History of science

1659: 1806: 2879:. The Aether was a celestial element, and therefore made up the matter of the celestial bodies. The elements of earth, water, air and fire were derived of a combination of two of the characteristics of hot, wet, cold, and dry, and all had their inevitable place and motion. The motion of these elements begins with earth being the closest to "the Earth," then water, air, fire, and finally Aether. In addition to the makeup of all things, Aristotle came up with theories as to why things did not return to their natural motion. He understood that water sits above earth, air above water, and fire above air in their natural state. He explained that although all elements must return to their natural state, the human body and other living things have a constraint on the elements – thus not allowing the elements making one who they are to return to their natural state. 6026: 3807:, both of which were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe well into the 17th century. Amongst his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, and the introduction of clinical pharmacology. Institutionalization of medicine was another important achievement in the Islamic world. Although hospitals as an institution for the sick emerged in the Byzantium empire, the model of institutionalized medicine for all social classes was extensive in the Islamic empire and was scattered throughout. In addition to treating patients, physicians could teach apprentice physicians, as well write and do research. The discovery of the pulmonary transit of blood in the human body by 3315:

at the highest level had an obligation to provide advice or intellectual companionship to their Roman benefactors, or to even take care of their libraries. The less fortunate or accomplished ones would teach their children or perform menial tasks. The level of detail and sophistication of Greek knowledge was adjusted to suit the interests of their Roman patrons. That meant popularizing Greek knowledge by presenting information that were of practical value such as medicine or logic (for courts and politics) but excluding subtle details of Greek metaphysics and epistemology. Beyond the basics, the Romans did not value natural philosophy and considered it an amusement for leisure time.

4463: 15221: 4641:. Copernicus proposed the idea that the Earth and all heavenly spheres, containing the planets and other objects in the cosmos, rotated around the Sun. His heliocentric model also proposed that all stars were fixed and did not rotate on an axis, nor in any motion at all. His theory proposed the yearly rotation of the Earth and the other heavenly spheres around the Sun and was able to calculate the distances of planets using deferents and epicycles. Although these calculations were not completely accurate, Copernicus was able to understand the distance order of each heavenly sphere. The Copernican heliocentric system was a revival of the hypotheses of 3293:. Greek settlements had existed in Italy for centuries and the ability to read and speak Greek was not uncommon in Italian cities such as Rome. Moreover, the settlement of Greek scholars in Rome, whether voluntarily or as slaves, gave Romans access to teachers of Greek literature and philosophy. Conversely, young Roman scholars also studied abroad in Greece and upon their return to Rome, were able to convey Greek achievements to their Latin leadership. And despite the translation of a few Greek texts into Latin, Roman scholars who aspired to the highest level did so using the Greek language. The Roman 1272: 2567: 5234: 2807: 3444: 1080:, written at about the same time, contains a surgical manual for treating wounds, fractures, and dislocations. The Egyptians believed that the effectiveness of their medicines depended on the preparation and administration under appropriate rituals. Medical historians believe that ancient Egyptian pharmacology, for example, was largely ineffective. Both the Ebers and Edwin Smith papyri applied the following components to the treatment of disease: examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis, which display strong parallels to the basic 5076: 3609: 6741: 1120: 4691: 4649:. Aristarchus of Samos did propose that the Earth rotated around the Sun but did not mention anything about the other heavenly spheres' order, motion, or rotation. Seleucus of Seleucia also proposed the rotation of the Earth around the Sun but did not mention anything about the other heavenly spheres. In addition, Seleucus of Seleucia understood that the Moon rotated around the Earth and could be used to explain the tides of the oceans, thus further proving his understanding of the heliocentric idea. 3626:. An Ijazah differs from a western university degree in many ways one being that it is issued by a single person rather than an institution, and another being that it is not an individual degree declaring adequate knowledge over broad subjects, but rather a license to teach and pass on a very specific set of texts. Women were also allowed to attend madrasas, as both students and teachers, something not seen in high western education until the 1800s. Madrasas were more than just academic centers. The 6294: 5928: 1425: 17159: 2994: 6727: 80: 3543: 17123: 16449: 15614: 1413: 5809: 4624: 4025:). Such independence was a matter of custom, which could, in principle, be revoked by their respective rulers if they felt threatened. Discussions of various subjects or claims at these medieval institutions, no matter how controversial, were done in a formalized way so as to declare such discussions as being within the bounds of a university and therefore protected by the privileges of that institution's sovereignty. A claim could be described as 16424: 15602: 2180: 17148: 3886: 2265: 2055: 15591: 6659: 3111: 5354: 1038: 3095: 17135: 5481: 5144: 4664: 5383:. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. The theory that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that cannot be broken down without losing the basic chemical and physical properties of that matter, was provided by 6546:. New Classical economics was developed in the 1970s, emphasizing solid microeconomics as the basis for macroeconomic growth. New Keynesian economics was created partially in response to New Classical economics. It shows how imperfect competition and market rigidities, means monetary policy has real effects, and enables analysis of different policies. 872:. Historians in the 1980s and 1990s described the structural barriers to participation and began to recover the contributions of overlooked individuals. Historians have also investigated the mundane practices of science such as fieldwork and specimen collection, correspondence, drawing, record-keeping, and the use of laboratory and field equipment. 1373:

particularly in China occurred largely independently from those of Europe and the confirmed early influences that these two civilizations had on the development of science in Europe in the pre-modern era were indirect, with Mesopotamia and later the Islamic World acting as intermediaries. The arrival of modern science, which grew out of the

5522:, which was published in 1859. In it, Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes over long periods of time. The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology. Implications of evolution on fields outside of pure science have led to both 4892:'s pre-existing notions of heating and cooling functions. The history of early modern biology and medicine is often told through the search for the seat of the soul. Galen in his descriptions of his foundational work in medicine presents the distinctions between arteries, veins, and nerves using the vocabulary of the soul. 6599:, began to exert their influence as well, leading some researchers to investigate the mind by investigating the brain, rather than cognition. These new forms of investigation assume that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as 2984:"With astonishment we find ourselves on the threshold of modern science. Nor should it be supposed that by some trick of translation the extracts have been given an air of modernity. Far from it. The vocabulary of these writings and their style are the source from which our own vocabulary and style have been derived." 6017:", requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers. The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of "basic" research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications. 3646:) and were protected by powerful patrons. They could also travel freely and exchange ideas as there were no political barriers within the unified Islamic state. Islamic science during this time was primarily focused on the correction, extension, articulation, and application of Greek ideas to new problems. 1439:(c. 4th millennium BCE ~ c. 3rd millennium BCE). The people of this civilization made bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, which is favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler—the 5411:. By the 20th century, systematic production of refined materials provided a ready supply of products which provided not only energy, but also synthetic materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday disposable resources. Application of the techniques of organic chemistry to living organisms resulted in 845:, suggesting that religion and science have been in conflict methodologically, factually and politically throughout history. The "conflict thesis" has since lost favor among the majority of contemporary scientists and historians of science. However, some contemporary philosophers and scientists, such as 5344:

beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators

3504:. The theory of impetus was an auxiliary or secondary theory of Aristotelian dynamics, put forth initially to explain projectile motion against gravity. It is the intellectual precursor to the concepts of inertia, momentum and acceleration in classical mechanics. The works of John Philoponus inspired 2874:

that put the celestial bodies in motion. Aristotle tried to explain everything through mathematics and physics, but sometimes explained things such as the motion of celestial bodies through a higher power such as God. Aristotle did not have the technological advancements that would have explained the

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of the 16th and 17th centuries "learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture." Western academic thought on the history of Chinese technology

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From the earliest the Chinese used a positional decimal system on counting boards in order to calculate. To express 10, a single rod is placed in the second box from the right. The spoken language uses a similar system to English: e.g. four thousand two hundred and seven. No symbol was used for zero.

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The ancient Egyptians even developed an official calendar that contained twelve months, thirty days each, and five days at the end of the year. Unlike the Babylonian calendar or the ones used in Greek city-states at the time, the official Egyptian calendar was much simpler as it was fixed and did not

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in 1231. The granting of a charter meant that the medieval universities were partially sovereign and independent from local authorities. Their independence allowed them to conduct themselves and judge their own members based on their own rules. Furthermore, as initially religious institutions, their

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was also steadily expanding during this time and soon became a major patron of education in the Latin West. Initially, the Christian church adopted some of the reasoning tools of Greek philosophy in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE to defend its faith against sophisticated opponents. Nevertheless, Greek

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There was not a defined societal structure for healthcare during the age of Hippocrates. At that time, society was not organized and knowledgeable as people still relied on pure religious reasoning to explain illnesses. Hippocrates introduced the first healthcare system based on science and clinical

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cultures, messages from the gods or omens were concealed in all natural phenomena that could be deciphered and interpreted by those who are adept. Hence, it was believed that the gods could speak through all terrestrial objects (e.g., animal entrails, dreams, malformed births, or even the color of a

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and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. In fact, European university put many works about the natural world and the study of nature at the center of its curriculum, with the result that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its

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In the beginning, support for scholarship in Greek knowledge was almost entirely funded by the Roman upper class. There were all sorts of arrangements, ranging from a talented scholar being attached to a wealthy household to owning educated Greek-speaking slaves. In exchange, scholars who succeeded

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astronomer and mathematician. Kiddinu's value for the solar year is in use for today's calendars. Babylonian astronomy was "the first and highly successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena." According to the historian A. Aaboe, "all subsequent varieties

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It was not that there was no order in nature for the Chinese, but rather that it was not an order ordained by a rational personal being, and hence there was no conviction that rational personal beings would be able to spell out in their lesser earthly languages the divine code of laws which he had

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Astronomical observations from China constitute the longest continuous sequence from any civilization and include records of sunspots (112 records from 364 BCE), supernovas (1054), lunar and solar eclipses. By the 12th century, they could reasonably accurately make predictions of eclipses, but the

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The oral tradition of preliterate societies had several features, the first of which was its fluidity. New information was constantly absorbed and adjusted to new circumstances or community needs. There were no archives or reports. This fluidity was closely related to the practical need to explain

6621:, who argued that aspects of society that promoted structural integration were therefore "functional". This structural functionalism approach was questioned in the 1960s, when sociologists came to see this approach as merely a justification for inequalities present in the status quo. In reaction, 5721:

approach to sociology. In particular, just Auguste Comte, illustrated with his work the transition from a theological to a metaphysical stage and, from this, to a positive stage. Comte took care of the classification of the sciences as well as a transit of humanity towards a situation of progress

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At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy in these

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Anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the Age of Enlightenment. It was during this period that Europeans attempted systematically to study human behavior. Traditions of jurisprudence, history, philology and sociology developed during this time and informed the development of the

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Higher education at a madrasa (or college) was focused on Islamic law and religious science and students had to engage in self-study for everything else. And despite the occasional theological backlash, many Islamic scholars of science were able to conduct their work in relatively tolerant urban

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were centers for many different religious and scientific studies and were the culmination of different institutions such as mosques based around religious studies, housing for out-of-town visitors, and finally educational institutions focused on the natural sciences. Unlike Western universities,

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By the eleventh century, most of Europe had become Christian; stronger monarchies emerged; borders were restored; technological developments and agricultural innovations were made, increasing the food supply and population. Classical Greek texts were translated from Arabic and Greek into Latin,

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in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each

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Navya-Nyāya developed a sophisticated language and conceptual scheme that allowed it to raise, analyse, and solve problems in logic and epistemology. It systematised all the Nyāya concepts into four main categories: sense or perception (pratyakşa), inference (anumāna), comparison or similarity

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applied the new technique to rocks throughout Europe and eastern North America, setting the stage for more detailed, government-funded mapping projects in later decades. Midway through the 19th century, the focus of geology shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand

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The medical sciences were prominently cultivated in the Islamic world. The works of Greek medical theories, especially those of Galen, were translated into Arabic and there was an outpouring of medical texts by Islamic physicians, which were aimed at organizing, elaborating, and disseminating

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appeared at Venice in 1482, one of the very earliest of mathematical books to be set in type; it has been estimated that since then at least a thousand editions have been published. Perhaps no book other than the Bible can boast so many editions, and certainly no mathematical work has had an

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required knowledge about the properties of metals. Nonetheless, the Mesopotamians seem to have had little interest in gathering information about the natural world for the mere sake of gathering information and were far more interested in studying the manner in which the gods had ordered the

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Mathematical achievements from Mesopotamia had some influence on the development of mathematics in India, and there were confirmed transmissions of mathematical ideas between India and China, which were bidirectional. Nevertheless, the mathematical and scientific achievements in India and

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in 1681, natural philosophers began to explore the idea that the Earth had changed over time. Burnet and his contemporaries interpreted Earth's past in terms of events described in the Bible, but their work laid the intellectual foundations for secular interpretations of Earth history.

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as "a book of political realism, a book analyzing how the political world does work and not very often stating how it ought to work, a book that frequently discloses to a king what calculating and sometimes brutal measures he must carry out to preserve the state and the common good."

2288:. Although no tremors could be felt in the capital when Zhang told the court that an earthquake had just occurred in the northwest, a message came soon afterwards that an earthquake had indeed struck 400 to 500 km (250 to 310 mi) northwest of Luoyang (in what is now modern 1319:. Using this data, they developed mathematical methods to compute the changing length of daylight in the course of the year, predict the appearances and disappearances of the Moon and planets, and eclipses of the Sun and Moon. Only a few astronomers' names are known, such as that of 2975:

worked out the laws of equilibrium; they must have had practical and intuitional knowledge of the principals involved. What Archimedes did was to sort out the theoretical implications of this practical knowledge and present the resulting body of knowledge as a logically coherent

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In the mid-20th century, much of the methodologies of earlier anthropological and ethnographical study were reevaluated with an eye towards research ethics, while at the same time the scope of investigation has broadened far beyond the traditional study of "primitive cultures".

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created comprehensive classification systems for rocks and minerals—a collective achievement that transformed geology into a cutting edge field by the end of the eighteenth century. These early geologists also proposed a generalized interpretations of Earth history that led

2910:; an awareness of the importance of certain scientific problems, especially those related to the problem of change and its causes; and a recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural phenomena and of undertaking empirical research. In the 4243:

led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, "but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in 1277". However, many scholars agree with Duhem's view that the mid-late Middle Ages saw important scientific developments.

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However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into "modern science". According to Needham, it may have been the religious and philosophical framework of Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to accept the ideas of laws of nature:

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In the late Victorian period it was common to write about the 'warfare between science and religion' and to presume that the two bodies of culture must always have been in conflict. However, it is a very long time since these attitudes have been held by historians of

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was developed, which was based in part on the philosophies of Karl Marx. Conflict theorists saw society as an arena in which different groups compete for control over resources. Symbolic interactionism also came to be regarded as central to sociological thinking.

4225:. Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his 3278:, Cicero, and others provided examples of the politics of the republic and Rome's empire and wars. The study of politics during this age was oriented toward understanding history, understanding methods of governing, and describing the operation of governments. 2292:). Zhang called his device the 'instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth' (Houfeng didong yi 候风地动仪), so-named because he and others thought that earthquakes were most likely caused by the enormous compression of trapped air. 814:

Science is a human activity, and scientific contributions have come from people from a wide range of different backgrounds and cultures. Historians of science increasingly see their field as part of a global history of exchange, conflict and collaboration.

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text, composed in the early centuries of the common era, is a comprehensive text on Tamil grammar, which includes sutras on orthography, phonology, etymology, morphology, semantics, prosody, sentence structure and the significance of context in language.

3524:" as they brought with them a great deal of classical learning including an understanding of botany, medicine, and zoology. Byzantium also gave the West important inputs: John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian physics, and the works of Dioscorides. 4264:: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object and an intermediary "sensible species" is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye. Scholars such as 1076:, written in around 1600 BCE, contains medical recipes for treating diseases related to the eyes, mouth, skin, internal organs, and extremities, as well as abscesses, wounds, burns, ulcers, swollen glands, tumors, headaches, and even bad breath. The 4296:

in 1453, when many Byzantine scholars sought refuge in the West. Meanwhile, the introduction of printing was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed ideas such as

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Starting in around 3000 BCE, the ancient Egyptians developed a numbering system that was decimal in character and had oriented their knowledge of geometry to solving practical problems such as those of surveyors and builders. Their development of

4037:(by hypothesis). This meant that the discussions were presented as purely an intellectual exercise that did not require those involved to commit themselves to the truth of a claim or to proselytize. Modern academic concepts and practices such as 6574:

limiting psychological study to overt behavior, since that could be reliably measured. Scientific knowledge of the "mind" was considered too metaphysical, hence impossible to achieve. The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of

4364:; but also the re-discovery of Aristotle during the Scholastic period presaged large social and political changes. Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that 806:

The nature of the history of science is a topic of debate (as is, by implication, the definition of science itself). The history of science is often seen as a linear story of progress but historians have come to see the story as more complex.

3772:(known as Alhazen in the West), a mathematician and astronomer, synthesized a new theory of vision based on the works of his predecessors. His new theory included a complete system of geometrical optics, which was set in great detail in his 2762:, postulated non-supernatural explanations for natural phenomena. For example, that land floats on water and that earthquakes are caused by the agitation of the water upon which the land floats, rather than the god Poseidon. Thales' student 2914:

scholars frequently employed the principles developed in earlier Greek thought: the application of mathematics and deliberate empirical research, in their scientific investigations. Thus, clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient

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other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it.

15068:– Contains primary sources by such major figures in the history of scientific inquiry as Otto Brunfels, Charles Darwin, Erasmus Darwin, Carolus Linnaeus Antony van Leeuwenhoek, Jan Swammerdam, James Sowerby, Andreas Vesalius, and others. 5407:, and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds. The later part of the 19th century saw the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil supply from 14141: 4344:

showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristotelian natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine). Thus modern science in Europe was resumed in a period of great upheaval: the Protestant

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was also studied for divinatory purposes. Most information about the training and domestication of animals was probably transmitted orally without being written down, but one text dealing with the training of horses has survived.

5472:, which provided a plausible mechanism for it. Plate tectonics also provided a unified explanation for a wide range of seemingly unrelated geological phenomena. Since the 1960s it has served as the unifying principle in geology. 1712:'s updated the Aryabhatan model for the interior planets, Mercury, and Venus and the equation that he specified for the center of these planets was more accurate than the ones in European or Islamic astronomy until the time of 1443:—whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimeters) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length. 950:. Finally, there was an inclination to unquestioningly accept explanations that might be deemed implausible in more modern times while at the same time not being aware that such credulous behaviors could have posed problems. 11898:, Arab Origins of the Discovery of the Refraction of Light; Roshdi Hifni Rashed (Picture) Awarded the 2007 King Faisal International Prize, Optics & Photonics News (OPN, Logo), Vol. 18, No. 10, pp. 22–23 (October 2007). 3367:

began attacking and invading the Roman frontiers. These combined events led to a general decline in political and economic conditions. The living standards of the Roman upper class was severely impacted, and their loss of

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Scholars with geometric skills made significant improvements to the earlier classical texts on light and sight by Euclid, Aristotle, and Ptolemy. The earliest surviving Arabic treatises were written in the 9th century by

3066:. The collection notes descriptions of medical philosophies and how disease and lifestyle choices reflect on the physical body. Hippocrates influenced a Westernized, professional relationship among physician and patient. 14305: 3930:, began to venture further and further east. The written accounts of Polo and his fellow travelers inspired other Western European maritime explorers to search for a direct sea route to Asia, ultimately leading to the 4477:

is seen as a flowering of the European Renaissance. There was a willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers. This resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the

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based on natural causes. Inquiries were also aimed at such practical goals such as establishing a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a variety of illnesses. The ancient people who were considered the first

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of scientific astronomy, in the Hellenistic world, in India, in Islam, and in the West—if not indeed all subsequent endeavour in the exact sciences—depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways."

4112:. Many of the Masters were drawn to encyclopedias and had used them as textbooks. But these scholars yearned for the complete original texts of the Ancient Greek philosophers, mathematicians, and physicians such as 4272:

started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle's mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of

1904:(c. 350–283 BCE). In this treatise, the behaviors and relationships of the people, the King, the State, the Government Superintendents, Courtiers, Enemies, Invaders, and Corporations are analyzed and documented. 3242:

The development of archaeology has its roots in history and with those who were interested in the past, such as kings and queens who wanted to show past glories of their respective nations. The 5th-century-BCE

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were shown by the analysis of the orbit of Mars. Kepler introduced the revolutionary concept of planetary orbit. Because of his work astronomical phenomena came to be seen as being governed by physical laws.

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for a wide range of diseases. It also includes sections on the importance of diet, hygiene, prevention, medical education, and the teamwork of a physician, nurse and patient necessary for recovery to health.

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The conflict thesis, at least in its simple form, is now widely perceived as a wholly inadequate intellectual framework within which to construct a sensible and realistic historiography of Western science.

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In historic reflections on art, cyclic schemas play a prominent role. This is a difference between art history and science history. The idea of linear progress simply does not apply in the esthetic domain.

10654:"The Eclipse That Ended a War and Shook the Gods Forever – Thales, a Greek philosopher 2,600 years ago, is celebrated for predicting a famous solar eclipse and founding what came to be known as science" 953:

The development of writing enabled humans to store and communicate knowledge across generations with much greater accuracy. Its invention was a prerequisite for the development of philosophy and later

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became a model for subsequent Roman encyclopedias and Varro's nine liberal arts were considered suitable education for a Roman gentleman. The first seven of Varro's nine arts would later define the

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contributed to the advancement of science in the period as well with its appearance out of Venice around 1450. The new glass allowed for better spectacles and eventually to the inventions of the

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that were empirical in nature, focusing on biological causation and the diversity of life. He made countless observations of nature, especially the habits and attributes of plants and animals on

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In the Middle Ages, the classical learning continued in three major linguistic cultures and civilizations: Greek (the Byzantine Empire), Arabic (the Islamic world), and Latin (Western Europe).

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of the early 19th century reshaped science by opening up new pursuits unexpected in the classical approaches of the Enlightenment. The decline of Romanticism occurred because a new movement,

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the surface of the Earth had changed. The first comprehensive theories of mountain building were proposed during this period, as were the first modern theories of earthquakes and volcanoes.

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in 180 CE, the favorable conditions for scholarship and learning in the Roman Empire were upended by political unrest, civil war, urban decay, and looming economic crisis. In around 250 CE,

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that is concerned with the study of happiness, mental well-being, and positive human functioning, and is a reaction to 20th century psychology's emphasis on mental illness and dysfunction.

15042: 14179: 11006:, many editions, such as the paperback by Penguin Books. Copyrights in 1944, 1949, 1953, 1961, 1963. The first quote above comes from Part 1, Chapter 1; the second, from Part 2, Chapter 4. 9731:. Sources and Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences. Vol. I–II (1st ed.). Springer (jointly with Hindustan Book Agency, New Delhi). pp. LXVIII, 1084. 4900:

A critical innovation was the creation of permanent scientific societies and their scholarly journals, which dramatically sped the diffusion of new ideas. Typical was the founding of the

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of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about such as electric power, electrical telegraphy, the telephone, and radio.

4048:, which were aimed at providing beginning students with the skills for reasoning and scholarly language. Students would begin their studies starting with the first three liberal arts or 11067:

Kleisiaris CF, Sfakianakis C, Papathanasiou IV. Health care practices in ancient Greece: The Hippocratic ideal. J Med Ethics Hist Med. 2014 Mar 15;7:6. PMID 25512827; PMCID: PMC4263393.

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The beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics. The long-held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances. Beginning in 1900,

5738:, began to take hold of the ideals of the intellectuals after 1840 and lasted until about 1880. At the same time, the romantic reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as 3483:

in the 12th centuries. The curriculum of monastic schools included the study of the few available ancient texts and of new works on practical subjects like medicine and timekeeping.

4820:. Modern chemistry emerged from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries through the material practices and theories promoted by alchemy, medicine, manufacturing and mining. 4784:, in 1661; although the alchemical tradition continued for some time after his work. Other important steps included the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like 5860:, which explained the preceding quantum theories. Currently, general relativity and quantum mechanics are inconsistent with each other, and efforts are underway to unify the two. 4805: 2875:

motion of celestial bodies. In addition, Aristotle had many views on the elements. He believed that everything was derived of the elements earth, water, air, fire, and lastly the

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did not diminish learning and culture in the Greek provinces. On the contrary, the appreciation of Greek achievements in literature, philosophy, politics, and the arts by Rome's

2163: 1658: 14297: 5186:" that regulated economic systems made up of actors guided only by self-interest. The "invisible hand" mentioned in a lost page in the middle of a chapter in the middle of the " 4865: 2678:

representing numbers, coefficients, and calendar periods amounting to 20 days and even 20 years for tracking social, religious, political, and economic events in 360-day years.

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became a powerful tool for making geological maps, because it allowed geologists to correlate the rocks in one locality with those of similar age in other, distant localities.

3698:, drew up tables, and applied trignometry to spheres and planes. Many of their engineers, instruments makers, and surveyors contributed books in applied mathematics. It was in 3634:

in the 16th century. The Suleymaniye Mosque was home to a hospital and medical college, a kitchen, and children's school, as well as serving as a temporary home for travelers.

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Coppa, A.; et al. (6 April 2006). "Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry: Flint tips were surprisingly effective for drilling tooth enamel in a prehistoric population".

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caused massive changes in the dissemination of information. Advances in biology also led to large increases in food production, as well as the elimination of diseases such as

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in 1929 that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance, led to the understanding that the universe is expanding, and the formulation of the

3376:. These administrative divisions weakened the intellectual contact between the two regions. Eventually, both halves went their separate ways, with the Greek East becoming the 11245:

of Euclid not only was the earliest major Greek mathematical work to come down to us, but also the most influential textbook of all times. The first printed versions of the

2295:

There are many notable contributors to early Chinese disciplines, inventions, and practices throughout the ages. One of the best examples would be the medieval Song Chinese

1377:, in India and China and the greater Asian region in general can be traced to the scientific activities of Jesuit missionaries who were interested in studying the region's 1060:

written in the 2500–1200 BCE, the ancient Egyptians believed that disease was mainly caused by the invasion of bodies by evil forces or spirits. Thus, in addition to using

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Lindberg, David C. (1990). "Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Baker to Butterfield: A preliminary sketch". In Lindberg, David C.; Westman, Robert S. (eds.).

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In political science during the 20th century, the study of ideology, behaviouralism and international relations led to a multitude of 'pol-sci' subdisciplines including

4969:, published between 1751 and 1772 brought this new understanding to a wider audience. The impact of this process was not limited to science and technology, but affected 6454:

Based on wireless transmission of electromagnetic radiation and global networks of cellular operation, the mobile phone became a primary means to access the internet.

6176:

from publishing this finding in her PhD thesis because of the widely held belief that stars had the same composition as the Earth. However, four years later, in 1929,

3908:, Greek and Roman taboos had meant that dissection was usually banned, but in the Middle Ages medical teachers and students at Bologna began to open human bodies, and 3326:(c. 135-c. 51 BCE), a native of Syria, wrote prolifically on history, geography, moral philosophy, and natural philosophy. He greatly influenced Latin writers such as 2843:

and the notion that universal truths can be arrived at via observation and induction, thereby laying the foundations of the scientific method. Aristotle also produced

1247:. The profession was generally passed down from father to son and was held in extremely high regard. Of less frequent recourse was another kind of healer known as an 6160:

emerged in the Atomic Age with the use of radioisotopes to visualize food webs and by the 1970s ecosystem ecology deeply influenced global environmental management.

3576:

The eastward transmission of Greek heritage to Western Asia was a slow and gradual process that spanned over a thousand years, beginning with the Asian conquests of

4490:. The Scientific Revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics, and is traditionally held to have begun in 1543, when the books 15651: 11282:

Shortly after Euclid, compiler of the definitive textbook, came Archimedes of Syracuse (c. 287–212 BC.), the most original and profound mathematician of antiquity.

