
583:finger prints
578:
572:
567:
563:
561:
560:
555:
554:
553:middle finger
550:
544:
543:
537:
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512:middle finger
509:
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312:Ernst Haeckel
309:
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300:Eugène Dubois
297:
295:
291:
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285:
281:
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273:
269:
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256:
254:
250:
249:
244:
241:essential to
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
189:
188:Thomas Huxley
185:
184:
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171:
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157:
153:
149:
146:
145:Ancient Greek
142:
138:
134:
129:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
102:Pieter Camper
99:
95:
93:
87:
83:
79:
71:
68:Selection of
66:
61:
57:
47:
45:
40:
36:
32:
31:
30:anthropometry
22:
3416:Human height
3334:
3320:Ethnogenesis
3301:
3293:
3288:(Coon, 1939)
3285:
3277:
3269:
3261:
3253:
3245:
3237:
3229:
3221:
3213:
3205:
3197:
3189:
3179:
3172:Publications
3023:Karl Pearson
2913:John Grattan
2808:Halfdan Bryn
2673:in Singapore
2640:Sociological
2398:
2377:
2361:. Retrieved
2354:the original
2333:
2329:
2319:Komlos, John
2309:
2230:
2219:
2211:
2207:
2202:
2188:cite journal
2166:(1): 18–29.
2163:
2157:
2151:
2118:
2114:
2108:
2078:(6): 566–9.
2075:
2071:
2065:
2053:. Retrieved
2046:the original
2028:(2): 22–24.
2025:
2021:
2008:
1996:
1984:. Retrieved
1980:
1939:
1935:
1917:
1912:
1893:
1875:
1870:
1853:
1850:Intelligence
1849:
1843:
1826:
1822:
1816:
1789:. Retrieved
1782:the original
1756:(1): 21–36.
1753:
1749:
1736:
1703:
1699:
1693:
1660:
1656:
1650:
1615:
1611:
1601:
1590:
1553:
1549:
1539:
1514:
1510:
1504:
1494:
1489:
1483:(in Italian)
1476:
1438:
1433:
1421:
1413:
1409:
1400:
1391:
1382:
1370:
1360:
1357:(Jena, 1902)
1354:
1347:
1340:
1333:
1326:
1316:
1309:
1295:
1229:
1225:
1215:
1190:
1186:Neurosurgery
1184:
1178:
1170:
1165:
1157:
1104:The Alienist
1102:
1086:
1084:and others.
1059:
1057:
1032:North Africa
1020:Central Asia
1011:
1003:
1001:
977:
944:
940:
903:
894:
892:
876:
867:ethnocentric
842:Nazi Germany
834:antisemitism
828:
817:
799:
787:Homo alpinus
785:
779:
759:
750:Theories of
749:
738:
726:Third Estate
711:
701:
687:
654:; hawk-like
625:
610:
598:fingerprints
595:
579:
576:
570:
557:
546:
539:
531:
527:
523:
515:
503:
499:
497:
469:
404:
391:
387:
383:
379:
366:
347:
308:Homo erectus
298:
287:
276:T. H. Huxley
257:
246:
223:Mount Ararat
214:
206:
202:
198:
193:
181:
178:Pithecometra
177:
168:Homo sapiens
167:
164:Homo erectus
163:
151:
150:"head", and
147:
130:
110:intelligence
106:facial angle
97:
89:
75:
35:anthropology
27:
25:
3401:Criminology
3360:Pre-Adamite
3350:Multiracial
2953:Robert Knox
2763:John Beddoe
2710:Master race
2666:in Colombia
2554:East Baltic
2055:12 November
1416:"), Paris,
1363:(1893–1894)
1339:Bertillon,
730:Gallo-Roman
722:aristocracy
622:Physiognomy
616:Physiognomy
606:correlation
524:head length
481:recidivists
439:mesomorphic
435:ectomorphic
431:endomorphic
423:criminality
411:somatotypes
368:Craniometry
332:physiognomy
260:Neanderthal
28:history of
3380:Categories
3355:Polygenism
3345:Monogenism
3063:Otto Reche
2968:Fritz Lenz
2798:Paul Broca
2788:Franz Boas
2758:Erwin Baur
2753:John Baker
2647:By region
2504:Australoid
2363:2015-09-29
1970:See also:
1886:pp. 76-77
1791:2013-05-25
1332:Lombroso,
1138:References
1101:'s novel
1099:Caleb Carr
1070:Franz Boas
1024:South Asia
947:East Asian
900:Paul Broca
862:Franz Boas
806:Napolitano
684:conference
658:or fleshy
648:cheekbones
528:head width
443:somatotype
427:body types
372:phrenology
328:Phrenology
253:monogenism
227:polygenism
219:Noah's Ark
160:Paul Broca
2732:NĂ©gritude
2661:in Brazil
2606:Mongoloid
2514:Caucasoid
2042:143942539
1685:144528631
1550:PLOS Biol
1531:144528631
1441:webpage:
1426:Gallimard
1315:Roberts,
1028:West Asia
1002:Ripley's
996:Mongoloid
984:Caucasoid
920:Karlsruhe
792:Auvergnat
724:, to the
382:"skull",
215:The Bible
3325:Eugenics
2705:Colorism
2651:in India
2559:Ethiopid
2539:Atlantid
2529:Armenoid
2350:20440956
2321:(2010).