6914: 10681: 8755: 3537: 1259:. These physicians, who could be either male or female, also dressed wounds, set limbs, and performed simple surgeries. The ancient Mesopotamians also practiced 11771:(1990). "Al-Khwārizmī, Abu Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Mūsā". In Gillispie, Charles Coulston. Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 7. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 10663: 6041:. The 20th century also saw the integration of physics and chemistry, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom. 2231:

used water power to rotate the sphere in real time. This included rings for the meridian and ecliptic. By 1270 they had incorporated the principles of the Arab

957:. Moreover, the extent to which philosophy and science would flourish in ancient times depended on the efficiency of a writing system (e.g., use of alphabets). 3976:, and conversed with other fellow scholars. A friar who became well-known would attract a following of disciples, giving rise to a brotherhood of scholars (or 11668: 11303: 9141: 6156:, whose particularly holistic view of nature in general (and Darwin's theory in particular) was important in the spread of ecological thinking. The field of 5106:

hiked central France and recorded their observations on some of the first geological maps. Aided by chemical experimentation, naturalists such as Scotland's

667:

into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived the learning of natural philosophy in the West. Traditions of early science were also developed in

3799:

in the West, c. 980–1037) was a prolific Persian medical encyclopedist wrote extensively on medicine, with his two most notable works in medicine being the

2839:

in 387 BCE, whose motto was "Let none unversed in geometry enter here," and also turned out many notable philosophers. Plato's student Aristotle introduced

1197:. When a person became ill, doctors prescribed magical formulas to be recited as well as medicinal treatments. The earliest medical prescriptions appear in 16457: 3022: 12313: 5468:'s theory of "continental drift" was widely dismissed when he proposed it in the 1910s, but new data gathered in the 1950s and 1960s led to the theory of 5300:

In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. Advances in astronomy and in optical systems in the 19th century resulted in the first observation of an

6538:

which advocates reducing taxes as a means to increase the amount of money available for economic expansion. Other modern schools of economic thought are

15028: 12564: 12279: 11941:

Jacquart, Danielle (2008). "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances". European Review (Cambridge University Press) 16: 219–227.

9535: 6356:, first developed at the end of the 19th century, were perfected and universally deployed. The first car was introduced by Karl Benz in 1885. The first 1805: 822:

has been variously characterized in terms of "conflict", "harmony", "complexity", and "mutual independence", among others. Events in Europe such as the

3592:

was preserved and absorbed into Islamic theology, law, culture, and commerce, which were aided by the translations of traditional Greek texts and some

3227:, while notes on other minerals presages mineralogy. He recognizes other minerals have characteristic crystal shapes, but in one example, confuses the 456: 8956: 6534:. Monetarism focuses on using the supply and demand of money as a method for controlling economic activity. In the 1970s, monetarism has adapted into 6431:

Einstein's paper "On the Quantum Theory of Radiation" outlined the principles of the stimulated emission of photons. This led to the invention of the

3405:, due to invasions by Germanic tribes, civil unrest, and economic collapse. Contact with the classical tradition was lost in specific regions such as 3397:(354-430 CE) were ambivalent and defended Greek philosophy and science as the best ways to understand the natural world and therefore treated it as a 930:. They were also prone to identify causes with beginnings, thereby providing a historical origin with an explanation. There was also a reliance on a " 11714: 11561:

Duhem, Pierre (1913). "Physics, History of". In Herbermann, Charles G.; Pace, Edward A.; Pallen, Condé B.; Wynne, John J.; Shahan, Thomas J. (eds.).

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became part of a broadening of the field from a study of rocks into a study of the Earth as a planet. Other elements of this transformation include:

5131:, to argue that layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained: a principle first applied to the geology of the Paris Basin. The use of 11526:

The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, Prehistory to A.D. 1450

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Schaffer, Simon (1 June 1992). "Late Victorian metrology and its instrumentation: A manufactory of Ohms". In Bud, Robert; Cozzens, Susan E. (eds.).

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In the early 20th century, the study of heredity became a major investigation after the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of inheritance developed by

5681:

Modern sociology emerged in the early 19th century as the academic response to the modernization of the world. Among many early sociologists (e.g.,

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Kusuba, Takanori (2004). "Indian Rules for the Decomposition of Fractions". In Charles Burnett; Jan P. Hogendijk; Kim Plofker; et al. (eds.).

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questioned religious doctrine. The works of Ptolemy (astronomy) and Galen (medicine) were found not always to match everyday observations. Work by

2284:

in 132 CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific

8114:

At the close of the twentieth century, proponents of the conflict thesis are well represented by Richard Dawkins, E. O. Wilson and Daniel Dennett.

5574:. However, Semmelweis' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and handwashing came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon 4108:) and the commentaries on them were required readings. As time passed, the lower faculty was allowed to confer its own doctoral degree called the 14171: 9005: 4905: 13416: 11747: 9932:, page 60-61, Quote: "(...) the Charaka Samhita and the Susruta Samhita, both being recensions of two ancient traditions of the Hindu medicine". 7412:

Grant, Edward (2007). "Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period to the end of the nineteenth century".

3037:

for calculating the position of planets. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical

15296: 13554: 11835: 8364: 8159: 7969: 7857: 7390: 5722:

attributable to a re-examination of nature according to the affirmation of 'sociality' as the basis of the scientifically interpreted society.

4611:

derived the centripetal and centrifugal forces and was the first to transfer mathematical inquiry to describe unobservable physical phenomena.

4292:

and other disasters sealed a sudden end to philosophic and scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was stimulated by the

3880: 3350:(23/24–79 CE), a native of northern Italy, who wrote several books on the history of Rome and grammar. His most famous work was his voluminous 3305:. He mastered considerable portions of Greek philosophy, wrote Latin treatises on several topics, and even wrote Greek commentaries of Plato's 2216:

gained much favor in 1601 by his predictions. By 635 Chinese astronomers had observed that the tails of comets always point away from the sun.

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but instead existed as a cloud of isolated, disconnected ideas about rocks, minerals, and landforms long before it became a coherent science.

4840: 4516: 3468:) of Europe during the 5th century. In contrast, the Byzantine Empire resisted the barbarian attacks and preserved and improved the learning. 2831:

produced the first systematic discussions of natural philosophy, which did much to shape later investigations of nature. Their development of

13712: 9180: 6424:. Contemporary computer science typically distinguishes itself by emphasizing mathematical 'theory' in contrast to the practical emphasis of 6215:

The understanding of neurons and the nervous system became increasingly precise and molecular during the 20th century. For example, in 1952,

5828:

and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels. Not only did

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diminished scholarly pursuits. Moreover, during the 3rd and 4th centuries CE, the Roman Empire was administratively divided into two halves:

8790:. Vol. 3. New York City, New York: Charles Schribner's Sons, MacMillan Library Reference USA, Simon & Schuster MacMillan. pp. 8546: 15644: 15172: 14046: 12979:

Newman, William R.; Mauskopf, Seymour H.; Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2014). Eddy, Matthew Daniel; Mauskopf, Seymour; Newman, William R. (eds.).

6678:

In the early 21st century, some concepts that originated in 20th century physics were proven. On 4 July 2012, physicists working at CERN's

6384:. Gene mapping and gene sequencing, invented by Drs. Mark Skolnik and Walter Gilbert, respectively, are the two technologies that made the 3050:

protocols. Hippocrates' theories about physics and medicine helped pave the way in creating an organized medical structure for society. In

12886: 11891: 6247:. Beginning in 1966, Eric Kandel and collaborators examined biochemical changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage in 4124:, which were not available to them at the time. These Ancient Greek texts were to be found in the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic World. 3778:. His book was translated into Latin and was relied upon as a principal source on the science of optics in Europe until the 17th century. 1279:(Iraq), 320-150 BCE, the list gives each constellation, the number of stars and the distance information to the next constellation in ells 926:

and justify a present state of affairs. Another feature was the tendency to describe the universe as just sky and earth, with a potential

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R.W. Vernon, G. McDonnell and A. Schmidt, 'An integrated geophysical and analytical appraisal of early iron-working: three case studies'

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The contributions of the Ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians in the areas of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine had entered and shaped

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and the Needham Research Institute. Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, the

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Cowan, W.M.; Harter, D.H.; Kandel, E.R. (2000). "The emergence of modern neuroscience: Some implications for neurology and psychiatry".

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saw social interactions as a stage performance, with individuals preparing "backstage" and attempting to control their audience through

5758:. During the late 19th century, battles over the "study of man" took place between those of an "anthropological" persuasion (relying on 5387:

in 1803, although the question took a hundred years to settle as proven. Dalton also formulated the law of mass relationships. In 1869,

3622:

students at a madrasa would learn from one specific teacher, who would issue a certificate at the completion of their studies called an

1780:(c. 520–460 BCE), whose grammar formulates close to 4,000 rules for Sanskrit. Inherent in his analytic approach are the concepts of the 15351: 15336: 15331: 15316: 5586:. Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in 2041: 1611: 1594: 688: 684: 676: 3728:. Al-Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. Corrections were made to Ptolemy's 3334:, which covered nine arts: grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, musical theory, medicine, and architecture. The 2219:

From antiquity, the Chinese used an equatorial system for describing the skies and a star map from 940 was drawn using a cylindrical (

1614:

made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and analysis. In particular,

852:

Historians have emphasized that trust is necessary for agreement on claims about nature. In this light, the 1660 establishment of the

16502: 15784: 14124: 13763: 7281: 4986: 3662:

originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians made several key refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of

3655: 2687: 2089: 819: 14244:"The new biological anthropology: Bringing Washburn's new physical anthropology into 2010 and beyond-The 2008 AAPA luncheon lecture" 13740: 13226: 11917: 5320:

In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of

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from different parts of society, and profoundly influenced the popular understanding of "man's place in the universe". Separately,

4849: 4169: 778:. Moreover, industrial and military concerns as well as the increasing complexity of new research endeavors ushered in the era of " 14638:

Physical Thought from the Presocratics to the Quantum Physicists: an anthology selected, introduced and edited by Shmuel Sambursky

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presented a mathematical model for transmission of electrical signals in neurons of the giant axon of a squid, which they called "

3058:(c. 460 BC – c. 370 BCE) and his followers were the first to describe many diseases and medical conditions and developed the 2515:, indeed, would have scorned such an idea as being too naïve for the subtlety and complexity of the universe as they intuited it. 17197: 16452: 15637: 14798: 14282: 11344: 9708: 7252:"Natural Philosophy or Science in Premodern Epistemic Regimes? The Case of the Astrology of Albert the Great and Galileo Galilei" 6420:. One area in which advances in computing have contributed to more general scientific development is by facilitating large-scale 6401: 2392:(1020–1101) was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a treatise related to 13852: 13039: 12471: 11960:

Brater, D. Craig; Daly, Walter J. (2000). "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century".

11190: 4401:, remained authoritative for millennia: its interpretation of fossils was not overturned until after the Scientific Revolution. 14402: 13223:"A Correction to the Record of Early Electrophysiology Research on the 250th Anniversary of a Historic Expedition to Île de Ré" 11564:

The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, and History of the Catholic Church

5754:

encounters between Western Europe and the rest of the world, and much of 18th- and 19th-century anthropology is now classed as

5095: 4197: 4093: 15384: 13329: 13132: 12257: 6792: 1340:

dog urinating on a person) and celestial phenomena. Moreover, Babylonian astrology was inseparable from Babylonian astronomy.

15561: 15326: 15250: 14971: 14918: 14875: 14829: 14808: 14788: 14774: 14756: 14713: 14690: 14672: 14646: 14570: 14551: 14027: 13999: 13927: 13824: 13577: 13530: 13485: 12900: 12658: 12504: 12036: 11873: 11776: 11662: 11533: 11508: 11482: 11461: 11420: 11275: 10836: 10784: 10754: 10722: 10694: 10594: 10561: 10465: 10166: 9988: 9787: 9744: 9595: 9519: 9470: 9433: 9391: 9364: 9174: 9135: 9093: 9067: 8990: 8950: 8882: 8838: 8799: 8749: 8631: 8603: 8340: 8215: 8182: 8135: 7996: 7945: 7833: 7648: 7610: 7429: 7367: 7337: 7312: 7149: 7124: 7064: 7036: 6998: 6701:

developed in 2012 allowed scientists to precisely and easily modify DNA and led to the development of new medicine. In 2020,

4486:

in its worldview, more integrated with mathematics, and more reliable and open as its knowledge was based on a newly defined

3533: 2852: 734:

in its worldview, more integrated with mathematics, and more reliable and open as its knowledge was based on a newly defined

727: 664: 11616: 9476: 8888: 8844: 8482:

Matsuoka, Yoshihiro; Vigouroux, Yves; Goodman, Major M.; Sanchez G., Jesus; Buckler, Edward; Doebley, John (30 April 2002).

7221:"Examination of Scientific Revolution Medicine on the Human Body / Bilimsel Devrim Tıbbını İnsan Bedeni Üzerinden İncelemek" 2851:, classified more than 540 animal species, and dissected at least 50. Aristotle's writings profoundly influenced subsequent 14328: 11568: 10653: 8648: 6098: 5523: 5456:

argued that river valleys were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them. After the discovery of

4752: 3876: 100: 17526: 16145: 15859: 15260: 15245: 15195: 15007: 13523:

Natura, cultura e induzione nell'età delle scienze : fatti e idee del movimento scientifico in Francia e Inghilterra

12248: 11830: 11325: 10943: 10809: 6864: 4658: 4506: 3860: 2856: 632: 573: 15084:

Inter-Divisional Teaching Commission (IDTC) of the International Union for the History and Philosophy of Science (IUHPS)

6340:

In terms of applications, a massive number of new technologies were developed in the 20th century. Technologies such as

5570:

by simply requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in childbirth. This discovery predated the

2774:, which investigated mathematics for its own sake, and was the first to postulate that the Earth is spherical in shape. 16409: 13594: 13499: 12621: 12200: 12099: 11234: 10678: 10013: 9954: 9946: 9929: 9858: 9812: 9301: 9214: 8036: 7729: 7704: 7676: 7585: 7560: 7535: 7510: 7485: 7457: 6924: 6879: 6874: 2020:(Greek) which is the name for a largely comparable, but not equatable, 'four corner argument' within the tradition of 17: 8739: 5709:, qualitative analyses. This microlevel approach played an important role in American sociology, with the theories of 1123:

Clay models of animal livers dating between the nineteenth and eighteenth centuries BCE, found in the royal palace at

15854: 15847: 15830: 15709: 15699: 15681: 15210: 14627: 14614: 14601: 14588: 11354: 10991: 10510: 10262: 10241: 10193: 8564: 8418: 8100: 7924:

the brilliant Periclean Age, according to Dr. A. E. Taylor, witnessed one of the periodical bankruptcies of science .

7882: 7798: 7763: 6760: 6554:

Psychology in the 20th century saw a rejection of Freud's theories as being too unscientific, and a reaction against

4615:

did some of the earliest experiments with electricity and magnetism, establishing that the Earth itself is magnetic.

1831:

graveyards in what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto-dentistry among an early farming culture. The ancient text

1681:

intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the configuration of the universe, the

1160:. Biology of non-human organisms was generally only written about in the context of mainstream academic disciplines. 680: 489: 43: 14480: 12372: 12338:; Bower, Richard G.; Tanner, Brian K.; Smithson, Hannah E.; Panti, Cecilia; Lewis, Neil; Gasper, Giles E.M. (2014). 3682:, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. Islamic trigonometry continued from the works of Ptolemy's 17262: 17139: 16081: 15165: 15130: 12864: 12703: 11652: 11295: 10274:

Minford & Lau (2002), 307; Balchin (2003), 26–27; Needham (1986a), 627; Needham (1986c), 484; Krebs (2003), 31.

3461: 2642:(c. 250 CE – c. 900 CE) built on the shared heritage of the Olmecs by developing the most sophisticated systems of 2583: 1603:(lit. "Moonlight of mathematics") in 1356 about mathematical operations. The work anticipated many developments in 1570: 616: 14361: 9125: 6603:. Evolutionary theory was applied to behavior and introduced to anthropology and psychology, through the works of 5915:), which was evidence for this hypothesis, and formed the basis for a number of results that helped determine the 5766:" persuasion (looking at cultures and traditions), and these distinctions became part of the later divide between 4033: 3520:

in 1453, a number of Greek scholars fled to North Italy in which they fueled the era later commonly known as the "

2670:

for constructing their calendars. Maya writing, which was developed by 200 BCE, widespread by 100 BCE, and rooted

17257: 17075: 16190: 15508: 13092: 6755: 6405: 6105:

became practical for the first time, and a massive international effort began in 1990 to map out an entire human

5575: 5107: 3864: 1552: 938:" for healing, knowledge of divine or demonic causes of diseases, and in more extreme cases, for rituals such as 142: 17163: 10183: 8580:, 'the father of corn', helps the success and vitality of corn when planted between the rows of its 'children', 7639:

Lightman, Bernard (2011). "Science and the Public". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.).

2227:

is recorded from the 4th century BCE and a sphere permanently mounted in equatorial axis from 52 BCE. In 125 CE

17458: 17032: 16686: 16527: 15660: 15546: 15452: 15240: 12450:

The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts

12437:

The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts

12398:

The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts

12305: 11182: 9627: 7988: 7228: 6802: 6705:, a new class of living robotics, were invented; reproductive capabilities were introduced the following year. 5990:. She was an expert experimentalist in beta decay and weak interaction physics. Wu designed an experiment (see 5697:, which he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage" of rational thought. Some sociologists, including 3667: 3589: 2355: 811:

has characterised lean periods in the advance of scientific discovery as "periodical bankruptcies of science".

608: 464: 105: 13016: 9961:: "The Hindu text known as Sushruta Samhita is possibly the earliest effort to classify diseases and injuries" 9726: 1685:, and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month.". 17473: 17453: 16639: 16495: 15056:

Division of History of Science and Technology of the International Union of History and Philosophy of Science

9055: 6839: 4196:

would learn Arabic in order to study these texts directly. The European universities aided materially in the

3207:

of the natural world in 77 CE, and was a successor to Theophrastus. For example, he accurately describes the

1622:

by providing the infinite and taylor series expansion of some trigonometric functions and pi approximation.

1475: 1084:

of science and, according to G.E.R. Lloyd, played a significant role in the development of this methodology.

8830:

Mesopotamian Witchcraft: Towards a History and Understanding of Babylonian Witchcraft Beliefs and Literature

5500:

Perhaps the most prominent, controversial, and far-reaching theory in all of science has been the theory of

17468: 16980: 16890: 16377: 16207: 16135: 15835: 15764: 15518: 15480: 15235: 14991: 14506: 12124:, ed. and trans. R.A.B. Mynors, R.M. Thomson, and M. Winterbottom, 2 vols., Oxford Medieval Texts (1998–99) 9532: 8930: 6262: 5951: 5750:

concept which is central to the discipline. Traditionally, much of the history of the subject was based on

5673:. Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in scientific psychology. 5621:

and assumes the value of good to be based on the amount of labor required to produce it. Under this axiom,

4612: 4189: 3438: 2525: 990: 954: 881: 541: 47: 15220: 14767: 11825: 11694: 9406:

B. van Nooten, "Binary Numbers in Indian Antiquity", Journal of Indian Studies, Volume 21, 1993, pp. 31–50

6634:. While these theories are currently prominent in sociological thought, other approaches exist, including 17605: 17190: 16532: 15617: 15513: 15470: 15158: 13057:"From Egyptian Science to Victorian Magic: On the Origins of Chemistry in Victorian Histories of Science" 12821:"The first Copernican was Copernicus: the difference between Pre-Copernican and Copernican heliocentrism" 9585: 9354: 8024: 5694: 5333: 5329: 4580: 3581: 2746:, provided competing answers to the question found in the myths of their neighbors: "How did the ordered 2139: 2045: 198: 15086: 12283: 4462: 4060:(arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music). Those who completed these requirements and received their 3984:

might travel to a town or request a monastery to host them. However, if the number of scholars within a

3500:, another Byzantine scholar, was the first to question Aristotle's teaching of physics, introducing the 3074:(335–280 BCE) was the first to base his conclusions on dissection of the human body and to describe the 1307:. Even today, astronomical periods identified by Mesopotamian proto-scientists are still widely used in 17235: 17230: 16185: 15361: 15095: 12228:

Grant, Edward. "Science in the Medieval University", in James M. Kittleson and Pamela J. Transue, ed.,

10351:"Joseph Needham's Research on Chinese Machines in the Cross-Cultural History of Science and Technology" 9462: 8061: 6066: 4956: 4845: 4833: 4492: 4322: 4314: 4252:

The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work, largely within the framework of

4045: 3749: 3364: 3339: 3301:(106 – 43 BCE) was a prime example. He had studied under Greek teachers in Rome and then in Athens and 2876: 2759: 2739: 2259: 2081: 2049: 1255:

composed of various herbs, animal products, and minerals, as well as potions, enemas, and ointments or

857: 723: 9655: 9083: 7877:. Cambridge history of science (revised ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 188. 7758:. Philosophie und Wissenschaft – Volume 13 (reprint ed.). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. p. 14. 5792:

Science advanced dramatically during the 20th century. There were new and radical developments in the

5689:, understanding the cohesion of social groups, and developing an "antidote" to social disintegration. 3385:

philosophy received a mixed reception from leaders and adherents of the Christian faith. Some such as

2882:

The important legacy of this period included substantial advances in factual knowledge, especially in

16794: 16522: 16435: 16392: 16387: 16362: 16277: 16267: 16262: 15605: 15200: 15146:

A Century of Science in America: with special reference to the American Journal of Science, 1818-1918

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Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy

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historical writing has largely abandoned the aim of telling a story of science's universal progress.

6824: 6746: 6579:, which considers the mind as once again a subject for investigation, using the tools of psychology, 6421: 6232: 6128:, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Equally important in the rise of ecology, however, were 4027: 3964:

in the 12th century. These urban institutions grew from the informal scholarly activities of learned

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Free to view videos of scientists including Feynman, Perutz, Rotblat, Born and many Nobel Laureates.

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Needham, Joseph; Robinson, Kenneth G.; Huang, Jen-Yü (2004). "General Conclusions and Reflections".

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MS Valiathan (2009), An Ayurvedic view of life, Current Science, Volume 96, Issue 9, pages 1186-1192

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Kohler, Robert E. (December 2007). "Finders, Keepers: Collecting Sciences and Collecting Practice".

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macroeconomic trends can overwhelm economic choices made by individuals. Governments should promote

17610: 17293: 17127: 16975: 16965: 16762: 16488: 16272: 16175: 15822: 15769: 15417: 15205: 14817: 14428: 14172:"Nearly three quarters of the world will use just their smartphones to access the internet by 2025" 12064: 11299: 9980: 9849:

Weiss, Richard S. (2009). "The invasion of utopia: The corruption of Siddha medicine by Ayurveda".

9828: 9317: 8647:

Perkins, Michael D. (2001). "Pharmacological Practices of Ancient Egypt". In W. A. Whitelaw (ed.).

8095:. The History of Western Philosophy of Religion, Volume 5 (reprint ed.). Abingdon: Routledge. 6844: 6228: 6180:

came to the same conclusion through different reasoning and the discovery was eventually accepted.

6172:

determined that stars were composed mostly of hydrogen and helium. She was dissuaded by astronomer

6169: 5686: 5090:

Modern geology, like modern chemistry, gradually evolved during the 18th and early 19th centuries.

4525: 4424: 3631: 3250:

was the first scholar to systematically study the past and perhaps the first to examine artifacts.

2924: 2693: 1733: 1429: 1251:, who corresponds more closely to a modern physician and treated physical symptoms using primarily 1139:, stone, and other natural materials, and applied this knowledge to practical use in manufacturing 660: 333: 110: 13701: 12926: 9164: 8540: 6069:

demonstrated in a simulation of primordial processes, that basic constituents of proteins, simple

5099: 4427:

further pushed the study of politics beyond normative determinations. In particular, the study of

3401:(or servant) of religion. Education in the West began its gradual decline, along with the rest of 42:. For the academic field that comprises science and its corresponding technological advances, see 17568: 17158: 16937: 16825: 16720: 16292: 16120: 16071: 15556: 15460: 15442: 15275: 15270: 14454: 13194:

VanderVeer, Joseph B. (6 July 2011). "Hugh Williamson: Physician, Patriot, and Founding Father".

9703: 7749: 7745: 6849: 6834: 6611: 6604: 6600: 6543: 6539: 6389: 6345: 6258: 6073:, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules, kickstarting decades of research into the 6013:

in the 1930s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called "

5970:. Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of 5787: 5739: 5718: 5633:

as driving force of economic development. This replaced the labor theory of value by a system of

5412: 5208: 4041:

or freedom of inquiry are remnants of these medieval privileges that were tolerated in the past.

3941:(who had studied mathematics in 11th-century England), and the metallurgical achievements of the 3832: 3695: 3414: 3352: 3282: 2598: 1749: 1615: 1483: 1057: 747: 146: 14636: 14043: 13816:

The Monk in the Garden : The Lost and Found Genius of Gregor Mendel, the Father of Genetics

11950:

David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).

11888: 10122:

Trautmann 1971:5 "the very last verse of the work...is the unique instance of the personal name

9425: 8744:. Santa Barbara, California, Denver, Colorado, and Oxford, England: ABC-CLIO. pp. 273–276. 8380:"The Interactive Notebook: How Students Learned to Keep Notes during the Scottish Enlightenment" 8028: 6231:. In 1961–1962, Richard FitzHugh and J. Nagumo simplified Hodgkin–Huxley, in what is called the 4082:

for a theologian. Students who chose to remain in the lower faculty (arts) could work towards a

4070:) had the option to join the higher faculty (law, medicine, or theology), which would confer an 1271: 17506: 17413: 17278: 17245: 17183: 17047: 16767: 16595: 16302: 16287: 16247: 16019: 15842: 15523: 15465: 15432: 15399: 15265: 12253: 10714: 10708: 7421: 6812: 6772: 6487: 6463: 6397: 6254: 6196: 5962:

wrote the first theoretical interpretation of the fission process, which was later improved by

5731: 5662: 5571: 5543: 5493: 5341: 5285: 5280:, and their contemporaries led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of 5052: 4361: 4293: 3517: 3327: 3322:

were the means by which Greek knowledge was popularized for Roman audiences. The Greek scholar

3219:

to cut and polish other gems owing to its great hardness. His recognition of the importance of

2920: 2844: 2628: 2586: 2529: 2281: 1745: 1737: 1467: 1110: 974: 751: 708: 298: 12601: 11594: 11541: 11500: 11226: 9556: 9456: 9383:

Sanskrit Prosody and Important Literary and Geographical Names in the Ancient History of India

9381: 8945:. Studies in Ancient Medicine. Vol. 27. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. pp. 97–116. 7028: 5645:

Psychology as a scientific enterprise that was independent from philosophy began in 1879 when

4909: 4409: 3690: 3138:

and introduced the concepts of definition, axiom, theorem and proof still in use today in his

1995:. The Indian tradition continued to develop through early to modern times, in the form of the 1690: 1663: 1589:

writes that his texts were the most significant Sanskrit mathematics treatises after those of

17463: 17363: 17343: 17338: 17313: 17283: 17206: 16970: 16960: 16922: 16895: 16857: 16830: 16740: 16649: 16568: 16558: 16399: 16367: 16342: 16227: 16180: 16076: 16054: 16044: 16029: 15969: 15956: 15929: 15794: 15759: 15716: 15594: 15500: 15485: 15437: 15255: 13294:

The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School 1750–1800

12609: 12494: 12114: 12026: 11562: 11084:

Kleisiaris, Christos F.; Sfakianakis, Chrisanthos; Papathanasiou, Ioanna V. (15 March 2014).

10908:"Review of The Order of Nature in Aristotle's Physics: Place and the Elements, Helen S. Lang" 10774: 10586: 10553: 10488: 10457: 9949:, page 79; Sarah Boslaugh (2007), Encyclopedia of Epidemiology, Volume 1, SAGE Publications, 9060:

The man who loved only numbers: the story of Paul Erdős and the search for mathematical truth

6869: 6807: 6765: 6679: 6631: 6535: 5901: 5771: 5767: 5618: 5518: 5513: 5453: 5170: 5152: 5006: 4970: 4780: 4724: 4483: 4479: 4302: 4165: 3804: 3552: 3491: 3030: 2998: 2860: 2435: 1879: 1741: 1619: 1471: 1374: 731: 719: 482: 409: 258: 208: 203: 125: 120: 10089:

and the Arthaśāstra: A Statistical Investigation of the Authorship and Evolution of the Text

7413: 7020: 5542:

Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the

3658:

was a direct descendant of Greek and Indian mathematics. For instance, what is now known as

3627: 3612: 2866:

Aristotle also contributed to theories of the elements and the cosmos. He believed that the

2350:(hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean), Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or 742:

of the 18th century, for instance, introduced new quantitative methods and measurements for

17443: 17298: 16917: 16757: 16730: 16725: 16622: 16314: 16257: 16160: 16140: 16098: 16014: 16009: 15984: 15909: 15676: 15571: 15566: 15490: 15379: 15369: 15024: 14155:

Hecht, Jeff (10 August 2016). "The Bandwidth Bottleneck That is Throttling the Internet ".

14065:

Rachael Padman. "Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin (1900–1979)." Newnham College Biographies, 2004,

14042:

Erik Gregersen. "Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin | American Astronomer." Encyclopædia Britannica,

13869: 13659: 13623: 12119: 11326:"Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, BOOK XXXVII. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PRECIOUS STONES" 11186: 11029: 9883: 9732: 9660: 9452: 9246: 9014: 8791: 8785: 8495: 8448: 6787: 6777: 6491: 6425: 6393: 6385: 6177: 6173: 6137: 6110: 6053:

in ever-more complicated molecules. Pauling's work culminated in the physical modelling of

5912: 5305: 5241: 5124: 5018: 4813: 4712: 4646: 4642: 4357: 4341: 4240: 4109: 4062: 3938: 3848: 3745: 3741: 3402: 3244: 3161: 3149: 3139: 3115: 3006: 2936: 2835:

was of particular importance and usefulness to later scientific inquiry. Plato founded the

2609: 2566: 2110: 1447: 1417: 1360:(3,4,5) (5,12,13) ..., hinting that the ancient Mesopotamians might have been aware of the 1284: 1106: 827: 808: 704: 366: 348: 283: 176: 14121: 13760: 10804: 7720:

Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "Introduction: Science, society, and history".

7603:

From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science

7251: 5853: 5091: 4908:, the first scientific journal in English. 1665 also saw the first journal in French, the 4092:) degree and would study three philosophies: metaphysics, ethics, and natural philosophy. 3564:

where commerce thrived, and new ideas and technologies emerged such as the importation of

1029:

were used to build rectilinear structures, and the post and lintel architecture of Egypt.

856:

and its code of experiment – trustworthy because witnessed by its members – has become an

8: 17521: 17423: 17373: 17323: 17097: 17091: 17017: 16932: 16877: 16752: 16617: 16563: 16307: 16297: 16155: 16125: 16049: 16034: 15994: 15989: 15914: 15799: 15576: 15541: 15533: 15422: 15412: 14939:

The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 5: The Modern Physical and Mathematical Sciences

14243: 13737: 13222: 12548: 12151: 11909: 11212: 10310: 9973: 9772:

Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures

7140:

Lindberg, David C. (2007). "The recovery and assimilation of Greek and Islamic science".

6829: 6708: 6698: 6519: 6507: 6495: 6479: 6444: 6413: 6122: 6102: 5916: 5841: 5710: 5587: 5321: 5277: 5161: 4982: 4829: 4765: 4730: 4695: 4638: 4627: 4511: 4474: 4405: 4353: 3961: 3905: 3872: 3577: 3480: 3343: 2956: 2867: 2832: 2700: 2220: 2196: 2098: 2077: 2003: 1709: 1636: 1479: 1435:

The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appear with the

1361: 1202: 1114: 1077: 1053: 831: 739: 569: 561: 521: 188: 138: 13873: 13663: 13627: 11033: 9887: 9736: 9512:

The Universal History of Numbers : From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer

9250: 9130:. Indianapolis, Indiana and Cambridge, England: Hackett Publishing Company. p. 32. 9018: 8499: 8452: 7748:(25 October 2012) . "Progress: Fact and Fiction". In Burgen, Arnold; McLaughlin, Peter; 5986:

to help develop a process for separating uranium metal into U-235 and U-238 isotopes by

5877: 5625:

was based on employers not paying the full value of workers labor to create profit. The

5400: 5233: 3630:, for example, was one of the earliest and most well-known madrasas, which was built by 3148:, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time, is credited with using the 2806: 17333: 16607: 16352: 16222: 16024: 15924: 15919: 15551: 15407: 15389: 15374: 14697: 14540: 14377: 14066: 13972: 13893: 13683: 13639: 13548: 13273: 13084: 13008: 12961: 12856: 12848: 12801: 12793: 12746: 12695: 12306:"023-A03: The Middle Ages and the Birth of Science – International Catholic University" 11985: 11806: 11164: 11110: 11085: 10935: 10888: 10770: 10743: 10738: 10658: 10068: 9907: 9685: 9418: 9262: 9234: 9038: 9030: 8690: 8464: 8410: 8358: 8313: 8284:"Corresponding interests: artisans and gentlemen in nineteenth-century natural history" 8264: 8153: 8081:(11 September 2014) . "Twentieth-century Philosophy of Religiion: An Introduction". In 8078: 8017: 7963: 7851: 7273: 7194: 7186: 6854: 6797: 6782: 6687: 6639: 6278: 6216: 6188: 6029:

Watson and Crick used many aluminium templates like this one, which is the single base

6010: 5959: 5845: 5833: 5654: 5461: 5436: 5273: 5179: 4873: 4608: 4556: 4451: 4278: 4210: 4157: 4089: 4079: 4075: 3561: 3487: 3448: 3394: 3307: 3192: 3135: 3063: 3038: 2964: 2810: 2696: 2613: 2571: 2561: 2285: 2106: 2094: 1407: 1357: 1308: 1194: 1049: 986: 656: 644: 604: 90: 13261: 13248:

Bresadola, Marco (15 July 1998). "Medicine and science in the life of Luigi Galvani".

10577:

Palka, Joel W. (2010). "The Development of Maya Writing". In Christopher Woods (ed.).

10544:

Palka, Joel W. (2010). "The Development of Maya Writing". In Christopher Woods (ed.).

10448:

Palka, Joel W. (2010). "The Development of Maya Writing". In Christopher Woods (ed.).

9335:

Bisht, R.S. (1982). "Excavations at Banawali: 1974–77". In Possehl, Gregory L. (ed.).

8518: 8483: 5530:

formulated in the principles of inheritance in 1866, which became the basis of modern

3584:. The birth and expansion of Islam during the 7th century was quickly followed by its 3443: 3191:

wrote some of the earliest descriptions of plants and animals, establishing the first

17012: 17007: 16995: 16990: 16862: 16852: 16772: 16715: 16659: 16440: 16423: 16404: 16039: 15974: 15944: 15601: 15306: 14967: 14914: 14871: 14855: 14825: 14804: 14784: 14770: 14752: 14719: 14709: 14686: 14668: 14642: 14566: 14547: 14381: 14263: 14103: 14023: 13995: 13976: 13964: 13923: 13901: 13885: 13830: 13820: 13814: 13675: 13573: 13536: 13526: 13491: 13481: 13441: 13364: 13265: 13088: 13076: 13000: 12941: 12860: 12840: 12785: 12738: 12687: 12654: 12617: 12500: 12463: 12364: 12196: 12095: 12032: 11977: 11869: 11772: 11706: 11658: 11529: 11504: 11478: 11457: 11416: 11350: 11271: 11230: 11217: 11156: 11115: 11097: 11047: 10987: 10927: 10892: 10832: 10780: 10750: 10718: 10690: 10590: 10557: 10506: 10461: 10418: 10370: 10298: 10258: 10237: 10229: 10189: 10162: 10009: 9984: 9950: 9942: 9925: 9899: 9854: 9808: 9783: 9740: 9677: 9633: 9623: 9591: 9515: 9466: 9429: 9387: 9360: 9297: 9210: 9170: 9131: 9089: 9063: 9042: 8986: 8946: 8878: 8834: 8795: 8745: 8627: 8599: 8523: 8468: 8414: 8402: 8346: 8336: 8317: 8305: 8268: 8256: 8221: 8211: 8188: 8178: 8141: 8131: 8096: 8032: 7992: 7951: 7941: 7878: 7839: 7829: 7804: 7794: 7759: 7725: 7700: 7672: 7644: 7606: 7581: 7556: 7531: 7506: 7481: 7453: 7425: 7414: 7363: 7333: 7308: 7277: 7198: 7145: 7120: 7060: 7032: 7021: 6994: 6920: 6576: 6436: 6417: 6301: 6240: 6224: 6157: 6094: 5987: 5983: 5857: 5849: 5829: 5755: 5634: 5614: 5559: 5505: 5404: 5187: 5103: 5075: 4952: 4944: 4928: 4817: 4801: 4676: 4568: 4487: 4318: 4257: 4185: 3840: 3836: 3788: 3699: 3663: 3654:

Most of the achievements by Islamic scholars during this period were in mathematics.

3501: 3434: 3127: 3062:

for physicians, still relevant and in use today. Hippocrates' ideas are expressed in

2943:

of the modern day. Neither reason nor inquiry began with the Ancient Greeks, but the

2639: 2621: 2545: 2487: 2475: 2347: 2174: 1980: 1958: 1887: 1574: 1503: 1198: 1161: 1132: 1061: 1014: 966: 869: 771: 735: 712: 424: 414: 338: 235: 157: 14978:

The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of American Science, Medicine, and Technology

13945:"The "Cycle of Life" in Ecology: Sergei Vinogradskii's Soil Microbiology, 1885–1940" 13277: 13012: 12965: 12805: 11989: 11168: 9266: 8721:

Magic, Reason and Experience: Studies in the Origin and Development of Greek Science

8596:

Tombs, Temples and their Orientations: a New Perspective on Mediterranean Prehistory

5682: 4588: 3608: 17546: 17536: 17478: 17448: 17401: 17368: 17358: 17303: 17225: 17027: 16872: 16847: 16654: 16644: 16634: 16357: 16332: 16232: 16093: 16088: 15869: 15427: 14863: 14535: 14369: 14255: 14222: 14214: 14099: 14095: 13956: 13897: 13877: 13860: 13793: 13687: 13667: 13643: 13631: 13614: 13431: 13321: 13257: 13203: 13124: 13068: 12992: 12953: 12942:"Kepler's Move from Orbs to Orbits: Documenting a Revolutionary Scientific Concept" 12832: 12777: 12354: 11969: 11798: 11768: 11146: 11105: 11037: 10919: 10880: 10410: 10362: 10079: 10060: 9911: 9891: 9779: 9775: 9673: 9669: 9619: 9254: 9022: 8982: 8910:

Biggs, R D. (2005). "Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Mesopotamia".

8784:

Farber, Walter (1995). "Witchcraft, Magic, and Divination in Ancient Mesopotamia".

8657: 8513: 8503: 8456: 8394: 8295: 8248: 7263: 7178: 6891: 6682:

announced that they had discovered a new subatomic particle greatly resembling the

6607: 6584: 6555: 6523: 6204: 6086: 5948: 5793: 5702: 5630: 5563: 5388: 5380: 5364: 5357: 5337: 5325: 5281: 5257: 5237: 5060: 4501: 4261: 4067: 4038: 3931: 3909: 3828: 3791:

started to emerge, such as those involved in the treatment of eye diseases such as

3729: 3377: 3082:(129 – c. 200 CE) performed many audacious operations—including brain and eye 3059: 2948: 2836: 2671: 2590: 2420: 2324: 2247: 2224: 1966: 1847:, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures. The 1832: 1811: 1721: 1653: 1495: 1234: 1119: 1081: 865: 775: 640: 475: 419: 288: 220: 181: 95: 14202: 12243: 9721: 9205:

Joseph, George G. (2011). "The history of mathematics: Alternative perspectives".

7580:(2nd ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 134–171. 6300:

in Greenland in the winter of 1912–13. He is most remembered as the originator of

6002:

to disprove the law of parity experimentally, winning them a Nobel Prize in 1957.

5098:

saw the Earth as much older than the 6,000 years envisioned by biblical scholars.

4690: 2128:

developed algebraic methods in geometry in the 3rd century CE and also calculated

2105:

and solutions of equations of order higher than 3 appeared in print in 1245 CE by

1938: 17556: 17511: 17408: 17037: 16804: 16799: 16612: 16372: 16217: 16195: 15964: 15879: 15864: 15629: 15134: 15112:

Museo Galileo – Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence, Italy

15090: 15078: 15049: 15037: 14955: 14128: 14073: 14050: 13920:

Nature as the laboratory: Darwinian plant ecology in the German Empire, 1880-1900

13767: 13744: 12904: 11895: 11608: 11548: 10856:. Translated by J. L. Stocks: The Internet Classics Archive. pp. 279 a17-30. 10824: 10800: 10685: 10526:

Smith, David Eugene and LeVeque, William Judson. "Numerals and numeral systems".

9539: 9121: 8872: 8828: 8550: 8090: 7909: 7872: 7823: 7753: 6859: 6817: 6712: 6635: 6622: 6618: 6527: 6499: 6440: 6313: 6282: 6097:, suggested that the structure of DNA was a double helix. In their famous paper " 6090: 6078: 5979: 5967: 5821: 5743: 5649:

founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research (in

5626: 5567: 5469: 5269: 5261: 5253: 5214: 5055:

experimented on the effects of electricity on the human body. Further studies by

5048: 4888:

in producing blood movement in a circuit, and failed to find any confirmation of

4793: 4743: 4734: 4680: 4668: 4596: 4536: 4532: 4466: 4432: 4350: 4236: 4218: 4161: 4145: 4084: 3659: 3597: 3593: 3505: 3497: 3360: 3347: 3224: 3200: 3034: 2944: 2928: 2911: 2632: 2447: 2063: 2021: 1849: 1713: 1682: 1564: 1241:

cultures, the main medicinal authority was a kind of exorcist-healer known as an

1226: 1177: 846: 842: 525: 513: 389: 384: 374: 268: 193: 166: 30: 14843:

The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes: Philosophical Papers Volume 1

14702: 13853:"Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid" 11862:

A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam

8665: 8484:"A single domestication for maize shown by multilocus microsatellite genotyping" 4965: 1627: 17584: 17563: 17428: 17353: 17308: 17288: 17152: 17000: 16912: 16907: 16664: 16585: 16580: 16511: 16430: 16382: 16337: 16130: 16066: 15979: 15939: 15779: 15739: 14794: 14580: 14017: 10980: 9651: 9079: 8541:

Sean B. Carroll (24 May 2010),"Tracking the Ancestry of Corn Back 9,000 Years"

8252: 6732: 6627: 6563: 6515: 6511: 6297: 6200: 6145: 5999: 5908: 5714: 5706: 5599: 5509: 5485: 5465: 5392: 5376: 5289: 5183: 5120: 5111: 5014: 4948: 4860: 4797: 4785: 4684: 4592: 4564: 4544: 4193: 4173: 4141: 3774: 3769: 3765: 3733: 3494:, where all Archimedes' mathematical contributions were collected and studied. 3472: 3271: 3075: 2916: 2771: 2674:

and Zapotec scripts, contains easily discernible calendar dates in the form of

2647: 2624: 2617: 2557: 2553: 2533: 2440: 2340: 2243: 2087:

By the 1st century BCE, negative numbers and decimal fractions were in use and

1761: 1704: 1599: 1022: 911: 899: 898:

times, knowledge and technique were passed from generation to generation in an

861: 823: 801: 636: 628: 533: 529: 429: 379: 215: 171: 84: 14704:

The Discoverers : A History of Man's Search to Know His World and Himself

14373: 13960: 12836: 12547:

Precise titles of these landmark books can be found in the collections of the

11151: 11134: 10939: 10907: 8300: 8283: 8208:

Primate visions : gender, race, and nature in the world of modern science

8192: 7955: 6526:

for goods as a means to encourage economic expansion. Following World War II,

6293: 1996: 1793: 1695: 1677:, religious literature of India. According to Sarma (2008): "One finds in the 1631: 1626:(1380–1460), presents a case of the Mean Value theorem in his commentaries on 826:

of the early-17th century – associated with the scientific revolution and the

17599: 17220: 17103: 17059: 17022: 16952: 16927: 16837: 16735: 16681: 16676: 16242: 16212: 16150: 15951: 15899: 15894: 15804: 15038:

Digital Archives of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)

14867: 14862:. The Cambridge History of Science. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. 14678: 13968: 13540: 13080: 12957: 12927:"Molecular Expressions: Science, Optics and You – Timeline – Johannes Kepler" 12844: 12789: 12742: 12691: 12604:. In Cantor, Geoffrey; Olby, Robert; Christie, John; Hodge, Jonathon (eds.). 11857: 11710: 11160: 11101: 10931: 10632: 10579:

Visible Language: Inventions of Writing in the Ancient Middle East and Beyond

10546:

Visible Language: Inventions of Writing in the Ancient Middle East and Beyond

10531: 10450:

Visible Language: Inventions of Writing in the Ancient Middle East and Beyond

10188:(in English, Japanese, and Chinese). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 17. 10154: 9681: 9637: 9614: 8619: 8406: 8350: 8309: 8260: 8225: 8145: 8086: 7843: 6643: 6503: 6467: 6329: 6220: 6153: 6141: 6082: 6062: 6042: 6038: 5995: 5991: 5927: 5889: 5832:

show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but the theory of

5797: 5759: 5670: 5666: 5646: 5583: 5547: 5527: 5457: 5445: 5432: 5428: 5368: 5128: 5081: 5056: 5026: 4974: 4960: 4924: 4901: 4634: 4604: 4584: 4576: 4548: 4540: 4365: 4337: 4326: 4305:, where scientific inquiry, halted at the start of the Black Death, resumed. 4269: 4253: 4206: 3988:

grew too large, they would opt to settle in a town instead. As the number of

3945: 3923: 3868: 3753: 3585: 3406: 3275: 3228: 3169: 2871: 2743: 2703:, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the 2655: 2651: 2602: 2589:

of 8.5.16.9.7, or 156 CE. The other columns visible are glyphs from the

2549: 2541: 2537: 2463: 2351: 1992: 1905: 1729: 1604: 1582: 1548: 1252: 1073: 1042: 970: 853: 696: 672: 611:, wherein formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the 580: 343: 230: 14895: 13944: 13834: 13495: 13475: 13352: 11973: 10350: 9546:, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland. 7808: 5812:

Einstein's official portrait after receiving the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics

3919:–1326) produced the first known anatomy textbook based on human dissection. 3274:, and the organization and histories of other nations, while statesmen like 2427:

mechanism and the world's oldest known use of an endless power-transmitting

1942: 1775: 17541: 16902: 16842: 16590: 16548: 16202: 16061: 15999: 15734: 14834: 14723: 14267: 14107: 13889: 13679: 13445: 13368: 13004: 12368: 11981: 11119: 11051: 10964: 10422: 10374: 10366: 9903: 9230: 9026: 8527: 8508: 8066:

In its traditional forms, the conflict thesis has been largely discredited.

6588: 6571: 6567: 6325: 6269:

began to be recognized as a distinct academic discipline in its own right.

6266: 6236: 6133: 6129: 6125: 5955: 5897: 5885: 5881: 5869: 5698: 5416: 5175: 5132: 5116: 5010: 4916: 4789: 4775: 4600: 4572: 4552: 4521: 4436: 4394: 4265: 4232: 4071: 3960:

An intellectual revitalization of Western Europe started with the birth of

3808: 3389:(c. 155-c. 230 CE) were vehemently opposed to philosophy, denouncing it as 3381: 3319: 3290: 3204: 3188: 3014: 3010: 2636: 2570:

Detail showing columns of glyphs from a portion of the 2nd century CE

2451: 2409: 2378: 2213: 2120:

Although the first attempts at an axiomatization of geometry appear in the

2102: 1910: 1866: 1717: 1623: 1532: 1424: 1353: 1238: 1148: 935: 931: 885: 783: 755: 652: 537: 13436: 13269: 13207: 13072: 11497:

Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Volume 7, Nihilism-Quantum mechanics

10884: 10398: 10135: 10123: 10104: 10084: 9807:(3rd ed.). New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 418–449. 9209:(3rd ed.). New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 418–449. 8656:. Calgary: Faculty of Medicine, The University of Calgary. pp. 5–11. 8177:(5th pbk. print ed.). New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press. 8128:

Leviathan and the air-pump : Hobbes, Boyle, and the experimental life

7119:(Second ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 163–92. 6549: 5808: 5558:, and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the 4869:

in 1628, which revealed his conclusions based on his extensive studies of

4285:

of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion.

3464:

led to a deterioration of the classical tradition in the western part (or

3413:

but continued to exist in Rome, northern Italy, southern Gaul, Spain, and

2335:

to repair boats. After observing the natural process of the inundation of

1898: 1891: 1773: 1508: 868:

and persons of color) were excluded from elite scientific communities and

707:

established their first known traditions of astronomy and mathematics for

17516: 17483: 17438: 17418: 17054: 16942: 16867: 16784: 16703: 16696: 16553: 16237: 15934: 15904: 15889: 15754: 15749: 15145: 14910: 14850:

Transforming Matter: A History of Chemistry from Alchemy to the Buckyball

12531: 12339: 12335: 10479: 10477: 9722: 9581: 9350: 9088:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 429, 462. 8398: 8379: 8082: 7526:

Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "The conservation of energy".

7358:

Lindberg, David C. (2007). "The legacy of ancient and medieval science".

6683: 6580: 6559: 6483: 6471: 6341: 6321: 6274: 6270: 6253:. In 1981 Catherine Morris and Harold Lecar combined these models in the 6187:

was observed by astronomers on Earth both visually, and in a triumph for

6074: 6014: 5975: 5936: 5932: 5751: 5658: 5384: 5372: 4932: 4560: 4447: 4420: 4416: 4369: 4346: 4289: 4222: 4214: 4133: 4132:

Contact with the Byzantine Empire, and with the Islamic world during the

4054:(grammar, rhetoric, and logic) followed by the next four liberal arts or 4004:. Many universities were chartered during this period, with the first in 3942: 3890: 3844: 3824: 3820: 3565: 3521: 3475:, Alexandria and Antioch, Western Europe's knowledge was concentrated in 3286: 3103: 3067: 3055: 3026: 2932: 2903: 2643: 2605: 2479: 2471: 2459: 2428: 2328: 2273: 2239: 2133: 1946: 1840: 1725: 1641: 1590: 1586: 1536: 1523: 1499: 1316: 1300: 1260: 1190: 1124: 1094: 1069: 947: 915: 779: 700: 692: 592: 584: 565: 318: 14683:

Science and Its History: A Reassessment of the Historiography of Science

14218: 12852: 12820: 12699: 12675: 11789:

Rosen, Edward (1985). "The Dissolution of the Solid Celestial Spheres".

11528:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 307–308. 11415:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 132–162. 10868: 10330:

Searching the Heavens and the Earth: The History of Jesuit Observatories

10234:

A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD)

9851:

Recipes for Immortality: Healing, Religion, and Community in South India

9728:

Ganita-Yukti-Bhasa (Rationales in Mathematical Astronomy) of Jyesthadeva

9235:"Why the Scientific Revolution did not take place in China – or did it?" 8333:

Observing by hand : sketching the nebulae in the nineteenth century

7699:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 262–285. 7695:

Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "Twentieth-century physics".

7671:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 197–221. 7555:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 108–133. 7476:

Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "The scientific revolution".

7362:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 357–368. 7268: 7144:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 225–253. 7059:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 193–224. 6913:

Cohen, Eliel (2021). "The boundary lens: theorising academic activity".

6332:", and comparisons of Earth and the solar system's other rocky planets. 5582:. Lister's work was based on the important findings by French biologist 5292:

led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy being defined.

4514:, were first printed. The period culminated with the publication of the 3542: 2993: 17396: 17108: 16947: 16789: 16747: 16691: 16170: 16165: 16110: 15774: 15744: 15726: 15127: 14959: 14925:

The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance

14764:

Out of the Shadows: Contributions of Twentieth-Century Women to Physics

14259: 14227: 11810: 10483:

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Mesoamerican civilization".

10332:. (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003). p. 53 10038: 9803:

Joseph, George G. (2011). "A Passage to Infinity: The Kerala Episode".

9689: 9258: 8943:

Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine

8460: 7576:

Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "The Darwinian revolution".

7530:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 83–107. 6531: 6475: 6381: 6369: 6353: 6349: 6317: 6192: 6070: 6050: 5963: 5825: 5817: 5775: 5735: 5693:

was concerned with the modernization of society through the concept of

5622: 5579: 5165: 5147: 4990: 4978: 4940: 4870: 4428: 4423:

and actors. Later, the expansion of the scientific paradigm during the

4388: 4282: 4227: 4056: 3927: 3843:. Nevertheless, many of the conquerors became patrons of the sciences. 3819:

Islamic science began its decline in the 12th–13th century, before the

3707: 3703: 3410: 3398: 3386: 3323: 3294: 3232: 3208: 3145: 3071: 3018: 2972: 2895: 2840: 2791: 2763: 2727: 2710: 2575: 2467: 2444: 2424: 2412: 2405: 2401: 2316: 2312: 2269: 2228: 2212:

knowledge of this was lost during the Ming dynasty, so that the Jesuit

2016: 1970: 1544: 1451: 1412: 1312: 1165: 1152: 943: 927: 895: 588: 553: 460: 444: 323: 313: 303: 278: 14142:"Computer Science vs. Software Engineering [Comparison Guide]" 13798: 13781: 13759:

Biography.com Editors. "Chien-Shiung Wu." Biography.com, 2 June 2016,

13612:

Alpher, Ralph A.; Herman, Robert (1948). "Evolution of the Universe".

13056: 12797: 12765: 12750: 12726: 10474: 10072: 9458:

Archimedes to Hawking: laws of science and the great minds behind them

8661: 7505:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 58–82. 7501:

Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "The chemical revolution".

7480:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 25–57. 7332:(First ed.). Chicago: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–26. 7190: 6726: 6435:(light amplification by the stimulated emission of radiation) and the 5602:, to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods. 4623: 3768:, and (in fragmentary form) Ahmad ibn Isā. Later in the 11th century, 2029: 1559:

translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon available in the

79: 17551: 16882: 16779: 16708: 16602: 16575: 16347: 15814: 15789: 15668: 15150: 14744: 13881: 13671: 13635: 12613: 12230:

Rebirth, Reform and Resilience: Universities in Transition, 1300–1700

10614: 9034: 8931:"Diagnosis, Divination, and Disease: Towards an Understanding of the 7724:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–24. 7389:(Fall 2016 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 7166: 6993:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–20. 6373: 6364:

flew thousands of miles in a matter of hours. The development of the

6305: 6118: 6006: 5944: 5905: 5837: 5763: 5690: 5610: 5501: 5265: 5252:

In physics, the behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by

5064: 4920: 4672: 4413: 4384: 4380: 4149: 4113: 4031:(literally "from the chair", used within the context of teaching) or 4021:

faculties and students were protected from capital punishment (e.g.,

4017: 3969: 3885: 3671: 3476: 3247: 3239:

was a resin from pine trees, because of trapped insects within them.

2907: 2899: 2828: 2775: 2719: 2675: 2663: 2495: 2483: 2366: 2359: 2264: 2232: 2200: 2179: 2007: 1974: 1954: 1933: 1883: 1844: 1828: 1518: 1349: 1336: 1256: 1214: 1173: 1010: 919: 759: 743: 596: 549: 434: 225: 15061:

Giants of Science (website of the Institute of National Remembrance)

12359: 12195:. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 101–138. 11802: 11448:

Linda E. Voigts, "Anglo-Saxon Plant Remedies and the Anglo-Saxons",

11042: 11017: 10414: 9895: 8941:. In Horstmanshoff, H.F.J.; Stol, Marten; Tilburg, Cornelis (eds.). 7452:. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 308–349. 7220: 5836:, proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed that the fixed background of 4531:

Other significant scientific advances were made during this time by

4301:

to propagate more rapidly. These developments paved the way for the

3847:, for example, who led the siege of Baghdad, became a patron of the 3346:. The pinnacle of the popularization movement was the Roman scholar 2758:, identified by later authors such as Aristotle as the first of the 2373:

province. If not for Shen Kuo's writing, the architectural works of

2054: 906:

for agriculture has been dated to about 9,000 years ago in southern

13736:

Ronald K. Smeltzer. "Chien-Shiung Wu." Atomic Heritage Foundation,

13357:

Bulletin of the Indian Institute of History of Medicine (Hyderabad)

13351:

Singh, Parduman; Batra, H. S.; Naithani, Manisha (6 January 2004).