2262:Archived
2239:Archived
2182:Figure 1
2180:11150049
2135:12579416
2100:30319228
2092:12436248
1966:27874171
1901:Archived
1778:17269481
1770:24214801
1728:86147507
1642:17544382
1582:21666803
1499:, (1981)
1469:Archived
1446:Archived
1306:Lombroso
1256:19283594
1207:19404160
1111:See also
1036:Ethiopia
951:European
928:taxonomy
854:eugenics
768:humanity
713:Français
682:eugenics
602:genetics
508:shoulder
390:: mind,
304:Java Man
201:(1839),
152:dolikhos
126:forehead
84:for the
76:In 1716
3313:Related
2741:Writers
2685:Passing
2628:Negrito
2623:Negroid
2594:Turanid
2589:Semites
2564:Hamites
2549:Dinaric
2544:Caspian
2302:, 2005.
2295:, 2003.
2288:, 2000.
2281:, 1989.
2274:, 1998.
2143:7877572
1986:19 June
1957:5299519
1720:2742800
1677:2743412
1633:2711771
1573:3110184
1481:, 1998
1478:Cromohs
1353:FĂĽrst,
1285::
1247:2668913
1040:Somalia
990:Negroid
955:African
908:autopsy
810:Andalus
796:Turkish
504:stretch
388:phrenos
380:kranion
148:kephalĂŞ
122:jawbone
116:to the
114:nostril
70:Primate
3304:(1950)
3296:(1943)
3280:(1936)
3272:(1930)
3264:(1920)
3256:(1916)
3248:(1916)
3240:(1911)
3232:(1907)
3224:(1899)
3208:(1855)
3200:(1849)
3192:(1785)
3184:(1744)
2695:Racism
2584:Nordic
2574:Iranid
2524:Arabid
2519:Alpine
2509:Capoid
2466:Bronze
2386:
2348:
2178:
2141:
2133:
2098:
2090:
2040:
1964:
1954:
1882:
1776:
1768:
1726:
1718:
1683:
1675:
1640:
1630:
1580:
1570:
1529:
1346:Livi,
1343:(1893)
1336:(1890)
1319:(1878)
1312:(1872)
1279:
1254:
1244:
1205:
1173:(1854)
1038:, and
1016:Europe
846:Aryans
824:Europe
762:("The
718:Franks
591:Bengal
556:, and
545:, the
540:right
536:cheeks
500:height
384:scopos
72:skulls
2601:Malay
2569:Indid
2534:Aryan
2486:White
2476:Olive
2471:Brown
2461:Black
2357:(PDF)
2326:(PDF)
2245:(pdf)
2139:S2CID
2096:S2CID
2049:(PDF)
2038:S2CID
2018:(PDF)
1785:(PDF)
1774:S2CID
1746:(PDF)
1724:S2CID
1716:JSTOR
1681:S2CID
1673:JSTOR
1527:S2CID
1323:Ferri
848:from
776:Aryan
772:races
764:Aryan
656:noses
559:cubit
547:left
532:width
520:torso
392:logos
361:brain
2384:ISBN
2346:PMID
2194:link
2176:PMID
2131:PMID
2088:PMID
2057:2016
1988:2020
1962:PMID
1880:ISBN
1766:PMID
1638:PMID
1578:PMID
1404:See
1252:PMID
1203:PMID
972:Nias
850:Jews
836:and
831:Nazi
660:lips
652:ears
644:jaws
549:foot
516:bust
437:and
330:and
233:and
205:and
58:and
26:The
2481:Red
2338:doi
2168:doi
2164:114
2123:doi
2119:112
2080:doi
2076:111
2030:doi
1952:PMC
1944:doi
1940:162
1922:doi
1858:doi
1831:doi
1758:doi
1708:doi
1665:doi
1628:PMC
1620:doi
1568:PMC
1558:doi
1519:doi
1294:".
1242:PMC
1234:doi
1230:119
1195:doi
1058:In
893:In
860:of
804:" (
790:" (
700:'s
542:ear
534:of
510:to
417:'s
282:'s
139:in
118:ear
3382::
2344:.
2334:67
2332:.
2328:.
2308:.
2190:}}
2186:{{
2174:.
2162:.
2137:.
2129:.
2117:.
2094:.
2086:.
2074:.
2036:.
2024:.
2020:.
1979:.
1960:.
1950:.
1938:.
1934:.
1854:16
1852:.
1827:11
1825:.
1800:^
1772:.
1764:.
1752:.
1748:.
1722:.
1714:.
1704:25
1702:.
1679:.
1671:.
1661:29
1659:.
1636:.
1626:.
1616:62
1614:.
1610:.
1576:.
1566:.
1552:.
1548:.
1525:.
1515:29
1513:.
1475:,
1457:^
1408:,
1325:,
1308:,
1264:^
1250:.
1240:.
1228:.
1224:.
1201:.
1191:64
1189:.
1156:,
1146:^
1080:,
1076:,
1072:,
1030:,
1026:,
1022:,
1018:,
953:→
949:→
930:.
922:.
840:.
808:,
794:,
742:,
736:.
608:.
551:,
502:,
449:.
433:,
255:.
186:,
2428:e
2421:t
2414:v
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