13292: 12996: 12980: 12781: 10923: 10292: 10064: 9770:

Sarma, K.V. (2008). "Astronomy in India". In Selin, Helaine (ed.).

8577: 7874:

Making Natural Knowledge: Constructivism and the History of Science

7551:

Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "The age of the earth".

7182: 6671: 6617:

American sociology in the 1940s and 1950s was dominated largely by

6596: 6592: 6448: 6409: 6361: 6357: 6244: 6184: 5893: 5873: 5531: 5395:

of elements on the basis of Dalton's discoveries. The synthesis of

5301: 5245: 4994: 4376:

on human cadavers found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy.

4373: 4181: 4177: 4137: 4099: 3937:

Technological advances were also made, such as the early flight of

3796: 3792: 3761: 3737: 3724: 3684: 3547: 3267: 3259: 3216: 3196: 3157: 3051: 2960: 2795: 2723: 2704: 2579: 2499: 2490:, toilet paper, the efficient harness, along with contributions in 2455: 2385: 2381: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2204: 2184: 2114: 1897: 1858: 1836: 1785: 1765: 1459: 1230: 1157: 1026: 1006: 939: 763: 612: 600: 557: 439: 328: 17147: 16480: 15043:

Digital facsimiles of books from the History of Science Collection

15002: 14964:

The Ferment of Knowledge: Studies in the Historiography of Science

14951:

The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 4: The Eighteenth Century

14899: 12727:"From Copernicus to Kepler: Heliocentrism as Model and as Reality" 11083: 9292:

Bartholomew, James R. (2003). "Asia". In Heilbron, John L. (ed.).

8481: 7055:

Lindberg, David C. (2007). "The revival of learning in the West".

6658: 6558:'s atomistic approach of the mind. This led to the formulation of 6457: 6400:, studies the nature and limits of computation. Subfields include 4737:

in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow

3009:

was the first known person to propose a heliocentric model of the

1673:

The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the

1498:. He also presents a numerical system by adding one to the sum of 29:"New science" redirects here. For the treatise about history, see 17501: 16629: 15691: 15475: 15116: 11293: 10637:

Principium Sapientiae: The Origins of Greek Philosophical Thought

6702: 6666:–proton collision. It decays almost immediately into two jets of 6249: 6114: 6030: 5747: 5650: 5591: 5551: 5449: 5408: 5353: 5309: 5022: 4936: 4771: 4738: 4699: 4457: 4298: 4274: 4153: 4050: 4022: 4005: 3997: 3973: 3949: 3851:. Islamic astronomy continued to flourish into the 16th century. 3711: 3675: 3639: 3618: 3369: 3220: 3212: 3173: 3083: 2940: 2887: 2883: 2818: 2779: 2755: 2512: 2416: 2397: 2389: 2370: 2332: 2308: 2195:

published in 1092, featuring a cylindrical projection similar to

2188: 2125: 2058: 1988: 1950: 1862: 1854: 1781: 1678: 1540: 1487: 1455: 1332: 1324: 1320: 1144: 1140: 1136: 889: 767: 545: 517: 509: 273: 66: 17175: 14945:

The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 3: Early Modern Science

14759:. (Includes a description of the history of science in England.) 12496:

The Black Death: Natural & Human Disaster in Medieval Europe

11205: 11086:"Health care practices in ancient Greece: The Hippocratic ideal" 10159:

The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra

9853:. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 79–106. 6591:. New methods of visualizing the activity of the brain, such as 4844:, detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: 3702:

where Islamic mathematicians made their greatest contributions.

3110: 1768:

for the purpose of the correct recitation and interpretation of

1543:

was a force of attraction. He also lucidly explained the use of

1367: 1037: 738:. More "revolutions" in subsequent centuries soon followed. The 16324: 14611:

Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering

12028:

Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion

12002:

Erica Fraser. The Islamic World to 1600, University of Calgary.

11411:

Lindberg, David C. (2007). "Roman and early medieval science".

8719:

Lloyd, G.E.R. "The development of empirical research", in his

6919:(1st ed.). New York, New York: Routledge. pp. 14–41. 6667: 6663: 6106: 5595: 5555: 4881: 4809: 4770:

A decisive moment came when "chemistry" was distinguished from

4440: 4412:

established the emphasis of modern political science on direct

4117: 4013: 3623: 3568:

from China, which made the copying of manuscripts inexpensive.

3471:

While the Byzantine Empire still held learning centers such as

3390: 3302: 3298: 3131: 3094: 2891: 2848: 2814: 2783: 2751: 2747: 2393: 2374: 2362: 2343: 2320: 2121: 1560: 1556: 1304: 1292: 1065: 907: 648: 15111: 15060: 13474:

Campbell, Neil A.; Williamson, Brad; Heyden, Robin J. (2006).

12565:"What Is the Enlightenment and How Did It Transform Politics?" 10612:, pp. 3, 37 called the pre-Socratics the transition from 9975:

The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective

9924:

E. Schultheisz (1981), History of Physiology, Pergamon Press,

6089:

for expressing life in all its forms, building on the work of

5480: 5171:

An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations

5086:

by Georges Cuvier based on fossil remains from the Paris Basin

4184:. European scholars had access to the translation programs of 4044:

The curriculum of these medieval institutions centered on the

3311:

as well as a Latin translation of it, which has not survived.

3195:

and looking at minerals in terms of their properties, such as

2681: 17531: 15083: 14685:(Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 253) Springer. 14044:

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cecilia-Payne-Gaposchkin

10620: 10130: 10099: 10051:

Mabbett, I.W. (1 April 1964). "The Date of the Arthaśāstra".

9003:

Aaboe, A. (2 May 1974). "Scientific Astronomy in Antiquity".

8581: 8445:

Invisible Connections: Instruments, Institutions, and Science

6432: 6377: 6365: 5971: 5803: 4889: 4877: 4121: 4009: 3965: 3643: 3236: 3177: 3079: 2952: 2824: 2787: 2767: 2491: 2289: 1984: 1962: 1820: 1769: 1382: 1378: 1243: 1169: 903: 762:

came into focus. And in the 20th century, new discoveries in

624: 308: 263: 15101:

International History, Philosophy and Science Teaching Group

15071: 15066:

History of Science Digital Collection: Utah State University

14203:"The State of New Keynesian Economics: A Partial Assessment" 9941:

Wendy Doniger (2014), On Hinduism, Oxford University Press,

9725:; Ramasubramanian, K.; Srinivas, M.D.; Sriram, M.S. (2008). 8447:. SPIE Conference Series. Vol. 10309. p. 1030904. 6697:

The Human Genome Project was declared complete in 2003. The

6502:, public administration, comparative political analysis and 6257:. Such increasingly quantitative work gave rise to numerous 5427:

Over the first half of the 19th century, geologists such as

5143: 5005:

Geology did not undergo systematic restructuring during the

4482:, which led to the emergence of a New Science that was more 4446:

In archaeology, the 15th and 16th centuries saw the rise of

3168:. He is also known in physics for laying the foundations of 1839:

describes procedures on various forms of surgery, including

1395:

History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent

1356:, dating to the eighteenth-century BCE, records a number of 1131:

The ancient Mesopotamians had extensive knowledge about the

15015: 14996: 14360:

Castelvecchi, Davide; Witze, Alexandra (11 February 2016).

14333: 12901:"Johannes Kepler: His Life, His Laws and Times | NASA" 11937: 11935: 11734: 11732: 10429: 9805:

The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics

9207:

The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics

8175:

Nature's body : gender in the making of modern science

6320:

of the interior of the Earth, the grouping of geology with

6285:

as having played critical roles in establishing the field.

6227:", and how they are initiated and propagated, known as the 5653:). Other important early contributors to the field include 5396: 5268:, and others. The experiments, theories and discoveries of 5213:

The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession.

4885: 4127: 3263: 3153: 2859:

scholarship, though they were eventually superseded in the

2750:

in which we live come to be?" The pre-Socratic philosopher

2667: 2336: 1789: 1760:

Some of the earliest linguistic activities can be found in

1674: 1528: 1296: 1288: 1276: 1018: 253: 15139: 15105: 15055: 15016:

The CNRS History of Science and Technology Research Center

13595:"Why String Theory Still Offers Hope We Can Unify Physics" 13113:

Power, d'Arcey. Life of Harvey. Longmans, Green, & co.

12334: 11567:. Vol. 12. New York: Encyclopedia Press. p. 51. 11454:

The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages

10489:

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mesoamerican-civilization

9613:

Studies in the History of the Exact Sciences in Honour of

9169:. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. p. 27. 5800:

sciences, building on the progress from the 19th century.

5025:

were the remains of once-living creatures. Beginning with

4663: 4336:

The renewal of learning in Europe began with 12th century

2870:(such as the planets and the Sun) had something called an 960: 16671: 15128:

The Royal Society, trailblazing science from 1650 to date

15121: 14891: 14598:

Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth

14329:"New results indicate that new particle is a Higgs boson" 12676:"Ficino, Copernicus and Bruno on the Motion of the Earth" 12464:"The Renaissance: The 'Rebirth' of Science & Culture" 11477:, Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Pr., 2004, pp. xviii–xxxiv. 10639:, (Gloucester, Massachusetts, Peter Smith, 1971), p. 159. 6662:

One possible signature of a Higgs boson from a simulated

6199:. This discrepancy forced a change in some values in the 6054: 5448:

and others established the reality of continent-covering

3144:, considered the most influential textbook ever written. 3021:(c. 190 – c. 120 BCE) produced the first systematic 2718:, as practitioners of a skilled profession (for example, 2631:. Following a period of initial urban development in the 1953:(c. 6th century BCE to 2nd century BCE); the analysis of 293: 15117:

National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Archives

14298:"Physicists Find Particle That Could Be the Higgs Boson" 13473: 13175: 13158:. UCSC library: Princeton University Press. p. 201. 11932: 11729: 7594: 7167:"History of East Asian Science: Needs and Opportunities" 6989:

Lindberg, David C. (2007). "Science before the Greeks".

6210: 5896:

in the background temperature of the universe. In 1964,

4706: 3025:. The level of achievement in Hellenistic astronomy and 2280:

To better prepare for calamities, Zhang Heng invented a

1983:

logic stands as one of the three original traditions of

13761:

https://www.biography.com/people/chien-shiung-wu-053116

13168:

Meyrick H. Carré, "The Formation of the Royal Society"

12766:"The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods" 12092:

Maritime Exploration in the Age of Discovery, 1415–1800

11615:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2018. 10202: 8650:

Proceedings of the 10th Annual History of Medicine Days

7667:

Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "Genetics".

6550:

Developments in psychology, sociology, and anthropology

6388:

feasible. Computer science, built upon a foundation of

6360:

flight occurred in 1903, and by the end of the century

6005:

Though the process had begun with the invention of the

5063:

established the electrical nature of what Volta called

4733:

was followed by the model of planetary motion given by

4715:, which accelerated the development of modern science. 3538:

Timeline of science and engineering in the Muslim world

3165: 3119: 2165:

which remained the most accurate value for 1200 years.

2129: 2113:

for binomial coefficients was described around 1100 by

1502:. Pingala's work also includes material related to the 38:

For approaches to the study of history of science, see

14022:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 13738:

https://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/chien-shiung-wu

12439:, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996), pp. 95–97. 5464:

methods were developed, starting in the 20th century.

3086:— that were not tried again for almost two millennia. 3017:

accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth.

2144: 2093:

included methods for extracting higher order roots by

1961:(c. 6th century BC to 2nd century CE), founder of the 1466:. The topics covered include fractions, square roots, 870:

characterized by the science establishment as inferior

730:

and traditions. The New Science that emerged was more

14563:

The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science

14507:"Martin Seligman and the Rise of Positive Psychology" 13328:. The Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 12653:. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 47. 12426:, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1976), pp. 140–142. 11452:, 70 (1979): 250–268; reprinted in Michael H. Shank, 10277: 9296:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 51–55. 9294:

The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science

7643:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 367. 7376: 4741:

orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. In

3901:

stimulating scientific discussion in Western Europe.

3253: 2250:

unearthed, studied, and cataloged ancient artifacts.

2142: 1266: 864:

of science. Many people in modern history (typically

770:

laid the foundations for new sub disciplines such as

15100: 14621: 14481:"Team builds first living robots—that can reproduce" 14067:

http://www.newn.cam.ac.uk/about/history/biographies/

12651:

The Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction

11588: 11586: 11456:, Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000, pp. 163–181. 10500: 10304: 9415: 6722: 5904:

discovered a 3 Kelvin background hiss in their

4895: 4852:, which describes the fundamental force of gravity. 4454:

who were interested in the collection of artifacts.

1263:

and took measures to prevent the spread of disease.

14839:

History of Science and its Rational Reconstructions

13650:Gamow, G. (1948). "The Evolution of the Universe". 13290: 11009: 9379: 7976: 7821: 7690: 7688: 7662: 7660: 7471: 7469: 7307:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–3. 6049:used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce 5892:had calculated that there should be evidence for a 4823: 3781: 3603: 3258:During the rule of Rome, famous historians such as 2268:A modern replica of Han dynasty polymath scientist 2014:form of logic. The Catuskoti is also often glossed 1772:texts. The most notable grammarian of Sanskrit was 965:The earliest roots of science can be traced to the 789: 463:. In order to explore related topics, please visit 15659: 15124:. Features biographies and info on Nobel laureates 14943:Park, Katharine, and Lorraine Daston, eds. (2006) 14701: 14539: 14061: 14059: 13350: 13241: 12978: 12094:. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood. pp. 1–8. 11996: 11523: 11406: 11404: 11402: 11400: 11398: 11396: 11394: 11392: 11390: 11388: 11386: 11216: 10742: 9972: 9417: 8058:Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives 8016: 6894:– Migration of center of activity of world science 6614:, incorporating elements of evolutionary biology. 5199:social sciences of which anthropology was a part. 5047:During the late 18th century, researchers such as 4637:astronomical model of the universe was refined by 4579:. In philosophy, major contributions were made by 3831:in the East in the 11th–13th century. The Mongols 3164:, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of 3098:One of the oldest surviving fragments of Euclid's 2786:is made of indivisible, imperishable units called 2377:would be little known, along with the inventor of 2157: 1193:had no distinction between "rational science" and 14992:'What is the History of Science', British Academy 14359: 14085: 13755: 13753: 12731:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 12595: 12593: 12591: 11583: 11384: 11382: 11380: 11378: 11376: 11374: 11372: 11370: 11368: 11366: 11294:O'Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F. (February 1996). 11090:Journal of Medical Ethics and History of Medicine 10689:, p. 45. Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. 386 pp. 9339:. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. pp. 113–124. 9337:Harappan Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective 8877:. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. p. 42. 7985:Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction 7629:dates the origin of the word "scientist" to 1834. 7420:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 7383:Del Soldato, Eva (2016). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). 7027:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 6101:" In the late 20th century, the possibilities of 5613:developed an alternative economic theory, called 5492:, and on page 36 wrote "I think" above his first 4256:commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings. 3670:(c. 780–850) gave his name to the concept of the 3571: 3560:This was the period (8th–14th century CE) of the 3455: 2971:"Men were weighing for thousands of years before 2658:among Mesoamerican peoples. The Maya developed a 572:after the establishment of formal disciplines of 17597: 14732:The Norton History of the Environmental Sciences 14696: 13187: 13037: 11079: 11077: 11075: 11073: 10679:Philosophy in the ancient world: an introduction 10647: 10645: 10319:, pp. 111, 165, 445, 448, 456–457, 469–471. 10253:Morton, W. Scott and Charlton M. Lewis. (2005). 9964: 9765: 9763: 9127:Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History 7791:An introduction to the historiography of science 7713: 7685: 7657: 7569: 7544: 7519: 7494: 7466: 7353: 7351: 7349: 7305:Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction 7225:The Legends: Journal of European History Studies 7110: 7108: 7106: 7104: 7102: 7100: 7098: 7096: 7019:Grant, Edward (2007). "Ancient Egypt to Plato". 6984: 6982: 6980: 6978: 6976: 6974: 6972: 6970: 6968: 6885:Timeline of the history of the scientific method 6117:typically traces its origin to the synthesis of 4524:, representative of the unprecedented growth of 2303:and statesman who was the first to describe the 1937:of Medhatithi Gautama (c. 6th century BCE); the 1176:, was studied in particularly intensive detail. 15096:International Academy of the History of Science 14056: 13846: 13844: 12090:Love, Ronald S. (2006). "Historical overview". 11495:Craig, Edward, ed. (1998). "Philoponus, John". 11187:"One of the Oldest Extant Diagrams from Euclid" 11135:"Hippocratic Medicine and the Greek Body Image" 9970: 9285: 9006:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 8733: 8731: 8729: 8488:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 7094: 7092: 7090: 7088: 7086: 7084: 7082: 7080: 7078: 7076: 7050: 7048: 6966: 6964: 6962: 6960: 6958: 6956: 6954: 6952: 6950: 6948: 6458:Developments in political science and economics 3490:compiled Archimedes' mathematical works in the 3289:coincided with the increased prosperity of the 631:during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of 14781:Women Scientists from Antiquity to the Present 14362:"Einstein's gravitational waves found at last" 14326: 13750: 12981:"Chemical Knowledge in the Early Modern World" 12588: 12569:World101 from the Council on Foreign Relations 12280:"Rediscovering the Science of the Middle Ages" 11688: 11686: 11363: 11063: 11061: 10869:"On the Elements: Aristotle's Early Cosmology" 10003: 9318:"3: Early Indian culture – Indus civilisation" 9200: 9198: 9166:Pythagoras: His Life, Teachings, and Influence 8833:. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. 56. 8640: 8288:The British Journal for the History of Science 7303:Principe, Lawrence M. (2011). "Introduction". 7115:Lindberg, David C. (2007). "Islamic science". 6197:a fraction of its theoretically expected value 6033:(A), to build a physical model of DNA in 1953. 5516:. It was described in detail in Darwin's book 5315: 5190:", 1776, advances as Smith's central message. 4906:Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society 4904:in London in 1660 and its journal in 1665 the 4458:Scientific Revolution and birth of New Science 3881:Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe 3649: 3486:In the sixth century in the Byzantine Empire, 3451:, which shows a set of seven famous physicians 3176:, and the explanation of the principle of the 1486:of the second degree. In the 3rd century BCE, 718:Natural philosophy was transformed during the 711:, followed by other civilizations such as the 647:worldview was preserved and absorbed into the 17191: 16496: 15645: 15166: 14932:The Norton History of Astronomy and Cosmology 14854: 14822:Science and the Raj: A Study of British India 14803:(3rd ed.). University of Chicago Press. 13214: 12452:, (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996), pp. 100–103. 12400:, (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996), pp. 127–131. 12186: 12184: 12182: 12180: 11494: 11070: 10971:, (New York: W.W. Norton, 1970), pp. 144–146. 10642: 10349:Baichun, Zhang; Miao, Tian (6 January 2019). 10022: 9760: 9590:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 8779: 8777: 8775: 8773: 8055: 7632: 7346: 6711:is a branch of psychology founded in 1998 by 6416:, artificial intelligence, and the design of 5079:1812 skeletal and muscular reconstruction of 5037: 4711:The Scientific Revolution continued into the 4192:from Arabic to Latin. Later translators like 1752:; they were completed between 1724 and 1735. 1368:Ancient and medieval South Asia and East Asia 999: 483: 14289: 13994:. Berkeley: University of California press. 13841: 13611: 13384:"Chapter 3 Planet earth and Plate tectonics" 12939: 12178: 12176: 12174: 12172: 12170: 12168: 12166: 12164: 12162: 12160: 12140: 11695:"The Social Structure of Islamicate Science" 8726: 8691:"Edwin Smith papyrus: Egyptian medical book" 8624:Astronomy in Prehistoric Britain and Ireland 7982: 7321: 7296: 7133: 7073: 7045: 7014: 7012: 7010: 6945: 6686:, confirmed as such by the following March. 5475: 5348: 5221:in 1833, which soon replaced the older term 5138: 5070: 4671:, one of the founders and fathers of modern 4140:, allowed Latin Europe access to scientific 2790:. This was greatly expanded on by his pupil 2519: 2168: 643:. Aided by translations of Greek texts, the 14665:Science in the Twentieth Century and Beyond 14579: 13850: 13780:Garwin, Richard L.; Lee, Tsung-Dao (1997). 13570:Science in the Twentieth Century and Beyond 13196:Journal of the American Medical Association 11683: 11250:influence comparable with that of Euclid's 11181: 11058: 10737: 10501:Price, T. Douglas; Gary M. Feinman (2005). 10435: 10348: 9997: 9796: 9702:J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson (2000). 9580: 9359:. Princeton University Press. p. 158. 9291: 9195: 8172: 7983:Russel, C.A. (2002). Ferngren, G.B. (ed.). 7938:Horizons : a global history of science 7719: 7694: 7666: 7575: 7550: 7525: 7500: 7475: 7443: 7441: 7382: 5774:, the latter ushered in by the students of 4517:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica 4097: 3996:might request that their king grant them a 3895:Oxford University Museum of Natural History 3070:is also known as "the Father of Medicine". 2682:Classical antiquity and Greco-Roman science 2627:), as well as the first known astronomical 1555:now used universally throughout the world. 1164:was studied extensively for the purpose of 17198: 17184: 16503: 16489: 15652: 15638: 15590: 15173: 15159: 14997:British Society for the History of Science 14762:Byers, Nina and Gary Williams, ed. (2006) 14630:. Vol. 7. Cambridge University Press. 14591:. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. 14120:American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 13592: 13553:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 13414: 13193: 12763: 12606:Companion to the History of Modern Science 12424:Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler 12232:, Ohio State University Press, 1984, p. 68 12083: 11959: 11499:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 371–377, 10776:The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science 10532:https://www.britannica.com/science/numeral 10505:(Fourth ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. 10396: 9842: 9085:Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism 8770: 8363:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 8158:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 8077: 8049: 8014: 8008: 7968:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 7856:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 7793:. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. 7744: 7405: 6443:. It is optical amplification that allows 6304:hypothesis by suggesting in 1912 that the 6243:across the space between neurons known as 6085:clarified the basic structure of DNA, the 5804:Theory of relativity and quantum mechanics 5629:responded to Marxian economics by viewing 5228: 5110:, Sweden's Torbern Bergman, and Germany's 5000: 4198:translation and propagation of these texts 3706:(c. 858–929) improved the measurements of 2439:and science was galvanized by the work of 2319:, improved the design of the astronomical 2042:History of science and technology in China 1857:describes ancient theories on human body, 1764:(1st millennium BCE) with the analysis of 1612:Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics 1233:, during the reign of the Babylonian king 1172:, which was seen as an important organ in 579:Science's earliest roots can be traced to 490: 476: 15122:The official site of the Nobel Foundation 14634: 14511:The National Endowment for the Humanities 14248:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 14226: 13922:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 13917: 13797: 13779: 13520: 13435: 13247: 13225:. HAL open-access archive. hal-03423498. 12724: 12551:. A list of these titles can be found in 12538:, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1978). 12492: 12358: 12235: 12157: 12148:Henry "Stamped Out Industrial Revolution" 11150: 11109: 11041: 10986:. New York: W.W. Norton & Co, 1973. 10851: 10609: 10392: 10390: 10388: 10386: 10384: 10181: 10078: 9979:. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 9774:. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 317–321. 9531:O'Connor, J.J. and E.F. Robertson. 2000. 9386:. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 648–649. 9223: 9002: 8822: 8820: 8818: 8517: 8507: 8299: 7330:Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution 7267: 7007: 5640: 5178:, advocating a system of free trade with 4759: 3330:(116-27 BCE), who wrote the encyclopedia 2955:, and the natural sciences. According to 2688:History of science in classical antiquity 2090:The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art 2032:), and testimony (sound or word; śabda). 1843:, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal 1567:to the Islamic world by the 9th century. 820:relationship between science and religion 15106:IsisCB Explore: History of Science Index 15052:, Linda Hall Library Digital Collections 14824:, 2nd edition. Oxford University Press. 14608: 14595: 14560: 13181: 13122: 12648: 12599: 12582: 12241: 12127: 12031:. Harvard University Press. p. 45. 11962:Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 11410: 11265: 11015: 10969:Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle 10344: 10342: 10340: 10338: 10316: 10208: 10053:Journal of the American Oriental Society 10041:, Science, Vol. 22, No. 545, pages 17-18 9451: 8866: 8864: 8862: 8737: 8442: 8092:Twentieth-Century Philosophy of Religion 7870: 7638: 7605:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 7438: 7357: 7327: 7302: 7139: 7114: 7054: 6988: 6906: 6657: 6447:to transmit the massive capacity of the 6292: 6024: 5954:with radiochemical methods, and in 1939 5926: 5807: 5508:, which was independently formulated by 5479: 5352: 5232: 5142: 5074: 5013:formulated a theory of earthquakes, and 4989:), and society and politics in general ( 4985:(the increasingly significant impact of 4876:. He identified the central role of the 4848:, which led to classical mechanics; and 4689: 4662: 4622: 4461: 4128:Translations of Greek and Arabic sources 3955: 3884: 3607: 3541: 3442: 3109: 3093: 2992: 2805: 2565: 2263: 2178: 2053: 1896:, who are traditionally identified with 1804: 1657: 1423: 1411: 1270: 1184: 1118: 1036: 1013:to preserve the layout and ownership of 591:. These civilizations' contributions to 14887:Knowledge Transfer and Science Transfer 14800:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 14617:. Vol. 4. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. 14604:. Vol. 3. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. 14295: 14241: 13989: 13851:Watson, J. D.; Crick, F. H. C. (1953). 13220: 13054: 12940:Goldstein, Bernard; Hon, Giora (2005). 12191:Gal, Ofer (2021). "Medieval learning". 12108: 12024: 11613:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 10905: 10831:. Oxford University Press. p. 86. 10295:沈括 (1086, last supplement dated 1091), 10153: 10093:while in his character as author of an 10050: 9715: 9709:MacTutor History of Mathematics archive 9544:MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive 9525: 9501:, A. Mukherjee & Co., 1988, p. 277. 9349: 9343: 9162: 9078: 8922: 8646: 8618: 8205: 7935: 7386:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 7249: 7164: 6020: 5605: 5578:, who in 1865 proved the principles of 5566:dramatically reduced the occurrence of 5295: 4652: 3582:founding of Islam in the 7th century CE 3215:and noted that diamond dust is used by 3044: 2136:improved this by discovering the ratio 961:Earliest roots in the Ancient Near East 14: 17598: 15180: 14280: 14182:from the original on 28 September 2022 14079: 14014: 13992:Roots of ecology: antiquity to Haeckel 13942: 13593:Magazine, Smithsonian; Greene, Brian. 13319: 12818: 12630:from the original on 27 September 2021 12461: 11856: 11692: 11641:. University of Chicago Press. p. 162. 11598:. University of Chicago Press. p. 162. 11439:. University of Chicago Press. p. 363. 11132: 10823: 10700: 10381: 10257:. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., p. 70. 10236:. 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Physical anthropology would become 6308:are slowly drifting around the Earth. 6211:Neuroscience as a distinct discipline 6191:, by the solar neutrino detectors at 4855: 4850:Newton's law of universal gravitation 4718: 4707:Continuation of Scientific Revolution 3534:Science in the medieval Islamic world 3359:After the death of the Roman Emperor 3183: 2801: 2101:. Cubic equations were solved in the 2082:History of mathematics § Chinese 1873: 1364:over a millennium before Pythagoras. 1275:Star list with distance information, 1097:and solar cycles into consideration. 1041:The Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE) from 902:. For instance, the domestication of 17134: 14884:Lipphardt, Veronika/Ludwig, Daniel, 14793: 14453:Brown, Joshua E. 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Indiana University Press. p. 9120: 9102:from the original on 29 January 2018 8912:Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies 8758:from the original on 5 February 2021 8701:from the original on 1 November 2014 8626:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 8377: 7231:from the original on 12 January 2023 7219:Küskü, Elif Aslan (1 January 2022). 6163: 6099:Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids 5848:depended, could not exist. In 1925, 5746:whose work formed the basis for the 5617:. Marxian economics is based on the 5156:, the first modern work of economics 4838:In 1687, Isaac Newton published the 4281:began to mathematically analyze the 4201:modern counterpart and descendent." 3877:List of medieval European scientists 3089: 2620:of the region (possibly predated by 2199:, and the corrected position of the 2097:and solving linear equations and by 1610:During the 14th–16th centuries, the 1517:Indian astronomer and mathematician 1017:, which was flooded annually by the 922:knowledge in preliterate societies. 875: 722:in 16th- to 17th-century Europe, as 16510: 16146:Digital media use and mental health 15860:Sociology of the history of science 15008:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 14242:Fuentes, Agustin (6 January 2010). 14169: 13417:"Biology, Molecular and Organismic" 13381: 13332:from the original on 4 January 2010 13326:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 12249:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 12190: 11831:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 11571:from the original on 3 January 2014 11551:from Google's copy of 2008 reprint. 11268:A Contextual History of Mathematics 10810:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 10097:he is generally referred to by his 10008:. Penguin Books. pp. 189–190. 8598:. Bognor Regis, UK: Ocarina Books. 7447: 6865:Sociology of the history of science 5974:and the development and use of the 5676: 5422: 4659:Science in the Age of Enlightenment 4356:; the discovery of the Americas by 4247: 3861:European science in the Middle Ages 3428: 2951:, give great advances in geometry, 2582:, Mexico); the left column gives a 2158:{\displaystyle {\tfrac {355}{113}}} 2061:'s survey of a sea island from the 1064:, their healing therapies included 659:. The recovery and assimilation of 615:based on natural causes. After the 574:science in the Age of Enlightenment 544:, and natural philosophies such as 24: 15072:History of Science Society ("HSS") 14976:Slotten, Hugh Richard, ed. (2014) 14858:; Shank, Michael H., eds. 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But the solar neutrino flux was 5598:. Pasteur invented the process of 4931:, science was on a path to modern 4915:. Science drawing on the works of 4729:The heliocentric model revived by 3710:, preserved in the translation of 3254:Greek scholarship under Roman rule 2988: 2714:may have thought of themselves as 2132:to 5 significant figures. In 480, 1267:Astronomy and celestial divination 849:, still subscribe to this thesis. 25: 17622: 17205: 15855:Sociology of scientific ignorance 15700:History and philosophy of science 15682:Economics of scientific knowledge 15211:History and philosophy of science 14985: 14898:, 2011, retrieved: 8 March 2020 ( 14628:Science and Civilisation in China 14615:Science and Civilisation in China 14602:Science and Civilisation in China 14589:Science and Civilisation in China 14429:"Nobel prize: who gets left out?" 14427:Owens, Rebecca (8 October 2020). 14403:"Human Genome Project Fact Sheet" 13949:Journal of the History of Biology 13943:Ackert, Lloyd T. 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It encompasses all three major 44:History of science and technology 17157: 17146: 17133: 17122: 17121: 16448: 16447: 16422: 15613: 15612: 15600: 15589: 15219: 14779:Herzenberg, Caroline L. 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Shen's contemporary 1563:, introducing what would become 1399: 1287:, records of the motions of the 980: 790:Approaches to history of science 617:fall of the Western Roman Empire 78: 46:. For the academic journal, see 17258:History of Western civilization 17076:List of social science journals 14739:The Norton History of Chemistry 14561:Heilbron, John L., ed. (2003). 14296:Overbye, Dennis (4 July 2012). 13415:Dobzhansky, Theodosius (1964). 13229:from the original on 6 May 2022 12770:Journal of Near Eastern Studies 12462:Szalay, Jessie (29 June 2016). 11791:Journal of the History of Ideas 11651:Moosa, Ebrahim (6 April 2015). 11349:. Reaktion Books. p. 107. 11343:King, Rachel (29 August 2022). 10182:Martzloff, Jean-Claude (2006). 10175: 10161:. Lexington Books. p. 17. 10147: 10114: 10044: 10031: 9935: 9918: 9867: 9821: 9696: 9604: 9574: 9549: 9491: 9445: 9409: 9400: 9373: 9328: 9310: 9156: 9114: 9072: 9049: 8996: 8971: 8903: 8713: 8683: 8612: 8587: 8556: 8534: 8475: 8436: 8371: 8324: 8275: 8232: 8199: 8166: 8119: 8071: 7929: 7901: 7871:Golinski, Jan (22 July 2008) . 7864: 7815: 7782: 7738: 7619: 7416:A History of Natural Philosophy 7256:Teorie Vědy / Theory of Science 7023:A History of Natural Philosophy 6933:from the original on 5 May 2021 6756:2020s in science and technology 6653: 6335: 6140:concept, prominent in the work 6065:, 1953). In the same year, the 6047:The Nature of the Chemical Bond 5781: 5685:), the aim of sociology was in 5657:(a pioneer in memory studies), 5562:. In 1847, Hungarian physician 5202: 4431:, to study the subjects of the 4000:that would convert them into a 3865:Renaissance of the 12th century 3223:shape is a precursor to modern 3162:summation of an infinite series 1683:spherical self-supporting earth 1535:and the number 0 . In 628 CE, 1494:the earliest known treatise on 17459:Second Agricultural Revolution 17033:Science and technology studies 15661:Science and technology studies 14848:Levere, Trevor Harvey. (2001) 14100:10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.343 12649:Principe, Lawrence M. (2011). 11270:. Prentice-Hall. p. 150. 10749:. Routledge & Kegan Paul. 10255:China: Its History and Culture 9780:10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_9554 9674:10.1080/0025570X.1995.11996307 8282:Secord, Anne (December 1994). 8206:Haraway, Donna Jeanne (1989). 8173:Schiebinger, Londa L. (2013). 7989:Johns Hopkins University Press 7243: 7212: 7158: 6803:History of the social sciences 6642:, rational choice theory, and 5922: 5725: 5537: 4308: 4205:texts began to be extended by 4148:texts, including the works of 3823:in Europe, due in part to the 3668:Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi 3590:Greek conceptions of the world 3572:Translations and Hellenization 3456:Preservation of Greek heritage 3420: 3235:. Pliny was the first to show 2616:, established the first known 1878:An ancient Indian treatise on 1343: 1217:medical text, however, is the 1213:2004 BCE). The most extensive 1100: 621:Greek conceptions of the world 13: 1: 15108:An open access discovery tool 14896:Institute of European History 14892:EGO – European History Online 14201:Galí, Jordi (1 August 2018). 14088:Annual Review of Neuroscience 13813:Henig, Robin Marantz (2000). 13702:"Wilson's 1978 Nobel lecture" 13262:10.1016/s0361-9230(98)00023-9 12887:"DPMA | Johannes Kepler" 12819:Carman, Christián C. (2018). 12493:Gottfried, Robert S. (1985). 12193:The Origins of Modern Science 11908:Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). 11699:Journal of World Philosophies 10984:Greek Science after Aristotle 9416:Susantha Goonatilake (1998). 8378:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2016). 7450:The Origins of Modern Science 6899: 6699:CRISPR gene editing technique 6273:and collaborators have cited 5762:techniques) and those of an " 5590:, when in 1880 he produced a 5403:opened a new research field, 4096:of Aristotle's works such as 3913: 3825:Christian reconquest of Spain 3787:classical medical knowledge. 3134:laid down the foundations of 3029:is impressively shown by the 2778:(5th century BCE) introduced 2601:(c. 900 BCE – c. 300 BCE) of 2423:, his clocktower featured an 2286:cardinal or ordinal direction 2253: 2207:'s astronomical observations. 1688:The first 12 chapters of the 1476:simultaneous linear equations 1210: 1206: 835: 17469:Second Industrial Revolution 16208:Normalization process theory 15765:Philosophy of social science 14966:Cambridge University Press. 14845:. Cambridge University Press 13291:Matthew Daniel Eddy (2008). 12680:Bruniana & Campanelliana 12217:Rise of early modern science 11740:"Süleymaniye Mosque, Turkey" 10852:Aristotle (7 January 2009). 10534:. Accessed 13 February 2024. 10491:. Accessed 13 February 2024. 10399:"The man who unveiled China" 9380:Vaman Shivaram Apte (1970). 9163:Riedweg, Christoph (2005) . 7822:Bernard V. Lightman (2016). 6510:prompted a division between 6422:archiving of scientific data 6263:models of neural computation 5127:, following in the steps of 4260:emphasized the principle of 4190:Toledo School of Translators 3600:during the 8th–9th century. 3439:List of Byzantine inventions 3203:produced one of the largest 3118:to approximate the value of 2947:did, along with the idea of 2612:, heavily influenced by the 2526:Ancient American engineering 2315:, discovered the concept of 2223:) projection. The use of an 1647: 1581:) (1340–1400) was an Indian 1547:as both a placeholder and a 1450:contains problems involving 1416:The numerical system of the 991:Ancient Egyptian mathematics 977:in around 3000 to 1200 BCE. 910:, before the development of 882:Science in the ancient world 7: 15562:Neurology and neurosurgery 14749:The Common Sense of Science 14641:. Pica Press. p. 584. 14624:Science and Chinese society 14565:. Oxford University Press. 13747:. Accessed 26 October 2017. 13572:. Cambridge: Polity Press. 13172:(Aug 1960) 10#8 pp 564–571. 12600:Schuster, John A. (1996) . 12499:. Free Press. p. xiv. 11524:Lindberg, David C. (2007). 11475:Bede: The Reckoning of Time 10136: 10124: 10105: 10085: 8025:University of Chicago Press 6718: 6566:, which was popularized by 5863: 5330:arithmetization of analysis 5328:and others carried out the 5316:Developments in mathematics 4469:, father of modern science. 3839:, in 1258, which ended the 3650:Advancements in mathematics 3546:15th-century manuscript of 3511: 3270:documented the rise of the 2331:, and described the use of 2046:List of Chinese discoveries 1899: 1892: 1800: 1774: 1553:Hindu–Arabic numeral system 1509: 1087: 1048:Egypt was also a center of 10: 17627: 17474:Britain's Imperial Century 17236:Timelines of world history 17231:List of historical periods 15831:construction of technology 14937:Nye, Mary Jo, ed. (2002). 14907:It Started with Copernicus 14768:Cambridge University Press 14635:Sambursky, Shmuel (1974). 14528: 13990:Egerton, Frank N. (2012). 13918:Cittadino, Eugene (2002). 13125:"Ancient Theories of Soul" 12466:. Historical development. 12282:. BioLogos. Archived from 10779:. Bloomsbury. p. 7–. 9463:Oxford University Press US 8738:McIntosh, Jane R. (2005). 8253:10.1177/007327530704500403 8062:Cambridge University Press 7601:Cahan, David, ed. (2003). 7250:Hendrix, Scott E. (2011). 7165:Shigeru, Nakayama (1995). 6474:(also used in economics), 5952:discovered nuclear fission 5785: 5206: 5038:Post-Scientific Revolution 5031:Sacred Theory of the Earth 4827: 4806:father of modern chemistry 4763: 4722: 4656: 4493:De humani corporis fabrica 4323:Decline of Western alchemy 4315:Science in the Renaissance 4312: 3858: 3814: 3596:intermediary sources into 3531: 3432: 2685: 2523: 2408:, and had erected a large 2260:List of Chinese inventions 2257: 2172: 2075: 2050:List of Chinese inventions 2039: 1945:(c. 5th century BCE); the 1755: 1651: 1405: 1392: 1135:of clay, sand, metal ore, 1104: 1000:Number system and geometry 984: 879: 799: 793: 728:previous Greek conceptions 508:covers the development of 189:Interdisciplinary sciences 37: 28: 17577: 17492: 17392:Chronological world eras: 17382: 17271: 17213: 17117: 17084: 17068: 16815: 16541: 16518: 16418: 16363:Politicization of science 16323: 16109: 15878: 15813: 15725: 15690: 15667: 15585: 15532: 15499: 15451: 15398: 15360: 15284: 15228: 15217: 15188: 15077:15 September 2020 at the 14949:Porter, Roy, ed. (2003). 14905:Margolis, Howard (2002). 14609:Needham, Joseph (1986c). 14596:Needham, Joseph (1986a). 14585:Introductory Orientations 14459:The University of Vermont 14374:10.1038/nature.2016.19361 14015:Martin, Laura J. (2022). 13961:10.1007/s10739-006-9104-6 13743:15 September 2019 at the 13480:. Pearson Prentice Hall. 13353:"History of biochemistry" 12837:10.1007/s00407-017-0198-3 12347:Nature News & Comment 11868:. pp. 254, 256–257. 11866:New York University Press 11637:Lindberg, David. (1992). 11266:Calinger, Ronald (1999). 11152:10.1162/posc.1999.7.3.349 11133:DeHart, Scott M. (1999). 10895:– via Project MUSE. 10436:Needham & Wang (1954) 10377:– via Project MUSE. 10297:Meng Ch'i Pi Than (夢溪筆談, 9538:29 September 2007 at the 8301:10.1017/S0007087400032416 8019:The Scientific Revolution 7627:Oxford English Dictionary 6825:History of science policy 6747:History of science portal 5476:Evolution and inheritance 5452:, and "fluvialists" like 5349:Developments in chemistry 5139:Birth of modern economics 3479:until the development of 3374:Greek East and Latin West 3332:Nine Books of Disciplines 2666:that included the use of 2660:positional numeral system 2520:Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica 2169:Astronomical observations 1578: 1437:Indus Valley Civilisation 1299:are left on thousands of 1052:research for much of the 995:Ancient Egyptian medicine 796:Historiography of science 724:new ideas and discoveries 40:Historiography of science 17294:History of communication 15770:Philosophy of technology 14868:10.1017/CHO9780511974007 14730:Bowler, Peter J. (1993) 14542:The Landmarks of Science 14127:28 November 2021 at the 12958:10.1162/1063614053714126 12725:Gingerich, Owen (1973). 12025:Numbers, Ronald (2009). 12011:Lindberg, David. (1992) 11592:Lindberg, David. (1992) 11435:Lindberg, David. (1992) 11300:University of St Andrews 11223:A History of Mathematics 11018:"In search of lost time" 10867:Frede, Dorothea (1976). 9971:Ariel Glucklich (2008). 8594:Hoskin, Michael (2001). 8576:pp 299, 453 writes that 7746:von Wright, Georg Henrik 6845:List of years in science 6793:History of Earth science 6406:computational complexity 6259:biological neuron models 6170:Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin 6075:chemical origins of life 5490:Transmutation of Species 5342:new progress in geometry 5017:developed the theory of 4800:and through the work of 4753:laws of planetary motion 4751:), the first two of the 4239:– the Bishop of Paris – 3992:within a town grew, the 3803:("Book of Healing") and 3694:, from which they added 3632:Suleiman the Magnificent 3447:The frontispiece of the 3283:Roman conquest of Greece 2921:Hellenistic philosophers 2845:many biological writings 2722:), or as followers of a 2035: 2002:In the 2nd century, the 1918: 1388: 955:science in ancient times 334:Research and development 17454:Agricultural Revolution 16721:international relations 15276:20th century in science 15271:19th century in science 15089:13 January 2020 at the 15048:13 January 2020 at the 13766:26 October 2017 at the 13477:Biology: Exploring Life 13250:Brain Research Bulletin 13055:Hroncek, Susan (2017). 12946:Perspectives on Science 12764:Neugebauer, O. (1945). 12602:"Scientific Revolution" 12137:31(2) (1998), 72–75 79. 11974:10.1067/mcp.2000.106465 11914:Encyclopædia Britannica 11744:architecturecourses.org 11296:"A history of calculus" 11139:Perspectives on Science 10906:Johnson, Monte (2004). 10813:(Spring 2018 ed.). 10805:"Aristotle's Influence" 10528:Encyclopedia Britannica 10485:Encyclopedia Britannica 10425:– via nature.com. 10004:Robert Svoboda (1992). 9829:"The Observatory Sites" 9420:Toward a Global Science 8871:Brown, Michael (1995). 8695:Encyclopædia Britannica 8562:Francesca Bray (1984), 8331:Nasim, Omar W. (2013). 8210:. New York: Routledge. 8126:Shapin, Steven (2018). 7936:Poskett, James (2022). 7908:Thomas, Norman (1961). 6850:Materialism Controversy 6835:List of Nobel laureates 6612:biological anthropology 6605:cultural anthropologist 6601:artificial intelligence 6570:. Behaviorism proposed 6544:New Keynesian economics 6540:New Classical economics 6530:created the concept of 6390:theoretical linguistics 6346:incandescent light bulb 6312:Geologists' embrace of 5788:20th century in science 5740:Johann Gottfried Herder 5719:symbolic interactionism 5413:physiological chemistry 5240:demonstrates the first 5229:Developments in physics 5209:19th century in science 5071:Developments in geology 5001:Developments in geology 4957:Jean le Rond d'Alembert 4846:Newton's laws of motion 4834:Newton's laws of motion 4694:Isaac Newton initiated 4526:scientific publications 3750:Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi 3696:trigonometric functions 3106:and dated to c. 100 CE. 3013:, while the geographer 2629:calendar in Mesoamerica 2599:Middle Formative Period 2511:decreed aforetime. The 1616:Madhava of Sangamagrama 1484:indeterminate equations 1147:, glass, soap, metals, 830:– led scholars such as 603:influenced later Greek 17414:Post-classical history 17279:History of agriculture 17246:Cradle of civilization 17048:Quantum social science 15843:Sociology of knowledge 15196:Theories and sociology 15140:The Vega Science Trust 15133:18 August 2015 at the 14049:8 October 2018 at the 13525:. Roma. pp. 79–. 13038:Florin George Calian. 12254:University of Stanford 12244:"Condemnation of 1277" 11824:Rabin, Sheila (2004). 11218:"Euclid of Alexandria" 10367:10.1353/tech.2019.0041 10355:Technology and Culture 9557:"Narayana - Biography" 9510:Ifrah, Georges. 1999. 9027:10.1098/rsta.1974.0007 8935:Behind the Babylonian 8929:Heeßel, N. P. (2004). 8874:Israel's Divine Healer 8549:30 August 2017 at the 8509:10.1073/pnas.052125199 8056:Brooke, J. H. (1991). 6813:History of scholarship 6773:History of measurement 6694:on 14 September 2015. 6675: 6488:political anthropology 6464:rational choice theory 6398:electrical engineering 6309: 6067:Miller–Urey experiment 6034: 5940: 5813: 5663:classical conditioning 5641:Founding of psychology 5572:germ theory of disease 5564:Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis 5544:germ theory of disease 5524:opposition and support 5497: 5360: 5340:. It also saw rise to 5249: 5157: 5087: 4760:Emergence of chemistry 4703: 4687: 4630: 4470: 4435:, has been applied to 4362:Fall of Constantinople 4294:Fall of Constantinople 4098: 3897: 3615: 3557: 3518:Fall of Constantinople 3452: 3328:Marcus Terentius Varro 3123: 3107: 3064:The Hippocratic Corpus 3002: 2959:, former professor of 2821: 2782:, the theory that all 2594: 2530:Mesoamerican calendars 2517: 2277: 2208: 2159: 2068: 1824: 1670: 1472:geometric progressions 1432: 1421: 1280: 1128: 1111:Babylonian mathematics 1045: 782:," particularly after 752:conservation of energy 246:Extrascientific fields 158:Intrascientific fields 17547:Agricultural/Agrarian 17464:Industrial Revolution 17364:History of literature 17344:History of navigation 17339:History of technology 17314:History of philosophy 17284:History of government 17085:Other categorizations 16938:International studies 16923:History of technology 16858:Communication studies 16741:public administration 16410:Transition management 16400:Technology assessment 16368:Regulation of science 16343:Evidence-based policy 16228:Sociotechnical system 16077:Traditional knowledge 15957:Psychology of science 15930:Mapping controversies 15836:shaping of technology 15795:Social constructivism 15760:Philosophy of science 15717:History of technology 15256:Scientific Revolution 14930:North, John. (1995). 14923:Mayr, Ernst. (1985). 14583:; Wang, Ling (1954). 14270:– via CrossRef. 14231:– via CrossRef. 14072:25 March 2017 at the 13208:10.1001/jama.2011.933 13154:Galen, David (1984). 13073:10.1353/vcr.2017.0032 12674:Knox, Dilwyn (1999). 12610:Abingdon, Oxfordshire 12135:Historical Metallurgy 12115:William of Malmesbury 11826:"Nicolaus Copernicus" 11547:3 August 2020 at the 11016:Marchant, Jo (2006). 10885:10.1353/hph.2008.0115 10587:University of Chicago 10554:University of Chicago 10458:University of Chicago 10283:Needham (1986a), 626. 10091:. Brill. p. 10. 8979:Epilepsy in Babylonia 8827:Abusch, Tzvi (2002). 7789:Kragh, Helge (1987). 7722:Making Modern Science 7697:Making Modern Science 7669:Making Modern Science 7641:Wrestling with Nature 7578:Making Modern Science 7553:Making Modern Science 7528:Making Modern Science 7503:Making Modern Science 7478:Making Modern Science 6808:History of technology 6766:Philosophy of science 6680:Large Hadron Collider 6661: 6632:impression management 6536:supply-side economics 6498:, political economy, 6439:which ushered in the 6296: 6233:FitzHugh–Nagumo model 6113:). The discipline of 6028: 5982:was recruited by the 5930: 5811: 5786:Further information: 5772:cultural anthropology 5768:physical anthropology 5619:labor theory of value 5560:asymmetry of crystals 5519:The Origin of Species 5483: 5454:Andrew Crombie Ramsay 5356: 5236: 5207:Further information: 5153:The Wealth of Nations 5146: 5100:Jean-Étienne Guettard 5078: 5007:Scientific Revolution 4987:science upon religion 4841:Principia Mathematica 4781:The Sceptical Chymist 4725:Copernican Revolution 4693: 4666: 4657:Further information: 4626: 4480:Scientific Revolution 4465: 4313:Further information: 4303:Scientific Revolution 4008:in 1088, followed by 3962:medieval universities 3956:Medieval universities 3926:, Europeans, such as 3888: 3859:Further information: 3805:The Canon of Medicine 3795:. Ibn Sina (known as 3611: 3553:The Canon of Medicine 3545: 3532:Further information: 3508:ten centuries later. 3492:Archimedes Palimpsest 3481:medieval universities 3446: 3433:Further information: 3113: 3097: 3031:Antikythera mechanism 2999:Antikythera mechanism 2996: 2861:Scientific Revolution 2809: 2686:Further information: 2569: 2524:Further information: 2508: 2436:Jesuit China missions 2365:found underground at 2267: 2182: 2160: 2076:Further information: 2057: 2040:Further information: 1977:(c. 2nd century CE). 1949:school's analysis of 1808: 1716:in the 17th century. 1661: 1527:(499) introduced the 1430:Brahmagupta's theorem 1428:Drawing representing 1427: 1415: 1393:Further information: 1375:Scientific Revolution 1274: 1185:Mesopotamian medicine 1168:; the anatomy of the 1151:, and waterproofing. 1122: 1105:Further information: 1040: 985:Further information: 880:Further information: 800:Further information: 720:Scientific Revolution 410:Science communication 259:Communication studies 17444:Age of Enlightenment 17299:History of economics 17263:Eastern civilization 16918:Historical sociology 16315:Women in engineering 16161:Financial technology 16141:Digital anthropology 15910:Criticism of science 15823:Actor–network theory 15785:Religion and science 15677:Economics of science 15509:Agricultural science 15261:Age of Enlightenment 15025:Henry Smith Williams 13819:. Houghton Mifflin. 13599:Smithsonian Magazine 12616:. pp. 217–242. 12120:Gesta Regum Anglorum 11894:5 March 2016 at the 10707:Dicks, D.R. (1970). 10684:4 April 2023 at the 10589:. pp. 226–227. 10080:Trautmann, Thomas R. 9661:Mathematics Magazine 9499:Late Classical India 9440:Virahanka Fibonacci. 9356:Mathematics in India 9239:The Environmentalist 8977:Marten Stol (1993), 8399:10.1353/bh.2016.0002 7914:. Norton. p. 25 7755:The Idea of Progress 6870:Timelines of science 6788:History of chemistry 6778:History of astronomy 6518:in the 1920s. Under 6492:political psychology 6445:fiber optic networks 6426:software engineering 6394:discrete mathematics 6386:Human Genome Project 6229:Hodgkin–Huxley model 6178:Henry Norris Russell 6174:Henry Norris Russell 6111:Human Genome Project 6021:Advances in genetics 5978:. Around this time, 5913:Holmdel Horn Antenna 5606:Schools of economics 5375:, created the first 5322:hypercomplex numbers 5296:Discovery of Neptune 5217:had coined the term 5182:. He postulated an " 5125:Alexandre Brongniart 4814:conservation of mass 4713:Age of Enlightenment 4653:Age of Enlightenment 4647:Seleucus of Seleucia 4643:Aristarchus of Samos 4510:, by the astronomer 4358:Christopher Columbus 4342:Northern Renaissance 4241:Condemnation of 1277 4078:for a physician, or 3939:Eilmer of Malmesbury 3849:Maragheh observatory 3746:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi 3403:Western Roman Empire 3150:method of exhaustion 3130:, the mathematician 3116:method of exhaustion 3114:Archimedes used the 3045:Hellenistic medicine 3041:appeared in Europe. 3007:Aristarchus of Samos 2716:natural philosophers 2610:Zapotec civilization 2502:, and other fields. 2458:, the double-action 2140: 1448:Bakhshali manuscript 1418:Bakhshali manuscript 1358:Pythagorean triplets 1285:Babylonian astronomy 1237:(1069–1046 BCE). In 1225:, or chief scholar, 1127:in what is now Syria 1107:Babylonian astronomy 828:Age of Enlightenment 809:Alfred Edward Taylor 705:Zapotec civilization 587:around 3000 to 1200 568:declined during the 367:Scientific integrity 349:Vocational education 284:Knowledge management 17424:Early modern period 17374:History of painting 17324:History of medicine 17319:Science/Technology: 17098:Geisteswissenschaft 17092:Behavioral sciences 17018:Political sociology 16933:Information science 16878:Development studies 16156:Engineering studies 16126:Cyborg anthropology 15915:Demarcation problem 15800:Social epistemology 15547:Veterinary medicine 15241:Classical Antiquity 15003:"Scientific Change" 14737:Brock, W.H. (1993) 14219:10.1257/jep.32.3.87 14157:Scientific American 13907:on 24 October 2017. 13874:1953Natur.171..737W 13664:1948Natur.162..680G 13628:1948Natur.162..774A 13437:10.1093/icb/4.4.443 13371:– via PubMed. 12571:. 17 February 2023. 12549:Library of Congress 12422:David C. Lindberg, 12219:2nd ed. pp. 180–181 12152:The Daily Telegraph 11657:. UNC Press Books. 11034:2006Natur.444..534M 10771:Leroi, Armand Marie 9888:2006Natur.440..755C 9737:2008rma..book.....S 9497:Mainak Kumar Bose, 9251:1985ThEnv...5...39S 9019:1974RSPTA.276...21A 8937:Diagnostic Handbook 8500:2002PNAS...99.6080M 8453:1992SPIE10309E..04S 8079:Taliaferro, Charles 8015:Shapin, S. (1996). 7828:. Chichester (GB). 7750:Mittelstraß, Jürgen 7269:10.46938/tv.2011.72 6830:List of experiments 6709:Positive psychology 6688:Gravitational waves 6674:, visible as lines. 6520:Keynesian economics 6508:John Maynard Keynes 6496:political sociology 6480:political geography 6414:computer networking 6318:geophysical studies 6183:In 1987, supernova 6119:Darwinian evolution 6103:genetic engineering 5917:age of the universe 5868:The observation by 5842:Newtonian mechanics 5711:George Herbert Mead 5588:preventive medicine 5415:, the precursor to 5286:Maxwell's equations 5278:James Clerk Maxwell 5223:natural philosopher 5162:classical economics 4874:circulatory systems 4830:History of calculus 4766:Chemical revolution 4731:Nicolaus Copernicus 4696:classical mechanics 4639:Nicolaus Copernicus 4628:Nicolaus Copernicus 4528:throughout Europe. 4512:Nicolaus Copernicus 4475:early modern period 4410:Niccolò Machiavelli 4406:Italian Renaissance 4354:Counter-Reformation 4332:Revival of learning 3922:As a result of the 3906:classical antiquity 3873:Medieval technology 3789:Medical specialties 3742:Maragha astronomers 3578:Alexander the Great 3156:under the arc of a 3039:astronomical clocks 2957:Benjamin Farrington 2925:Muslim philosophers 2833:deductive reasoning 2760:Ionian philosophers 2724:religious tradition 2701:classical antiquity 2652:calendrical science 2633:Preclassical period 2618:full writing system 2193:Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao 2099:Pythagoras' theorem 2078:Chinese mathematics 2072:Chinese mathematics 1923:The development of 1809:Palm leaves of the 1710:Nilakantha Somayaji 1691:Siddhanta Shiromani 1618:led advancement in 1480:quadratic equations 1362:Pythagorean theorem 1219:Diagnostic Handbook 1203:Third Dynasty of Ur 1133:chemical properties 1115:Babylonian medicine 1078:Edwin Smith papyrus 1033:Disease and healing 1025:and other rules of 832:John William Draper 740:chemical revolution 709:producing calendars 693:Western exploration 609:classical antiquity 570:early modern period 562:classical antiquity 522:branches of science 61:Part of a series on 17606:History of science 17334:History of writing 17329:History of science 17153:Society portal 16640:auxiliary sciences 16436:History of science 16353:Funding of science 16223:Skunkworks project 15920:Double hermeneutic 15705:History of science 15182:History of science 15030:History of Science 15018:in Paris (France) 14856:Lindberg, David C. 14783:Locust Hill Press 14302:The New York Times 14260:10.1002/ajpa.21438 13568:Agar, Jon (2012). 13424:American Zoologist 13382:Dastrup, R. Adam. 12585:, pp. 741–744 12581:See, for example, 12336:McLeish, Tom C. B. 12146:David Derbyshire, 12065:"Debunking a myth" 11654:What Is a Madrasa? 10659:The New York Times 10583:Oriental Institute 10550:Oriental Institute 10503:Images of the Past 10454:Oriental Institute 10230:de Crespigny, Rafe 9453:Pickover, Clifford 9259:10.1007/BF02239866 8461:10.1117/12.2283709 8241:History of Science 8130:. Princeton, N.J. 6855:Multiple discovery 6840:List of scientists 6798:History of physics 6783:History of biology 6676: 6640:post-structuralism 6587:, philosophy, and 6310: 6279:Francis O. Schmitt 6255:Morris–Lecar model 6217:Alan Lloyd Hodgkin 6189:neutrino astronomy 6136:—particularly the 6059:the secret of life 6035: 6011:Ernest O. Lawrence 5960:Otto Robert Frisch 5941: 5846:special relativity 5834:general relativity 5814: 5655:Hermann Ebbinghaus 5546:. Following this, 5498: 5462:radiometric dating 5437:Roderick Murchison 5361: 5274:Andre-Marie Ampere 5250: 5180:division of labour 5158: 5088: 4856:Circulatory system 4719:Planets and orbits 4704: 4688: 4631: 4609:Christiaan Huygens 4557:Christiaan Huygens 4471: 4452:Renaissance Europe 4279:Oxford Calculators 4235:'s thesis is that 4211:Robert Grosseteste 4158:Isidore of Miletus 4094:Latin translations 4046:seven liberal arts 3898: 3762:Abū Ishāq al-Kindī 3720:The great treatise 3716:Hè Megalè Syntaxis 3656:Arabic mathematics 3628:Suleymaniye Mosque 3616: 3613:Süleymaniye Mosque 3580:in 335 BCE to the 3562:Islamic Golden Age 3558: 3488:Isidore of Miletus 3453: 3449:Vienna Dioscurides 3395:Augustine of Hippo 3340:seven liberal arts 3184:Other developments 3136:mathematical rigor 3124: 3108: 3033:(150–100 BCE), an 3003: 2965:Swansea University 2931:, to the European 2822: 2802:Natural philosophy 2772:Pythagorean school 2740:Greek philosophers 2697:natural philosophy 2614:Olmec civilization 2595: 2572:La Mojarra Stela 1 2562:Aztec architecture 2327:, sight tube, and 2278: 2209: 2155: 2153: 2124:canon in 330 BCE, 2069: 1927:dates back to the 1874:Politics and state 1825: 1671: 1665:Siddhānta Śiromaṇī 1521:(476–550), in his 1441:Mohenjo-daro ruler 1433: 1422: 1408:Indian mathematics 1281: 1129: 1072:, and ritual. The 1046: 987:Egyptian astronomy 679:having influenced 671:and separately in 657:Islamic Golden Age 605:natural philosophy 506:history of science 85:Science portal 49:History of Science 18:History of Science 17593: 17592: 17173: 17172: 17013:Political economy 17008:Political ecology 16863:Community studies 16853:Cognitive science 16816:Interdisciplinary 16716:Political science 16478: 16477: 16405:Technology policy 16136:Dematerialization 15945:black swan events 15627: 15626: 15519:Materials science 15481:Political science 15246:Medieval European 14972:978-0-521-22599-1 14919:978-0-07-138507-7 14877:978-0-521-59448-6 14830:978-0-19-568003-4 14810:978-0-226-45807-6 14789:978-0-933951-01-3 14775:978-0-521-82197-1 14757:978-84-297-1380-0 14715:978-0-394-40229-1 14691:978-1-4020-5631-4 14673:978-0-7456-3469-2 14663:Agar, Jon (2012) 14648:978-0-87663-712-8 14572:978-0-19-511229-0 14553:978-0-8160-2137-6 14546:. Facts on File. 14536:Bruno, Leonard C. 14337:(Press release). 14029:978-0-674-97942-0 14001:978-0-520-27174-6 13929:978-0-521-52486-5 13868:(4356): 737–738. 13826:978-0-395-97765-1 13799:10.1063/1.2806727 13782:"Chien-Shiung Wu" 13658:(4122): 680–682. 13622:(4124): 774–775. 13579:978-0-7456-3469-2 13532:978-88-6812-497-7 13487:978-0-13-250882-7 13398:"Plate Tectonics" 13322:"William Whewell" 13123:Stanford (2003). 12660:978-0-19-956741-6 12506:978-0-02-912370-6 12353:(7491): 161–163. 12038:978-0-674-03327-6 11889:Sameen Ahmed Khan 11875:978-0-8147-8023-7 11777:978-0-684-16962-0 11664:978-1-4696-2014-5 11609:"John Philoponus" 11535:978-0-226-48205-7 11510:978-0-415-18712-1 11483:978-0-85323-693-1 11462:978-0-226-74951-8 11422:978-0-226-48205-7 11330:perseus.tufts.edu 11277:978-0-02-318285-3 11028:(7119): 534–538. 10838:978-0-19-285408-7 10786:978-1-4088-3622-4 10756:978-0-7100-1903-5 10724:978-0-8014-0561-7 10695:978-0-7425-3329-5 10676:Arieti, James A. 10596:978-1-885923-76-9 10563:978-1-885923-76-9 10467:978-1-885923-76-9 10409:(7203): 409–411. 10299:Dream Pool Essays 10168:978-0-7391-0401-9 9990:978-0-19-531405-2 9882:(7085): 755–756. 9789:978-1-4020-4425-0 9746:978-1-84882-072-2 9597:978-0-691-12067-6 9533:'Indian Numerals' 9520:978-0-471-37568-5 9472:978-0-19-533611-5 9435:978-0-253-33388-9 9393:978-81-208-0045-8 9366:978-0-691-12067-6 9176:978-0-8014-7452-1 9137:978-0-87220-575-8 9095:978-0-674-53918-1 9068:978-0-7868-6362-4 8991:978-90-72371-63-8 8952:978-90-04-13666-3 8884:978-0-310-20029-1 8840:978-90-04-12387-8 8801:978-0-684-19279-6 8751:978-1-57607-966-9 8633:978-0-300-07814-5 8605:978-0-9540867-1-8 8342:978-0-226-08440-4 8217:978-1-136-60815-5 8184:978-0-8135-3531-9 8137:978-0-691-17816-5 7998:978-0-8018-7038-5 7947:978-0-241-39409-0 7835:978-1-118-62077-9 7650:978-0-226-31783-0 7612:978-0-226-08928-7 7431:978-052-1-68957-1 7369:978-0-226-48205-7 7339:978-0-521-34262-9 7314:978-0-199-56741-6 7151:978-0-226-48205-7 7126:978-0-226-48205-7 7066:978-0-226-48205-7 7038:978-052-1-68957-1 7000:978-0-226-48205-7 6577:cognitive science 6572:epistemologically 6437:optical amplifier 6418:computer hardware 6302:continental drift 6241:neurotransmission 6225:action potentials 6164:Space exploration 6158:ecosystem ecology 6095:Rosalind Franklin 6061:(in the words of 5988:Gaseous diffusion 5984:Manhattan Project 5858:quantum mechanics 5854:Erwin Schrödinger 5850:Werner Heisenberg 5830:quantum mechanics 5756:scientific racism 5732:Romantic Movement 5707:microsociological 5635:supply and demand 5615:Marxian economics 5506:natural selection 5494:evolutionary tree 5484:In mid-July 1837 5405:organic chemistry 5338:complex variables 5332:for functions of 5188:Wealth of Nations 5104:Nicolas Desmarest 5092:Benoît de Maillet 4953:Mikhail Lomonosov 4945:Benjamin Franklin 4818:phlogiston theory 4802:Antoine Lavoisier 4677:scientific method 4569:Gottfried Leibniz 4507:De Revolutionibus 4488:scientific method 4397:' work on rocks, 4379:The discovery of 4319:Continuity thesis 4258:William of Ockham 4186:Raymond of Toledo 4074:for a lawyer, an 3837:Abbasid Caliphate 3835:, capital of the 3674:, while the term 3502:theory of impetus 3435:Byzantine science 3393:. Others such as 3318:Commentaries and 3231:with the work of 3152:to calculate the 3128:Hellenistic Egypt 3090:Greek mathematics 2997:Schematic of the 2939:, to the secular 2754:(640–546 BCE) of 2640:Maya civilization 2546:Maya architecture 2488:raised-relief map 2480:winnowing machine 2476:suspension bridge 2466:, the multi-tube 2348:Taihang Mountains 2248:scholar-officials 2175:Chinese astronomy 2152: 2111:Pascal's triangle 1999:school of logic. 1888:military strategy 1724:constructed five 1593:, other than the 1551:, along with the 1504:Fibonacci numbers 1348:The Mesopotamian 1309:Western calendars 1162:Animal physiology 1021:River. The 3-4-5 967:Ancient Near East 876:Prehistoric times 858:important chapter 772:molecular biology 736:scientific method 665:Islamic inquiries 500: 499: 425:Scientific method 415:Science education 356: 355: 339:Strategic studies 16:(Redirected from 17618: 17479:American Century 17449:Age of Discovery 17402:Three-age system 17369:History of music 17359:History of drama 17304:History of trade 17226:Recorded history 17200: 17193: 17186: 17177: 17176: 17161: 17151: 17150: 17137: 17136: 17125: 17124: 17028:Regional science 16873:Cultural studies 16848:Business studies 16505: 16498: 16491: 16482: 16481: 16451: 16450: 16426: 16378:Right to science 16358:Horizon scanning 16333:Academic freedom 16233:Technical change 16094:Women in science 16089:Unity of science 15870:Strong programme 15654: 15647: 15640: 15631: 15630: 15620: 15616: 15615: 15608: 15604: 15593: 15592: 15514:Computer science 15362:Natural sciences 15327:Medieval Islamic 15223: 15175: 15168: 15161: 15152: 15151: 15021: 15012: 14956:Rousseau, George 14881: 14860:Medieval Science 14814: 14727: 14708:. Random House. 14707: 14698:Boorstin, Daniel 14667:, Polity Press. 14652: 14631: 14618: 14605: 14592: 14576: 14557: 14545: 14522: 14521: 14519: 14517: 14502: 14496: 14495: 14493: 14491: 14476: 14470: 14469: 14467: 14465: 14450: 14444: 14443: 14441: 14439: 14433:The Conversation 14424: 14418: 14417: 14415: 14413: 14399: 14393: 14392: 14390: 14388: 14357: 14351: 14350: 14348: 14346: 14324: 14318: 14317: 14315: 14313: 14293: 14287: 14286: 14278: 14272: 14271: 14239: 14233: 14232: 14230: 14198: 14192: 14191: 14189: 14187: 14167: 14161: 14160: 14152: 14146: 14145: 14138: 14132: 14118: 14112: 14111: 14083: 14077: 14063: 14054: 14040: 14034: 14033: 14012: 14006: 14005: 13987: 13981: 13980: 13940: 13934: 13933: 13915: 13909: 13908: 13906: 13900:. Archived from 13882:10.1038/171737a0 13857: 13848: 13839: 13838: 13810: 13804: 13803: 13801: 13777: 13771: 13757: 13748: 13734: 13728: 13727: 13725: 13723: 13717: 13706: 13698: 13692: 13691: 13672:10.1038/162680a0 13647: 13636:10.1038/162774b0 13609: 13603: 13602: 13590: 13584: 13583: 13565: 13559: 13558: 13552: 13544: 13518: 13512: 13511: 13509: 13507: 13471: 13465: 13464: 13462: 13460: 13454: 13448:. Archived from 13439: 13421: 13412: 13406: 13405: 13394: 13388: 13387: 13379: 13373: 13372: 13348: 13342: 13341: 13339: 13337: 13317: 13311: 13310: 13308: 13306: 13288: 13282: 13281: 13245: 13239: 13238: 13236: 13234: 13218: 13212: 13211: 13191: 13185: 13179: 13173: 13166: 13160: 13159: 13151: 13145: 13144: 13142: 13140: 13120: 13114: 13111: 13105: 13104: 13102: 13100: 13061:Victorian Review 13052: 13046: 13045: 13035: 13029: 13028: 13026: 13024: 12976: 12970: 12969: 12937: 12931: 12930: 12923: 12917: 12916: 12914: 12912: 12903:. Archived from 12897: 12891: 12890: 12883: 12877: 12876: 12874: 12872: 12816: 12810: 12809: 12761: 12755: 12754: 12722: 12716: 12715: 12713: 12711: 12671: 12665: 12664: 12646: 12640: 12639: 12637: 12635: 12597: 12586: 12579: 12573: 12572: 12561: 12555: 12545: 12539: 12529: 12523: 12522: 12520: 12518: 12490: 12484: 12483: 12481: 12479: 12459: 12453: 12446: 12440: 12433: 12427: 12420: 12414: 12407: 12401: 12394: 12388: 12387: 12385: 12383: 12377: 12362: 12344: 12332: 12326: 12325: 12323: 12321: 12302: 12296: 12295: 12293: 12291: 12276: 12270: 12269: 12267: 12265: 12239: 12233: 12226: 12220: 12213: 12207: 12206: 12188: 12155: 12144: 12138: 12131: 12125: 12112: 12106: 12105: 12087: 12081: 12080: 12078: 12076: 12061: 12055: 12054: 12052: 12050: 12022: 12016: 12009: 12003: 12000: 11994: 11993: 11957: 11951: 11948: 11942: 11939: 11930: 11929: 11927: 11925: 11905: 11899: 11886: 11880: 11879: 11854: 11848: 11847: 11845: 11843: 11821: 11815: 11814: 11786: 11780: 11766: 11760: 11759: 11757: 11755: 11736: 11727: 11726: 11724: 11722: 11690: 11681: 11680: 11678: 11676: 11648: 11642: 11635: 11629: 11628: 11626: 11624: 11605: 11599: 11590: 11581: 11580: 11578: 11576: 11558: 11552: 11539: 11521: 11515: 11514: 11492: 11486: 11471: 11465: 11446: 11440: 11433: 11427: 11426: 11408: 11361: 11360: 11340: 11334: 11333: 11322: 11316: 11315: 11313: 11311: 11291: 11285: 11284: 11263: 11257: 11256: 11220: 11209: 11203: 11202: 11200: 11198: 11179: 11173: 11172: 11154: 11130: 11124: 11123: 11113: 11081: 11068: 11065: 11056: 11055: 11045: 11013: 11007: 11001: 10995: 10978: 10972: 10962: 10956: 10955: 10953: 10951: 10903: 10897: 10896: 10864: 10858: 10857: 10849: 10843: 10842: 10825:Barnes, Jonathan 10821: 10815: 10814: 10801:Zalta, Edward N. 10797: 10791: 10790: 10767: 10761: 10760: 10748: 10739:O'Leary, De Lacy 10735: 10729: 10728: 10704: 10698: 10674: 10668: 10667: 10649: 10640: 10630: 10624: 10607: 10601: 10600: 10574: 10568: 10567: 10541: 10535: 10530:, 17 Dec. 2023, 10524: 10518: 10516: 10498: 10492: 10481: 10472: 10471: 10445: 10439: 10433: 10427: 10426: 10394: 10379: 10378: 10346: 10333: 10326: 10320: 10314: 10308: 10290: 10284: 10281: 10275: 10272: 10266: 10251: 10245: 10227: 10221: 10218: 10212: 10206: 10200: 10199: 10179: 10173: 10172: 10151: 10145: 10139: 10128:rather than the 10127: 10118: 10112: 10111: 10108: 10088: 10076: 10048: 10042: 10035: 10029: 10026: 10020: 10019: 10001: 9995: 9994: 9978: 9968: 9962: 9939: 9933: 9922: 9916: 9915: 9871: 9865: 9864: 9846: 9840: 9839: 9837: 9835: 9825: 9819: 9818: 9800: 9794: 9793: 9767: 9758: 9757: 9755: 9753: 9719: 9713: 9700: 9694: 9693: 9648: 9642: 9641: 9608: 9602: 9601: 9578: 9572: 9571: 9569: 9567: 9553: 9547: 9529: 9523: 9508: 9502: 9495: 9489: 9488: 9486: 9484: 9449: 9443: 9442: 9423: 9413: 9407: 9404: 9398: 9397: 9377: 9371: 9370: 9347: 9341: 9340: 9332: 9326: 9325: 9314: 9308: 9307: 9289: 9283: 9282: 9280: 9278: 9227: 9221: 9220: 9202: 9193: 9192: 9190: 9188: 9160: 9154: 9153: 9151: 9149: 9122:Kahn, Charles H. 9118: 9112: 9111: 9109: 9107: 9076: 9070: 9053: 9047: 9046: 9000: 8994: 8983:Brill Publishers 8975: 8969: 8968: 8966: 8964: 8926: 8920: 8919: 8907: 8901: 8900: 8898: 8896: 8868: 8857: 8856: 8854: 8852: 8824: 8813: 8812: 8810: 8808: 8781: 8768: 8767: 8765: 8763: 8735: 8724: 8717: 8711: 8710: 8708: 8706: 8687: 8681: 8680: 8678: 8676: 8670: 8664:. Archived from 8655: 8644: 8638: 8637: 8616: 8610: 8609: 8591: 8585: 8560: 8554: 8538: 8532: 8531: 8521: 8511: 8494:(9): 6080–6084. 8479: 8473: 8472: 8440: 8434: 8433: 8431: 8429: 8423: 8384: 8375: 8369: 8368: 8362: 8354: 8328: 8322: 8321: 8303: 8279: 8273: 8272: 8236: 8230: 8229: 8203: 8197: 8196: 8170: 8164: 8163: 8157: 8149: 8123: 8117: 8116: 8111: 8109: 8075: 8069: 8068: 8053: 8047: 8046: 8022: 8012: 8006: 8005: 7980: 7974: 7973: 7967: 7959: 7933: 7927: 7926: 7921: 7919: 7911:Great Dissenters 7905: 7899: 7898: 7893: 7891: 7868: 7862: 7861: 7855: 7847: 7819: 7813: 7812: 7786: 7780: 7779: 7774: 7772: 7742: 7736: 7735: 7717: 7711: 7710: 7692: 7683: 7682: 7664: 7655: 7654: 7636: 7630: 7623: 7617: 7616: 7598: 7592: 7591: 7573: 7567: 7566: 7548: 7542: 7541: 7523: 7517: 7516: 7498: 7492: 7491: 7473: 7464: 7463: 7445: 7436: 7435: 7419: 7409: 7403: 7402: 7400: 7398: 7380: 7374: 7373: 7355: 7344: 7343: 7325: 7319: 7318: 7300: 7294: 7293: 7291: 7289: 7271: 7247: 7241: 7240: 7238: 7236: 7216: 7210: 7209: 7207: 7205: 7162: 7156: 7155: 7137: 7131: 7130: 7112: 7071: 7070: 7052: 7043: 7042: 7026: 7016: 7005: 7004: 6986: 6943: 6942: 6940: 6938: 6910: 6892:Yuasa Phenomenon 6749: 6744: 6743: 6742: 6735: 6730: 6729: 6608:Napoleon Chagnon 6585:computer science 6556:Edward Titchener 6524:aggregate demand 6205:particle physics 6087:genetic material 5949:Fritz Strassmann 5878:Georges Lemaître 5840:, on which both 5760:anthropometrical 5713:and his student 5703:W. E. B. Du Bois 5677:Modern sociology 5661:(who discovered 5631:entrepreneurship 5423:Age of the Earth 5401:Friedrich Wöhler 5389:Dmitri Mendeleev 5367:, following the 5365:Dmitri Mendeleev 5358:Dmitri Mendeleev 5326:Karl Weierstrass 5284:as described by 5282:electromagnetism 5258:Alessandro Volta 5238:Alessandro Volta 5061:Alessandro Volta 5021:and argued that 4955:(1711–1765) and 4816:, which refuted 4502:Andreas Vesalius 4248:Medieval science 4166:Jābir ibn Hayyān 4103: 4068:Bachelor of Arts 4039:academic freedom 3932:Age of Discovery 3918: 3915: 3910:Mondino de Luzzi 3829:Mongol conquests 3730:geocentric model 3722:) translated as 3678:is derived from 3429:Byzantine Empire 3378:Byzantine Empire 3344:medieval schools 3297:and philosopher 3060:Hippocratic Oath 2868:celestial bodies 2837:Platonic Academy 2591:Epi-Olmec script 2421:armillary sphere 2339:and the find of 2325:armillary sphere 2225:armillary sphere 2164: 2162: 2161: 2156: 2154: 2145: 2067:, 3rd century AD 1987:, alongside the 1967:Hindu philosophy 1939:Sanskrit grammar 1902: 1895: 1890:by Kautilya and 1817:Sahottara-Tantra 1812:Sushruta Samhita 1779: 1654:Indian astronomy 1580: 1571:Narayana Pandita 1512: 1496:Sanskrit prosody 1235:Adad-apla-iddina 1212: 1208: 1082:empirical method 969:, in particular 840: 837: 776:particle physics 641:Byzantine Empire 623:deteriorated in 492: 485: 478: 420:Research funding 289:Language studies 194:Natural sciences 167:Applied sciences 154: 153: 87: 83: 82: 58: 57: 21: 17626: 17625: 17621: 17620: 17619: 17617: 17616: 17615: 17611:Science studies 17596: 17595: 17594: 17589: 17573: 17569:Post-industrial 17512:Hunter-gatherer 17494: 17488: 17409:Ancient history 17384: 17378: 17267: 17241:Major concepts: 17209: 17204: 17174: 17169: 17145: 17113: 17080: 17064: 17038:Science studies 16822:Administration 16811: 16537: 16514: 16512:Social sciences 16509: 16479: 16474: 16414: 16373:Research ethics 16319: 16218:Reverse salient 16112: 16105: 15881: 15874: 15865:Sociotechnology 15809: 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N. 8076: 8072: 8054: 8050: 8039: 8013: 8009: 7999: 7981: 7977: 7961: 7960: 7948: 7934: 7930: 7917: 7915: 7906: 7902: 7889: 7887: 7885: 7869: 7865: 7849: 7848: 7836: 7820: 7816: 7801: 7787: 7783: 7770: 7768: 7766: 7743: 7739: 7732: 7718: 7714: 7707: 7693: 7686: 7679: 7665: 7658: 7651: 7637: 7633: 7624: 7620: 7613: 7599: 7595: 7588: 7574: 7570: 7563: 7549: 7545: 7538: 7524: 7520: 7513: 7499: 7495: 7488: 7474: 7467: 7460: 7446: 7439: 7432: 7410: 7406: 7396: 7394: 7381: 7377: 7370: 7356: 7347: 7340: 7326: 7322: 7315: 7301: 7297: 7287: 7285: 7248: 7244: 7234: 7232: 7217: 7213: 7203: 7201: 7163: 7159: 7152: 7138: 7134: 7127: 7113: 7074: 7067: 7053: 7046: 7039: 7017: 7008: 7001: 6987: 6946: 6936: 6934: 6927: 6911: 6907: 6902: 6897: 6860:Science tourism 6818:Science studies 6745: 6740: 6738: 6731: 6724: 6721: 6713:Martin Seligman 6656: 6636:feminist theory 6623:conflict theory 6619:Talcott Parsons 6552: 6528:Milton Friedman 6500:policy analysis 6460: 6441:Information Age 6338: 6328:as one of the " 6314:plate tectonics 6291: 6289:Plate tectonics 6283:Stephen Kuffler 6213: 6166: 6091:Maurice Wilkins 6079:James D. Watson 6023: 5980:Chien-Shiung Wu 5968:John A. Wheeler 5925: 5866: 5822:Albert Einstein 5806: 5790: 5784: 5744:Wilhelm Dilthey 5728: 5695:rationalization 5679: 5643: 5627:Austrian School 5608: 5568:puerperal fever 5550:made the first 5540: 5478: 5470:plate tectonics 5425: 5351: 5318: 5298: 5270:Michael Faraday 5262:Michael Faraday 5254:Giovanni Aldini 5242:electrical cell 5231: 5215:William Whewell 5211: 5205: 5196: 5141: 5096:Comte de Buffon 5073: 5049:Hugh Williamson 5045: 5040: 5003: 4898: 4858: 4836: 4828:Main articles: 4826: 4812:and the law of 4794:Torbern Bergman 4768: 4762: 4749:A New Astronomy 4744:Astronomia Nova 4735:Johannes Kepler 4727: 4721: 4709: 4669:Johannes Kepler 4661: 4655: 4621: 4613:William Gilbert 4597:Pierre Gassendi 4537:Johannes Kepler 4533:Galileo Galilei 4467:Galileo Galilei 4460: 4334: 4329: 4311: 4250: 4237:Stephen Tempier 4219:Albertus Magnus 4162:John Philoponus 4130: 3958: 3916: 3883: 3857: 3817: 3801:Kitāb al-shifāʾ 3784: 3732:by al-Battani, 3660:Arabic numerals 3652: 3638:centers (e.g., 3606: 3588:. Knowledge of 3574: 3540: 3530: 3514: 3506:Galileo Galilei 3498:John Philoponus 3458: 3441: 3431: 3423: 3361:Marcus Aurelius 3353:Natural History 3348:Pliny the Elder 3256: 3245:Greek historian 3225:crystallography 3201:Pliny the Elder 3186: 3092: 3047: 3035:analog computer 3005:The astronomer 2991: 2989:Greek astronomy 2945:Socratic method 2912:Hellenistic age 2811:Plato's Academy 2804: 2742:, known as the 2736: 2690: 2684: 2564: 2522: 2448:celestial globe 2299:(1031–1095), a 2262: 2256: 2177: 2171: 2143: 2141: 2138: 2137: 2107:Ch'in Chiu-shao 2095:Horner's method 2084: 2074: 2064:Haidao Suanjing 2052: 2038: 2022:Classical logic 1931:of Pingala and 1921: 1876: 1850:Charaka Samhita 1803: 1758: 1714:Johannes Kepler 1656: 1650: 1640:was written by 1597:. He wrote the 1565:Arabic numerals 1539:suggested that 1492:Pingala-sutras, 1410: 1402: 1397: 1391: 1370: 1346: 1269: 1227:Esagil-kin-apli 1221:written by the 1187: 1178:Animal behavior 1117: 1103: 1090: 1056:. Based on the 1035: 1002: 997: 983: 963: 912:writing systems 892: 878: 847:Richard Dawkins 843:conflict thesis 838: 804: 798: 792: 633:the Middle Ages 619:, knowledge of 496: 450: 449: 405: 404: 395: 394: 390:Research ethics 385:Logical fallacy 375:Reproducibility 370: 369: 358: 357: 216:Social sciences 172:Formal sciences 151: 150: 130: 77: 76: 54: 36: 32:The New Science 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 17624: 17614: 17613: 17608: 17591: 17590: 17588: 17587: 17585:Historiography 17581: 17579: 17575: 17574: 17572: 17571: 17566: 17561: 17560: 17559: 17554: 17549: 17544: 17539: 17534: 17529: 17524: 17519: 17514: 17507:Pre-industrial 17504: 17498: 17496: 17490: 17489: 17487: 17486: 17481: 17476: 17471: 17466: 17461: 17456: 17451: 17446: 17441: 17436: 17434:Societal eras: 17431: 17429:Modern history 17426: 17421: 17416: 17411: 17406: 17405: 17404: 17394: 17388: 17386: 17380: 17379: 17377: 17376: 17371: 17366: 17361: 17356: 17354:History of art 17351: 17346: 17341: 17336: 17331: 17326: 17321: 17316: 17311: 17309:History of war 17306: 17301: 17296: 17291: 17289:History of law 17286: 17281: 17275: 17273: 17269: 17268: 17266: 17265: 17260: 17255: 17253:World regions: 17249: 17248: 17243: 17238: 17233: 17228: 17223: 17217: 17215: 17211: 17210: 17203: 17202: 17195: 17188: 17180: 17171: 17170: 17168: 17167: 17155: 17143: 17131: 17118: 17115: 17114: 17112: 17111: 17106: 17101: 17094: 17088: 17086: 17082: 17081: 17079: 17078: 17072: 17070: 17066: 17065: 17063: 17062: 17057: 17052: 17051: 17050: 17045: 17035: 17030: 17025: 17020: 17015: 17010: 17005: 17004: 17003: 16998: 16993: 16985: 16984: 16983: 16981:social science 16978: 16973: 16968: 16963: 16955: 16950: 16945: 16940: 16935: 16930: 16925: 16920: 16915: 16913:Global studies 16910: 16908:Gender studies 16905: 16900: 16899: 16898: 16893: 16891:social science 16887:Environmental 16885: 16880: 16875: 16870: 16865: 16860: 16855: 16850: 16845: 16840: 16835: 16834: 16833: 16828: 16819: 16817: 16813: 16812: 16810: 16809: 16808: 16807: 16802: 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15688: 15687: 15685: 15684: 15679: 15673: 15671: 15665: 15664: 15657: 15656: 15649: 15642: 15634: 15625: 15624: 15622: 15621: 15609: 15597: 15586: 15583: 15582: 15580: 15579: 15574: 15569: 15564: 15559: 15554: 15549: 15544: 15542:Human medicine 15538: 15536: 15530: 15529: 15527: 15526: 15521: 15516: 15511: 15505: 15503: 15497: 15496: 15494: 15493: 15488: 15483: 15478: 15473: 15468: 15463: 15457: 15455: 15449: 15448: 15446: 15445: 15440: 15435: 15430: 15425: 15420: 15415: 15410: 15404: 15402: 15396: 15395: 15393: 15392: 15387: 15382: 15377: 15372: 15366: 15364: 15358: 15357: 15355: 15354: 15349: 15344: 15339: 15334: 15329: 15324: 15319: 15314: 15309: 15304: 15299: 15294: 15288: 15286: 15282: 15281: 15279: 15278: 15273: 15268: 15263: 15258: 15253: 15248: 15243: 15238: 15232: 15230: 15226: 15225: 15218: 15216: 15214: 15213: 15208: 15203: 15201:Historiography 15198: 15192: 15190: 15186: 15185: 15178: 15177: 15170: 15163: 15155: 15149: 15148: 15143: 15137: 15125: 15119: 15114: 15109: 15103: 15098: 15093: 15081: 15069: 15063: 15058: 15053: 15040: 15035: 15022: 15013: 14999: 14994: 14987: 14986:External links 14984: 14982: 14981: 14974: 14962:, eds. 1980). 14953: 14947: 14941: 14935: 14928: 14921: 14903: 14882: 14876: 14852: 14846: 14832: 14815: 14809: 14791: 14777: 14760: 14742: 14735: 14728: 14714: 14694: 14679:Agassi, Joseph 14676: 14660: 14658: 14655: 14654: 14653: 14647: 14632: 14619: 14606: 14593: 14577: 14571: 14558: 14552: 14530: 14527: 14524: 14523: 14497: 14485:Wyss Institute 14471: 14445: 14419: 14394: 14352: 14319: 14288: 14273: 14234: 14193: 14162: 14147: 14133: 14113: 14078: 14055: 14035: 14028: 14018:Wild by Design 14007: 14000: 13982: 13955:(1): 109–145. 13935: 13928: 13910: 13840: 13825: 13805: 13772: 13749: 13729: 13709:nobelprize.org 13693: 13604: 13585: 13578: 13560: 13531: 13513: 13486: 13466: 13430:(4): 443–452. 13407: 13389: 13374: 13343: 13312: 13283: 13256:(5): 367–380. 13240: 13213: 13186: 13184:, p. 741. 13174: 13161: 13146: 13129:Plato.Stanford 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Hassler, 10030: 10021: 10015:978-0140193220 10014: 9996: 9989: 9963: 9955:978-1412928168 9947:978-0199360079 9934: 9930:978-0080273426 9917: 9866: 9860:978-0195335231 9859: 9841: 9820: 9814:978-0691135267 9813: 9795: 9788: 9759: 9745: 9714: 9695: 9668:(3): 163–174. 9643: 9628: 9603: 9596: 9573: 9548: 9524: 9503: 9490: 9471: 9444: 9434: 9408: 9399: 9392: 9372: 9365: 9342: 9327: 9309: 9303:978-0195112290 9302: 9284: 9222: 9216:978-0691135267 9215: 9194: 9175: 9155: 9136: 9113: 9094: 9071: 9048: 8995: 8970: 8951: 8921: 8902: 8883: 8858: 8839: 8814: 8800: 8769: 8750: 8725: 8712: 8682: 8639: 8632: 8620:Ruggles, Clive 8611: 8604: 8586: 8555: 8543:New York Times 8533: 8474: 8435: 8370: 8341: 8323: 8294:(4): 383–408. 8274: 8247:(4): 428–454. 8231: 8216: 8198: 8183: 8165: 8136: 8118: 8101: 8070: 8064:. p. 42. 8048: 8038:978-0226750200 8037: 8007: 7997: 7975: 7946: 7928: 7900: 7883: 7863: 7834: 7814: 7799: 7781: 7764: 7737: 7731:978-0226365763 7730: 7712: 7706:978-0226365763 7705: 7684: 7678:978-0226365763 7677: 7656: 7649: 7631: 7618: 7611: 7593: 7587:978-0226365763 7586: 7568: 7562:978-0226365763 7561: 7543: 7537:978-0226365763 7536: 7518: 7512:978-0226365763 7511: 7493: 7487:978-0226365763 7486: 7465: 7459:978-1316649701 7458: 7437: 7430: 7404: 7375: 7368: 7345: 7338: 7320: 7313: 7295: 7262:(1): 111–132. 7242: 7211: 7183:10.1086/368744 7157: 7150: 7132: 7125: 7072: 7065: 7044: 7037: 7006: 6999: 6944: 6926:978-0367562984 6925: 6904: 6903: 6901: 6898: 6896: 6895: 6889: 6888: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6867: 6862: 6857: 6852: 6847: 6842: 6837: 6832: 6827: 6822: 6821: 6820: 6810: 6805: 6800: 6795: 6790: 6785: 6780: 6775: 6770: 6769: 6768: 6758: 6752: 6751: 6750: 6736: 6733:Science portal 6720: 6717: 6655: 6652: 6628:Erving Goffman 6564:John B. Watson 6551: 6548: 6516:macroeconomics 6512:microeconomics 6459: 6456: 6382:Dr. Jonas Salk 6337: 6334: 6330:earth sciences 6298:Alfred Wegener 6290: 6287: 6212: 6209: 6201:standard model 6165: 6162: 6152:was coined by 6146:Ferdinand Cohn 6022: 6019: 6000:Chen-Ning Yang 5924: 5921: 5909:radiotelescope 5865: 5862: 5805: 5802: 5783: 5780: 5727: 5724: 5715:Herbert Blumer 5683:Émile Durkheim 5678: 5675: 5642: 5639: 5607: 5604: 5600:pasteurization 5539: 5536: 5514:Alfred Wallace 5510:Charles Darwin 5486:Charles Darwin 5477: 5474: 5466:Alfred Wegener 5424: 5421: 5393:periodic table 5377:periodic table 5363:In chemistry, 5350: 5347: 5317: 5314: 5297: 5294: 5290:Thermodynamics 5230: 5227: 5204: 5201: 5195: 5194:Social science 5192: 5184:invisible hand 5160:The basis for 5140: 5137: 5121:Georges Cuvier 5112:Abraham Werner 5072: 5069: 5044: 5043:Bioelectricity 5041: 5039: 5036: 5015:Nicholas Steno 5002: 4999: 4949:Leonhard Euler 4897: 4894: 4866:De Motu Cordis 4861:William Harvey 4857: 4854: 4825: 4822: 4798:Pierre Macquer 4786:William Cullen 4764:Main article: 4761: 4758: 4723:Main article: 4720: 4717: 4708: 4705: 4685:modern science 4654: 4651: 4620: 4617: 4593:Baruch Spinoza 4589:René Descartes 4565:Marin Mersenne 4545:William Harvey 4459: 4456: 4333: 4330: 4310: 4307: 4249: 4246: 4194:Michael Scotus 4129: 4126: 3957: 3954: 3856: 3855:Western Europe 3853: 3841:Abbasid empire 3833:sacked Baghdad 3816: 3813: 3783: 3780: 3775:Book of Optics 3770:Ibn al-Haytham 3766:Qustā ibn Lūqā 3734:Ibn al-Haytham 3651: 3648: 3605: 3602: 3573: 3570: 3529: 3526: 3513: 3510: 3473:Constantinople 3457: 3454: 3430: 3427: 3422: 3419: 3272:Roman Republic 3255: 3252: 3185: 3182: 3091: 3088: 3076:nervous system 3046: 3043: 3001:(150–100 BCE). 2990: 2987: 2986: 2985: 2978: 2977: 2923:, to medieval 2813:. 1st century 2803: 2800: 2735: 2732: 2728:temple healers 2726:(for example, 2705:physical world 2683: 2680: 2625:Cascajal Block 2558:Aztec calendar 2554:Aztec medicine 2534:Maya astronomy 2521: 2518: 2450:(Zhang Heng), 2441:Joseph Needham 2356:climate change 2258:Main article: 2255: 2252: 2244:Imperial China 2242:(960–1279) of 2173:Main article: 2170: 2167: 2151: 2148: 2073: 2070: 2037: 2034: 1920: 1917: 1908:describes the 1875: 1872: 1833:Suśrutasamhitā 1827:Findings from 1802: 1799: 1762:Iron Age India 1757: 1754: 1730:Jantar Mantars 1705:Tantrasangraha 1652:Main article: 1649: 1646: 1600:Ganita Kaumudi 1406:Main article: 1401: 1398: 1390: 1387: 1369: 1366: 1345: 1342: 1268: 1265: 1186: 1183: 1102: 1099: 1089: 1086: 1058:medical papyri 1034: 1031: 1023:right triangle 1001: 998: 982: 979: 962: 959: 916:archaeological 900:oral tradition 877: 874: 862:historiography 834:to postulate ( 824:Galileo affair 802:Historiography 794:Main article: 791: 788: 726:departed from 629:Western Europe 613:physical world 542:early sciences 498: 497: 495: 494: 487: 480: 472: 469: 468: 452: 451: 448: 447: 442: 437: 432: 430:Science policy 427: 422: 417: 412: 406: 402: 401: 400: 397: 396: 393: 392: 387: 382: 380:Cognitive bias 377: 371: 365: 364: 363: 360: 359: 354: 353: 352: 351: 346: 341: 336: 331: 326: 321: 316: 311: 306: 301: 296: 291: 286: 281: 276: 271: 266: 261: 256: 248: 247: 243: 242: 241: 240: 239: 238: 233: 228: 223: 213: 212: 211: 206: 201: 191: 186: 185: 184: 179: 169: 161: 160: 152: 137: 136: 135: 132: 131: 129: 128: 123: 118: 113: 111:Disambiguation 108: 103: 98: 93: 88: 73: 70: 69: 63: 62: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 17623: 17612: 17609: 17607: 17604: 17603: 17601: 17586: 17583: 17582: 17580: 17576: 17570: 17567: 17565: 17562: 17558: 17555: 17553: 17550: 17548: 17545: 17543: 17542:Horticultural 17540: 17538: 17535: 17533: 17530: 17528: 17525: 17523: 17520: 17518: 17515: 17513: 17510: 17509: 17508: 17505: 17503: 17500: 17499: 17497: 17491: 17485: 17482: 17480: 17477: 17475: 17472: 17470: 17467: 17465: 17462: 17460: 17457: 17455: 17452: 17450: 17447: 17445: 17442: 17440: 17437: 17435: 17432: 17430: 17427: 17425: 17422: 17420: 17417: 17415: 17412: 17410: 17407: 17403: 17400: 17399: 17398: 17395: 17393: 17390: 17389: 17387: 17381: 17375: 17372: 17370: 17367: 17365: 17362: 17360: 17357: 17355: 17352: 17350: 17347: 17345: 17342: 17340: 17337: 17335: 17332: 17330: 17327: 17325: 17322: 17320: 17317: 17315: 17312: 17310: 17307: 17305: 17302: 17300: 17297: 17295: 17292: 17290: 17287: 17285: 17282: 17280: 17277: 17276: 17274: 17270: 17264: 17261: 17259: 17256: 17254: 17251: 17250: 17247: 17244: 17242: 17239: 17237: 17234: 17232: 17229: 17227: 17224: 17222: 17221:Human history 17219: 17218: 17216: 17212: 17208: 17207:World history 17201: 17196: 17194: 17189: 17187: 17182: 17181: 17178: 17166: 17165: 17160: 17156: 17154: 17149: 17144: 17142: 17141: 17132: 17130: 17129: 17120: 17119: 17116: 17110: 17107: 17105: 17104:Human science 17102: 17100: 17099: 17095: 17093: 17090: 17089: 17087: 17083: 17077: 17074: 17073: 17071: 17067: 17061: 17060:Vegan studies 17058: 17056: 17053: 17049: 17046: 17044: 17041: 17040: 17039: 17036: 17034: 17031: 17029: 17026: 17024: 17023:Public health 17021: 17019: 17016: 17014: 17011: 17009: 17006: 17002: 16999: 16997: 16994: 16992: 16989: 16988: 16986: 16982: 16979: 16977: 16974: 16972: 16969: 16967: 16964: 16962: 16959: 16958: 16957:Philosophies 16956: 16954: 16953:Media studies 16951: 16949: 16946: 16944: 16941: 16939: 16936: 16934: 16931: 16929: 16928:Human ecology 16926: 16924: 16921: 16919: 16916: 16914: 16911: 16909: 16906: 16904: 16901: 16897: 16894: 16892: 16889: 16888: 16886: 16884: 16881: 16879: 16876: 16874: 16871: 16869: 16866: 16864: 16861: 16859: 16856: 16854: 16851: 16849: 16846: 16844: 16841: 16839: 16838:Anthrozoology 16836: 16832: 16829: 16827: 16824: 16823: 16821: 16820: 16818: 16814: 16806: 16803: 16801: 16798: 16796: 16793: 16791: 16788: 16786: 16783: 16782: 16781: 16778: 16774: 16771: 16769: 16766: 16764: 16763:developmental 16761: 16759: 16756: 16754: 16751: 16750: 16749: 16746: 16742: 16739: 16737: 16736:public policy 16734: 16732: 16729: 16727: 16724: 16722: 16719: 16718: 16717: 16714: 16710: 16707: 16706: 16705: 16702: 16698: 16695: 16693: 16690: 16688: 16687:legal systems 16685: 16683: 16682:legal history 16680: 16678: 16677:jurisprudence 16675: 16674: 16673: 16670: 16666: 16663: 16661: 16658: 16656: 16653: 16651: 16648: 16646: 16643: 16641: 16638: 16636: 16633: 16632: 16631: 16628: 16624: 16621: 16619: 16616: 16614: 16611: 16609: 16606: 16605: 16604: 16601: 16597: 16594: 16592: 16589: 16587: 16584: 16582: 16579: 16578: 16577: 16574: 16570: 16567: 16565: 16562: 16560: 16557: 16555: 16552: 16551: 16550: 16547: 16546: 16544: 16540: 16534: 16531: 16529: 16526: 16524: 16521: 16520: 16517: 16513: 16506: 16501: 16499: 16494: 16492: 16487: 16486: 16483: 16469: 16466: 16464: 16461: 16459: 16456: 16455: 16454: 16446: 16442: 16439: 16437: 16434: 16432: 16429: 16428: 16425: 16421: 16420: 16417: 16411: 16408: 16406: 16403: 16401: 16398: 16394: 16391: 16389: 16386: 16385: 16384: 16381: 16379: 16376: 16374: 16371: 16369: 16366: 16364: 16361: 16359: 16356: 16354: 16351: 16349: 16346: 16344: 16341: 16339: 16336: 16334: 16331: 16330: 16328: 16326: 16322: 16316: 16313: 16309: 16306: 16304: 16301: 16299: 16296: 16294: 16291: 16289: 16286: 16285: 16283: 16279: 16276: 16274: 16271: 16269: 16266: 16264: 16261: 16259: 16256: 16255: 16253: 16249: 16246: 16245: 16244: 16243:Technoscience 16241: 16239: 16236: 16234: 16231: 16229: 16226: 16224: 16221: 16219: 16216: 16214: 16213:Media studies 16211: 16209: 16206: 16204: 16201: 16197: 16194: 16192: 16189: 16187: 16184: 16182: 16179: 16177: 16174: 16173: 16172: 16169: 16167: 16164: 16162: 16159: 16157: 16154: 16152: 16151:Early adopter 16149: 16147: 16144: 16142: 16139: 16137: 16134: 16132: 16129: 16127: 16124: 16122: 16121:Co-production 16119: 16118: 16116: 16114: 16108: 16100: 16097: 16096: 16095: 16092: 16090: 16087: 16083: 16080: 16079: 16078: 16075: 16073: 16070: 16068: 16065: 16063: 16060: 16056: 16053: 16051: 16048: 16046: 16043: 16041: 16038: 16036: 16033: 16031: 16028: 16026: 16023: 16021: 16018: 16016: 16013: 16011: 16008: 16007: 16005: 16001: 15998: 15996: 15993: 15991: 15988: 15986: 15983: 15981: 15978: 15976: 15973: 15971: 15970:communication 15968: 15966: 15963: 15962: 15960: 15958: 15955: 15953: 15952:Pseudoscience 15950: 15946: 15943: 15942: 15941: 15938: 15936: 15933: 15931: 15928: 15926: 15923: 15921: 15918: 15916: 15913: 15911: 15908: 15906: 15903: 15901: 15900:Boundary-work 15898: 15896: 15895:Bibliometrics 15893: 15891: 15888: 15887: 15885: 15883: 15877: 15871: 15868: 15866: 15863: 15861: 15858: 15856: 15853: 15849: 15846: 15845: 15844: 15841: 15837: 15834: 15832: 15829: 15828: 15826: 15824: 15821: 15820: 15818: 15816: 15812: 15806: 15805:Transhumanism 15803: 15801: 15798: 15796: 15793: 15791: 15788: 15786: 15783: 15781: 15778: 15776: 15773: 15771: 15768: 15766: 15763: 15761: 15758: 15756: 15753: 15751: 15748: 15746: 15743: 15741: 15738: 15736: 15733: 15732: 15730: 15728: 15724: 15718: 15715: 15711: 15708: 15707: 15706: 15703: 15701: 15698: 15697: 15695: 15693: 15689: 15683: 15680: 15678: 15675: 15674: 15672: 15670: 15666: 15662: 15655: 15650: 15648: 15643: 15641: 15636: 15635: 15632: 15619: 15610: 15607: 15603: 15598: 15596: 15588: 15587: 15584: 15578: 15575: 15573: 15570: 15568: 15565: 15563: 15560: 15558: 15555: 15553: 15550: 15548: 15545: 15543: 15540: 15539: 15537: 15535: 15531: 15525: 15522: 15520: 15517: 15515: 15512: 15510: 15507: 15506: 15504: 15502: 15498: 15492: 15489: 15487: 15484: 15482: 15479: 15477: 15474: 15472: 15469: 15467: 15464: 15462: 15459: 15458: 15456: 15454: 15450: 15444: 15441: 15439: 15436: 15434: 15431: 15429: 15426: 15424: 15421: 15419: 15418:Combinatorics 15416: 15414: 15411: 15409: 15406: 15405: 15403: 15401: 15397: 15391: 15388: 15386: 15385:Earth science 15383: 15381: 15378: 15376: 15373: 15371: 15368: 15367: 15365: 15363: 15359: 15353: 15350: 15348: 15345: 15343: 15340: 15338: 15335: 15333: 15330: 15328: 15325: 15323: 15320: 15318: 15315: 15313: 15310: 15308: 15305: 15303: 15300: 15298: 15295: 15293: 15290: 15289: 15287: 15283: 15277: 15274: 15272: 15269: 15267: 15264: 15262: 15259: 15257: 15254: 15252: 15249: 15247: 15244: 15242: 15239: 15237: 15236:Ancient world 15234: 15233: 15231: 15227: 15222: 15212: 15209: 15207: 15206:Pseudoscience 15204: 15202: 15199: 15197: 15194: 15193: 15191: 15187: 15183: 15176: 15171: 15169: 15164: 15162: 15157: 15156: 15153: 15147: 15144: 15141: 15138: 15136: 15132: 15129: 15126: 15123: 15120: 15118: 15115: 15113: 15110: 15107: 15104: 15102: 15099: 15097: 15094: 15092: 15088: 15085: 15082: 15080: 15076: 15073: 15070: 15067: 15064: 15062: 15059: 15057: 15054: 15051: 15047: 15044: 15041: 15039: 15036: 15034:, online text 15033: 15031: 15026: 15023: 15017: 15014: 15010: 15009: 15004: 15000: 14998: 14995: 14993: 14990: 14989: 14979: 14975: 14973: 14969: 14965: 14961: 14957: 14954: 14952: 14948: 14946: 14942: 14940: 14936: 14933: 14929: 14926: 14922: 14920: 14916: 14912: 14908: 14904: 14901: 14897: 14893: 14889: 14888: 14883: 14879: 14873: 14869: 14865: 14861: 14857: 14853: 14851: 14847: 14844: 14841:published in 14840: 14836: 14835:Lakatos, Imre 14833: 14831: 14827: 14823: 14819: 14818:Kumar, Deepak 14816: 14812: 14806: 14802: 14801: 14796: 14792: 14790: 14786: 14782: 14778: 14776: 14772: 14769: 14765: 14761: 14758: 14754: 14750: 14746: 14745:Bronowski, J. 14743: 14740: 14736: 14733: 14729: 14725: 14721: 14717: 14711: 14706: 14705: 14699: 14695: 14692: 14688: 14684: 14680: 14677: 14674: 14670: 14666: 14662: 14661: 14650: 14644: 14640: 14639: 14633: 14629: 14625: 14620: 14616: 14612: 14607: 14603: 14599: 14594: 14590: 14586: 14582: 14578: 14574: 14568: 14564: 14559: 14555: 14549: 14544: 14543: 14537: 14533: 14532: 14512: 14508: 14501: 14486: 14482: 14475: 14460: 14456: 14449: 14434: 14430: 14423: 14408: 14404: 14398: 14383: 14379: 14375: 14371: 14367: 14363: 14356: 14340: 14336: 14335: 14330: 14323: 14307: 14303: 14299: 14292: 14284: 14277: 14269: 14265: 14261: 14257: 14254:(S51): 2–12. 14253: 14249: 14245: 14238: 14229: 14224: 14220: 14216: 14213:(3): 87–112. 14212: 14208: 14204: 14197: 14181: 14177: 14173: 14166: 14158: 14151: 14143: 14137: 14130: 14126: 14123: 14117: 14109: 14105: 14101: 14097: 14093: 14089: 14082: 14075: 14071: 14068: 14062: 14060: 14052: 14048: 14045: 14039: 14031: 14025: 14021: 14019: 14011: 14003: 13997: 13993: 13986: 13978: 13974: 13970: 13966: 13962: 13958: 13954: 13950: 13946: 13939: 13931: 13925: 13921: 13914: 13903: 13899: 13895: 13891: 13887: 13883: 13879: 13875: 13871: 13867: 13863: 13862: 13854: 13847: 13845: 13836: 13832: 13828: 13822: 13818: 13817: 13809: 13800: 13795: 13791: 13787: 13786:Physics Today 13783: 13776: 13769: 13765: 13762: 13756: 13754: 13746: 13742: 13739: 13733: 13714: 13710: 13703: 13697: 13689: 13685: 13681: 13677: 13673: 13669: 13665: 13661: 13657: 13653: 13645: 13641: 13637: 13633: 13629: 13625: 13621: 13617: 13616: 13608: 13600: 13596: 13589: 13581: 13575: 13571: 13564: 13556: 13550: 13542: 13538: 13534: 13528: 13524: 13517: 13501: 13497: 13493: 13489: 13483: 13479: 13478: 13470: 13451: 13447: 13443: 13438: 13433: 13429: 13425: 13418: 13411: 13403: 13399: 13393: 13385: 13378: 13370: 13366: 13362: 13358: 13354: 13347: 13331: 13327: 13323: 13316: 13300: 13296: 13295: 13287: 13279: 13275: 13271: 13267: 13263: 13259: 13255: 13251: 13244: 13228: 13224: 13217: 13209: 13205: 13201: 13197: 13190: 13183: 13178: 13171: 13170:History Today 13165: 13157: 13150: 13134: 13130: 13126: 13119: 13110: 13094: 13090: 13086: 13082: 13078: 13074: 13070: 13066: 13062: 13058: 13051: 13043: 13042: 13034: 13018: 13014: 13010: 13006: 13002: 12998: 12994: 12990: 12986: 12982: 12975: 12967: 12963: 12959: 12955: 12951: 12947: 12943: 12936: 12928: 12922: 12906: 12902: 12896: 12888: 12882: 12866: 12862: 12858: 12854: 12850: 12846: 12842: 12838: 12834: 12830: 12826: 12822: 12815: 12807: 12803: 12799: 12795: 12791: 12787: 12783: 12779: 12775: 12771: 12767: 12760: 12752: 12748: 12744: 12740: 12736: 12732: 12728: 12721: 12705: 12701: 12697: 12693: 12689: 12685: 12681: 12677: 12670: 12662: 12656: 12652: 12645: 12629: 12625: 12619: 12615: 12611: 12607: 12603: 12596: 12594: 12592: 12584: 12583:Heilbron 2003 12578: 12570: 12566: 12560: 12554: 12550: 12544: 12537: 12533: 12528: 12512: 12508: 12502: 12498: 12497: 12489: 12473: 12469: 12465: 12458: 12451: 12445: 12438: 12432: 12425: 12419: 12412: 12406: 12399: 12393: 12374: 12370: 12366: 12361: 12356: 12352: 12348: 12341: 12337: 12331: 12315: 12311: 12307: 12301: 12285: 12281: 12275: 12259: 12255: 12251: 12250: 12245: 12238: 12231: 12225: 12218: 12212: 12204: 12198: 12194: 12187: 12185: 12183: 12181: 12179: 12177: 12175: 12173: 12171: 12169: 12167: 12165: 12163: 12161: 12153: 12149: 12143: 12136: 12130: 12123: 12121: 12116: 12111: 12103: 12097: 12093: 12086: 12070: 12066: 12060: 12044: 12040: 12034: 12030: 12029: 12021: 12014: 12008: 11999: 11991: 11987: 11983: 11979: 11975: 11971: 11967: 11963: 11956: 11947: 11938: 11936: 11919: 11915: 11911: 11904: 11897: 11893: 11890: 11885: 11877: 11871: 11867: 11863: 11859: 11853: 11837: 11833: 11832: 11827: 11820: 11812: 11808: 11804: 11800: 11796: 11792: 11785: 11778: 11774: 11770: 11765: 11749: 11745: 11741: 11735: 11733: 11716: 11712: 11708: 11704: 11700: 11696: 11689: 11687: 11670: 11666: 11660: 11656: 11655: 11647: 11640: 11634: 11618: 11614: 11610: 11604: 11597: 11596: 11589: 11587: 11570: 11566: 11565: 11557: 11550: 11546: 11543: 11537: 11531: 11527: 11520: 11512: 11506: 11502: 11498: 11491: 11484: 11480: 11476: 11470: 11463: 11459: 11455: 11451: 11445: 11438: 11432: 11424: 11418: 11414: 11407: 11405: 11403: 11401: 11399: 11397: 11395: 11393: 11391: 11389: 11387: 11385: 11383: 11381: 11379: 11377: 11375: 11373: 11371: 11369: 11367: 11358: 11356:9781789145922 11352: 11348: 11347: 11339: 11331: 11327: 11321: 11305: 11301: 11297: 11290: 11283: 11279: 11273: 11269: 11262: 11255: 11253: 11248: 11244: 11238: 11232: 11228: 11224: 11219: 11214: 11208: 11192: 11188: 11184: 11178: 11170: 11166: 11162: 11158: 11153: 11148: 11144: 11140: 11136: 11129: 11121: 11117: 11112: 11107: 11103: 11099: 11095: 11091: 11087: 11080: 11078: 11076: 11074: 11064: 11062: 11053: 11049: 11044: 11039: 11035: 11031: 11027: 11023: 11019: 11012: 11005: 11004:Greek Science 11000: 10993: 10992:0-393-00780-4 10989: 10985: 10982: 10977: 10970: 10966: 10961: 10945: 10941: 10937: 10933: 10929: 10925: 10921: 10917: 10913: 10909: 10902: 10894: 10890: 10886: 10882: 10878: 10874: 10870: 10863: 10855: 10848: 10840: 10834: 10830: 10826: 10820: 10812: 10811: 10806: 10802: 10796: 10788: 10782: 10778: 10777: 10772: 10766: 10758: 10752: 10747: 10746: 10740: 10734: 10726: 10720: 10716: 10712: 10711: 10703: 10696: 10692: 10688: 10687: 10683: 10680: 10673: 10665: 10661: 10660: 10655: 10648: 10646: 10638: 10634: 10633:F.M. Cornford 10629: 10623: 10622: 10617: 10616: 10611: 10606: 10598: 10592: 10588: 10584: 10580: 10573: 10565: 10559: 10555: 10551: 10547: 10540: 10533: 10529: 10523: 10514: 10512:0-07-286311-0 10508: 10504: 10497: 10490: 10486: 10480: 10478: 10469: 10463: 10459: 10455: 10451: 10444: 10437: 10432: 10424: 10420: 10416: 10412: 10408: 10404: 10400: 10393: 10391: 10389: 10387: 10385: 10376: 10372: 10368: 10364: 10360: 10356: 10352: 10345: 10343: 10341: 10339: 10331: 10325: 10318: 10313: 10307:, p. 244 10306: 10302: 10300: 10294: 10289: 10280: 10271: 10264: 10263:0-07-141279-4 10260: 10256: 10250: 10243: 10242:90-04-15605-4 10239: 10235: 10231: 10226: 10217: 10210: 10205: 10197: 10195:9783540337836 10191: 10187: 10186: 10178: 10170: 10164: 10160: 10156: 10150: 10143: 10138: 10133: 10132: 10126: 10117: 10110: 10107: 10102: 10101: 10096: 10090: 10087: 10081: 10074: 10070: 10066: 10062: 10058: 10054: 10047: 10040: 10034: 10025: 10017: 10011: 10007: 10000: 9992: 9986: 9982: 9977: 9976: 9967: 9960: 9956: 9952: 9948: 9944: 9938: 9931: 9927: 9921: 9913: 9909: 9905: 9901: 9897: 9893: 9889: 9885: 9881: 9877: 9870: 9862: 9856: 9852: 9845: 9830: 9824: 9816: 9810: 9806: 9799: 9791: 9785: 9781: 9777: 9773: 9766: 9764: 9748: 9742: 9738: 9734: 9730: 9729: 9724: 9718: 9711: 9710: 9705: 9699: 9691: 9687: 9683: 9679: 9675: 9671: 9667: 9663: 9662: 9657: 9654:(June 1995). 9653: 9647: 9639: 9635: 9631: 9625: 9621: 9617: 9616: 9615:David Pingree 9607: 9599: 9593: 9589: 9588: 9583: 9577: 9562: 9561:Maths History 9558: 9552: 9545: 9541: 9537: 9534: 9528: 9521: 9517: 9513: 9507: 9500: 9494: 9478: 9474: 9468: 9464: 9460: 9459: 9454: 9448: 9441: 9437: 9431: 9427: 9422: 9421: 9412: 9403: 9395: 9389: 9385: 9384: 9376: 9368: 9362: 9358: 9357: 9352: 9346: 9338: 9331: 9323: 9319: 9313: 9305: 9299: 9295: 9288: 9272: 9268: 9264: 9260: 9256: 9252: 9248: 9244: 9240: 9236: 9232: 9231:Sivin, Nathan 9226: 9218: 9212: 9208: 9201: 9199: 9182: 9178: 9172: 9168: 9167: 9159: 9143: 9139: 9133: 9129: 9128: 9123: 9117: 9101: 9097: 9091: 9087: 9086: 9081: 9075: 9069: 9065: 9061: 9057: 9052: 9044: 9040: 9036: 9032: 9028: 9024: 9020: 9016: 9012: 9008: 9007: 8999: 8992: 8988: 8984: 8980: 8974: 8958: 8954: 8948: 8944: 8940: 8938: 8934: 8925: 8917: 8913: 8906: 8890: 8886: 8880: 8876: 8875: 8867: 8865: 8863: 8846: 8842: 8836: 8832: 8831: 8823: 8821: 8819: 8803: 8797: 8793: 8789: 8788: 8780: 8778: 8776: 8774: 8757: 8753: 8747: 8743: 8742: 8734: 8732: 8730: 8722: 8716: 8700: 8696: 8692: 8686: 8667: 8663: 8659: 8652: 8651: 8643: 8635: 8629: 8625: 8621: 8615: 8607: 8601: 8597: 8590: 8583: 8579: 8575: 8574: 8570: 8567: 8566: 8559: 8552: 8548: 8545: 8544: 8537: 8529: 8525: 8520: 8515: 8510: 8505: 8501: 8497: 8493: 8489: 8485: 8478: 8470: 8466: 8462: 8458: 8454: 8450: 8446: 8439: 8420: 8416: 8412: 8408: 8404: 8400: 8396: 8393:(1): 86–131. 8392: 8388: 8381: 8374: 8366: 8360: 8352: 8348: 8344: 8338: 8334: 8327: 8319: 8315: 8311: 8307: 8302: 8297: 8293: 8289: 8285: 8278: 8270: 8266: 8262: 8258: 8254: 8250: 8246: 8242: 8235: 8227: 8223: 8219: 8213: 8209: 8202: 8194: 8190: 8186: 8180: 8176: 8169: 8161: 8155: 8147: 8143: 8139: 8133: 8129: 8122: 8115: 8104: 8102:9781317546382 8098: 8094: 8093: 8088: 8084: 8080: 8074: 8067: 8063: 8059: 8052: 8045: 8040: 8034: 8030: 8026: 8021: 8020: 8011: 8004: 8000: 7994: 7991:. p. 7. 7990: 7986: 7979: 7971: 7965: 7957: 7953: 7949: 7943: 7939: 7932: 7925: 7913: 7912: 7904: 7897: 7886: 7884:9780226302324 7880: 7876: 7875: 7867: 7859: 7853: 7845: 7841: 7837: 7831: 7827: 7826: 7818: 7810: 7806: 7802: 7800:0-521-33360-1 7796: 7792: 7785: 7778: 7767: 7765:9783110820423 7761: 7757: 7756: 7751: 7747: 7741: 7733: 7727: 7723: 7716: 7708: 7702: 7698: 7691: 7689: 7680: 7674: 7670: 7663: 7661: 7652: 7646: 7642: 7635: 7628: 7622: 7614: 7608: 7604: 7597: 7589: 7583: 7579: 7572: 7564: 7558: 7554: 7547: 7539: 7533: 7529: 7522: 7514: 7508: 7504: 7497: 7489: 7483: 7479: 7472: 7470: 7461: 7455: 7451: 7444: 7442: 7433: 7427: 7423: 7418: 7417: 7408: 7392: 7388: 7387: 7379: 7371: 7365: 7361: 7354: 7352: 7350: 7341: 7335: 7331: 7324: 7316: 7310: 7306: 7299: 7283: 7279: 7275: 7270: 7265: 7261: 7257: 7253: 7246: 7230: 7226: 7222: 7215: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7188: 7184: 7180: 7176: 7172: 7168: 7161: 7153: 7147: 7143: 7136: 7128: 7122: 7118: 7111: 7109: 7107: 7105: 7103: 7101: 7099: 7097: 7095: 7093: 7091: 7089: 7087: 7085: 7083: 7081: 7079: 7077: 7068: 7062: 7058: 7051: 7049: 7040: 7034: 7030: 7025: 7024: 7015: 7013: 7011: 7002: 6996: 6992: 6985: 6983: 6981: 6979: 6977: 6975: 6973: 6971: 6969: 6967: 6965: 6963: 6961: 6959: 6957: 6955: 6953: 6951: 6949: 6932: 6928: 6922: 6918: 6917: 6909: 6905: 6893: 6890: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6872: 6871: 6868: 6866: 6863: 6861: 6858: 6856: 6853: 6851: 6848: 6846: 6843: 6841: 6838: 6836: 6833: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6823: 6819: 6816: 6815: 6814: 6811: 6809: 6806: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6796: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6786: 6784: 6781: 6779: 6776: 6774: 6771: 6767: 6764: 6763: 6762: 6759: 6757: 6754: 6753: 6748: 6737: 6734: 6728: 6723: 6716: 6714: 6710: 6706: 6704: 6700: 6695: 6693: 6689: 6685: 6681: 6673: 6669: 6665: 6660: 6651: 6647: 6645: 6644:postmodernism 6641: 6637: 6633: 6629: 6624: 6620: 6615: 6613: 6609: 6606: 6602: 6598: 6594: 6590: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6573: 6569: 6565: 6561: 6557: 6547: 6545: 6541: 6537: 6533: 6529: 6525: 6521: 6517: 6513: 6509: 6505: 6504:peace studies 6501: 6497: 6493: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6473: 6469: 6468:voting theory 6465: 6455: 6452: 6450: 6446: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6429: 6427: 6423: 6419: 6415: 6411: 6407: 6403: 6402:computability 6399: 6395: 6391: 6387: 6383: 6379: 6375: 6371: 6367: 6363: 6359: 6355: 6351: 6347: 6343: 6333: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6315: 6307: 6303: 6299: 6295: 6286: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6272: 6268: 6264: 6260: 6256: 6252: 6251: 6246: 6242: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6221:Andrew Huxley 6218: 6208: 6206: 6202: 6198: 6194: 6190: 6186: 6181: 6179: 6175: 6171: 6161: 6159: 6155: 6154:Ernst Haeckel 6151: 6147: 6143: 6142:Louis Pasteur 6139: 6138:cycle of life 6135: 6131: 6127: 6124: 6120: 6116: 6112: 6108: 6104: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6084: 6083:Francis Crick 6080: 6076: 6072: 6068: 6064: 6063:Francis Crick 6060: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6043:Linus Pauling 6040: 6032: 6027: 6018: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6003: 6001: 5997: 5996:Tsung-Dao Lee 5993: 5992:Wu experiment 5989: 5985: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5950: 5946: 5939:" in physics. 5938: 5934: 5929: 5920: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5907: 5903: 5902:Robert Wilson 5899: 5895: 5891: 5890:Robert Herman 5887: 5883: 5879: 5875: 5871: 5861: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5823: 5819: 5810: 5801: 5799: 5795: 5789: 5779: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5723: 5720: 5716: 5712: 5708: 5704: 5700: 5696: 5692: 5688: 5687:structuralism 5684: 5674: 5672: 5671:Sigmund Freud 5668: 5667:William James 5664: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5647:Wilhelm Wundt 5638: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5624: 5620: 5616: 5612: 5603: 5601: 5597: 5593: 5589: 5585: 5584:Louis Pasteur 5581: 5577: 5576:Joseph Lister 5573: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5549: 5548:Louis Pasteur 5545: 5535: 5533: 5529: 5528:Gregor Mendel 5525: 5521: 5520: 5515: 5511: 5507: 5503: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5482: 5473: 5471: 5467: 5463: 5459: 5458:radioactivity 5455: 5451: 5447: 5446:Louis Agassiz 5443: 5438: 5434: 5433:Adam Sedgwick 5430: 5429:Charles Lyell 5420: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5391:composed his 5390: 5386: 5382: 5378: 5374: 5370: 5369:atomic theory 5366: 5359: 5355: 5346: 5343: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5313: 5311: 5307: 5303: 5293: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5279: 5275: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5226: 5224: 5220: 5216: 5210: 5200: 5191: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5172: 5167: 5163: 5155: 5154: 5149: 5145: 5136: 5134: 5133:index fossils 5130: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5113: 5109: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5085: 5083: 5082:Anoplotherium 5077: 5068: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5057:Luigi Galvani 5054: 5050: 5035: 5032: 5028: 5027:Thomas Burnet 5024: 5020: 5019:superposition 5016: 5012: 5008: 4998: 4996: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4975:Immanuel Kant 4972: 4968: 4967: 4962: 4961:Denis Diderot 4959:(1717–1783). 4958: 4954: 4951:(1707–1783), 4950: 4947:(1706–1790), 4946: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4913: 4907: 4903: 4902:Royal Society 4893: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4872: 4868: 4867: 4862: 4853: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4842: 4835: 4831: 4821: 4819: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4782: 4777: 4773: 4767: 4757: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4745: 4740: 4736: 4732: 4726: 4716: 4714: 4701: 4697: 4692: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4650: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4629: 4625: 4619:Heliocentrism 4616: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4605:Thomas Hobbes 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4585:Thomas Browne 4582: 4581:Francis Bacon 4578: 4577:Blaise Pascal 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4549:Pierre Fermat 4546: 4542: 4541:Edmond Halley 4538: 4534: 4529: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4518: 4513: 4509: 4508: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4494: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4476: 4468: 4464: 4455: 4453: 4449: 4444: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4425:Enlightenment 4422: 4419:of political 4418: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4402: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4377: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4366:Martin Luther 4363: 4359: 4355: 4352: 4348: 4343: 4339: 4338:Scholasticism 4328: 4327:Natural magic 4324: 4320: 4316: 4306: 4304: 4300: 4295: 4291: 4288:In 1348, the 4286: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4271: 4270:Nicole Oresme 4267: 4263: 4259: 4255: 4245: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4229: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4202: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4125: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4102: 4101: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4086: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4064: 4063:baccalaureate 4059: 4058: 4053: 4052: 4047: 4042: 4040: 4036: 4035: 4030: 4029: 4024: 4019: 4016:in 1167, and 4015: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3980:in Latin). A 3979: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3953: 3951: 3947: 3946:blast furnace 3944: 3940: 3935: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3924:Pax Mongolica 3920: 3911: 3907: 3902: 3896: 3892: 3887: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3869:Scholasticism 3866: 3862: 3852: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3812: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3779: 3777: 3776: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3757: 3755: 3754:Ibn al-Shatir 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3726: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3692: 3687: 3686: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3664:decimal point 3661: 3657: 3647: 3645: 3641: 3635: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3620: 3614: 3610: 3601: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3586:Hellenization 3583: 3579: 3569: 3567: 3563: 3555: 3554: 3549: 3544: 3539: 3535: 3528:Islamic world 3525: 3523: 3519: 3509: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3493: 3489: 3484: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3469: 3467: 3463: 3450: 3445: 3440: 3436: 3426: 3418: 3416: 3412: 3409:and northern 3408: 3407:Roman Britain 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3366: 3362: 3357: 3355: 3354: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3320:encyclopedias 3316: 3312: 3310: 3309: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3279: 3277: 3276:Julius Caesar 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3251: 3249: 3246: 3240: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3229:crystal habit 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3211:shape of the 3210: 3206: 3205:encyclopedias 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3181: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3142: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3121: 3117: 3112: 3105: 3101: 3096: 3087: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3042: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3000: 2995: 2983: 2982: 2981: 2974: 2970: 2969: 2968: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2937:Enlightenment 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2880: 2878: 2873: 2872:unmoved mover 2869: 2864: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2799: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2744:pre-Socratics 2741: 2738:The earliest 2734:Pre-socratics 2731: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2712: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2695: 2689: 2679: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2604: 2603:Pre-Columbian 2600: 2592: 2588: 2587:calendar date 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2568: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2550:Maya medicine 2547: 2543: 2542:Maya calendar 2539: 2538:Maya numerals 2535: 2531: 2527: 2516: 2514: 2507: 2503: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2464:blast furnace 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2446: 2445:water-powered 2442: 2437: 2432: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2352:geomorphology 2349: 2345: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2293: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2275: 2271: 2266: 2261: 2251: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2236: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2217: 2215: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2181: 2176: 2166: 2149: 2146: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2118: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2091: 2083: 2079: 2066: 2065: 2060: 2056: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2033: 2031: 2025: 2023: 2019: 2018: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2000: 1998: 1994: 1993:Chinese logic 1990: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1935: 1930: 1926: 1916: 1913: 1912: 1907: 1906:Roger Boesche 1903: 1901: 1894: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1871: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1851: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1813: 1807: 1798: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1778: 1777: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1753: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1732:in total, in 1731: 1727: 1726:observatories 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1706: 1700: 1697: 1694:, written by 1693: 1692: 1686: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1668: 1666: 1660: 1655: 1645: 1643: 1639: 1638: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1608: 1606: 1605:combinatorics 1602: 1601: 1596: 1595:Kerala school 1592: 1588: 1584: 1583:mathematician 1579:नारायण पण्डित 1576: 1572: 1568: 1566: 1562: 1561:Islamic world 1558: 1554: 1550: 1549:decimal digit 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1525: 1520: 1515: 1513: 1511: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1490:presents the 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1444: 1442: 1438: 1431: 1426: 1419: 1414: 1409: 1404: 1396: 1386: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1365: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1341: 1338: 1334: 1329: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1278: 1273: 1264: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1253:folk remedies 1250: 1246: 1245: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1191:Mesopotamians 1182: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1126: 1121: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1098: 1096: 1085: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1074:Ebers Papyrus 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1054:Mediterranean 1051: 1044: 1043:ancient Egypt 1039: 1030: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 996: 992: 988: 981:Ancient Egypt 978: 976: 972: 971:Ancient Egypt 968: 958: 956: 951: 949: 946:, songs, and 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 923: 921: 917: 914:. Similarly, 913: 909: 905: 901: 897: 891: 887: 883: 873: 871: 867: 863: 859: 855: 854:Royal Society 850: 848: 844: 833: 829: 825: 821: 816: 812: 810: 803: 797: 787: 785: 781: 777: 773: 769: 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 745: 741: 737: 733: 729: 725: 721: 716: 714: 710: 706: 702: 698: 697:Pre-Columbian 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 677:Chinese model 674: 673:ancient China 670: 669:ancient India 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 638: 634: 630: 626: 622: 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 581:Ancient Egypt 577: 575: 571: 567: 563: 559: 555: 551: 547: 543: 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 514:ancient times 511: 507: 502: 493: 488: 486: 481: 479: 474: 473: 471: 470: 466: 462: 458: 454: 453: 446: 443: 441: 438: 436: 433: 431: 428: 426: 423: 421: 418: 416: 413: 411: 408: 407: 399: 398: 391: 388: 386: 383: 381: 378: 376: 373: 372: 368: 362: 361: 350: 347: 345: 344:Urban studies 342: 340: 337: 335: 332: 330: 327: 325: 322: 320: 317: 315: 312: 310: 307: 305: 302: 300: 297: 295: 292: 290: 287: 285: 282: 280: 277: 275: 272: 270: 267: 265: 262: 260: 257: 255: 252: 251: 250: 249: 245: 244: 237: 234: 232: 229: 227: 224: 222: 219: 218: 217: 214: 210: 209:Environmental 207: 205: 202: 200: 197: 196: 195: 192: 190: 187: 183: 180: 178: 175: 174: 173: 170: 168: 165: 164: 163: 162: 159: 156: 155: 148: 144: 140: 134: 133: 127: 124: 122: 119: 117: 114: 112: 109: 107: 104: 102: 99: 97: 94: 92: 89: 86: 81: 75: 74: 72: 71: 68: 65: 64: 60: 59: 56: 52: 50: 45: 41: 34: 33: 27: 19: 17433: 17391: 17348: 17328: 17318: 17252: 17240: 17162: 17138: 17126: 17096: 17042: 16903:Food studies 16843:Area studies 16596:mathematical 16591:econometrics 16549:Anthropology 16458:Associations 16293:criticism of 16203:Leapfrogging 16186:linear model 16072:Team science 16062:Scientocracy 15985:Neo-colonial 15735:Anthropocene 15704: 15557:Neuroscience 15461:Anthropology 15443:Trigonometry 15181: 15029: 15006: 14977: 14963: 14950: 14944: 14938: 14931: 14924: 14906: 14886: 14859: 14849: 14842: 14838: 14821: 14799: 14780: 14763: 14748: 14738: 14731: 14703: 14682: 14664: 14637: 14623: 14610: 14597: 14584: 14562: 14541: 14514:. Retrieved 14510: 14500: 14488:. Retrieved 14484: 14474: 14462:. Retrieved 14458: 14448: 14436:. Retrieved 14432: 14422: 14410:. Retrieved 14406: 14397: 14385:. Retrieved 14365: 14355: 14343:. Retrieved 14332: 14322: 14310:. Retrieved 14301: 14291: 14276: 14251: 14247: 14237: 14210: 14206: 14196: 14186:28 September 14184:. Retrieved 14175: 14165: 14156: 14150: 14136: 14116: 14091: 14087: 14081: 14038: 14016: 14010: 13991: 13985: 13952: 13948: 13938: 13919: 13913: 13902:the original 13865: 13859: 13815: 13808: 13789: 13785: 13775: 13732: 13720:. Retrieved 13708: 13696: 13655: 13651: 13619: 13613: 13607: 13598: 13588: 13569: 13563: 13522: 13516: 13504:. Retrieved 13476: 13469: 13457:. Retrieved 13450:the original 13427: 13423: 13410: 13401: 13392: 13377: 13363:(1): 75–86. 13360: 13356: 13346: 13334:. Retrieved 13325: 13315: 13305:19 September 13303:. Retrieved 13293: 13286: 13253: 13249: 13243: 13231:. Retrieved 13216: 13199: 13195: 13189: 13177: 13169: 13164: 13155: 13149: 13137:. Retrieved 13128: 13118: 13109: 13097:. Retrieved 13064: 13060: 13050: 13040: 13033: 13023:19 September 13021:. Retrieved 12988: 12984: 12974: 12949: 12945: 12935: 12921: 12909:. Retrieved 12905:the original 12895: 12881: 12869:. Retrieved 12828: 12824: 12814: 12776:(1): 20–23. 12773: 12769: 12759: 12734: 12730: 12720: 12708:. Retrieved 12683: 12679: 12669: 12650: 12644: 12634:27 September 12632:. Retrieved 12605: 12577: 12568: 12559: 12543: 12535: 12527: 12515:. Retrieved 12495: 12488: 12476:. Retrieved 12467: 12457: 12449: 12444: 12436: 12431: 12423: 12418: 12410: 12405: 12397: 12392: 12380:. Retrieved 12350: 12346: 12330: 12318:. Retrieved 12309: 12300: 12288:. Retrieved 12284:the original 12274: 12264:14 September 12262:. Retrieved 12247: 12237: 12229: 12224: 12216: 12215:Huff, Toby. 12211: 12192: 12147: 12142: 12134: 12129: 12118: 12110: 12091: 12085: 12073:. Retrieved 12059: 12047:. Retrieved 12027: 12020: 12012: 12007: 11998: 11965: 11961: 11955: 11946: 11922:. Retrieved 11913: 11903: 11884: 11861: 11852: 11840:. Retrieved 11829: 11819: 11797:(1): 19–21. 11794: 11790: 11784: 11764: 11752:. Retrieved 11743: 11719:. Retrieved 11702: 11698: 11673:. Retrieved 11653: 11646: 11638: 11633: 11621:. Retrieved 11612: 11603: 11593: 11573:. Retrieved 11563: 11556: 11525: 11519: 11496: 11490: 11474: 11469: 11453: 11449: 11444: 11436: 11431: 11412: 11345: 11338: 11329: 11320: 11308:. Retrieved 11289: 11281: 11267: 11261: 11251: 11246: 11242: 11240: 11222: 11207: 11197:26 September 11195:. Retrieved 11177: 11142: 11138: 11128: 11093: 11089: 11025: 11021: 11011: 11003: 10999: 10983: 10976: 10968: 10965:G.E.R. Lloyd 10960: 10948:. Retrieved 10915: 10911: 10901: 10876: 10872: 10862: 10853: 10847: 10828: 10819: 10808: 10795: 10775: 10765: 10744: 10733: 10709: 10702: 10677: 10672: 10657: 10636: 10628: 10619: 10613: 10605: 10578: 10572: 10545: 10539: 10527: 10522: 10502: 10496: 10484: 10449: 10443: 10431: 10406: 10402: 10358: 10354: 10329: 10324: 10312: 10303:as cited in 10296: 10288: 10279: 10270: 10254: 10249: 10233: 10225: 10220:Needham p422 10216: 10204: 10184: 10177: 10158: 10149: 10141: 10129: 10120:Mabbett 1964 10116: 10098: 10094: 10092: 10083: 10056: 10052: 10046: 10033: 10024: 10005: 9999: 9974: 9966: 9958: 9957:, page 547, 9937: 9920: 9879: 9875: 9869: 9850: 9844: 9832:. Retrieved 9823: 9804: 9798: 9771: 9750:. Retrieved 9727: 9717: 9707: 9698: 9665: 9659: 9646: 9612: 9606: 9586: 9576: 9564:. Retrieved 9560: 9551: 9543: 9527: 9511: 9506: 9498: 9493: 9481:. Retrieved 9457: 9447: 9439: 9419: 9411: 9402: 9382: 9375: 9355: 9351:Plofker, Kim 9345: 9336: 9330: 9322:st-and.ac.uk 9321: 9312: 9293: 9287: 9275:. Retrieved 9245:(1): 39–50. 9242: 9238: 9225: 9206: 9185:. Retrieved 9165: 9158: 9146:. Retrieved 9126: 9116: 9104:. Retrieved 9084: 9074: 9059: 9056:Paul Hoffman 9051: 9010: 9004: 8998: 8978: 8973: 8961:. Retrieved 8942: 8936: 8932: 8924: 8915: 8911: 8905: 8893:. Retrieved 8873: 8849:. Retrieved 8829: 8805:. Retrieved 8786: 8760:. Retrieved 8740: 8720: 8715: 8703:. Retrieved 8694: 8685: 8673:. Retrieved 8666:the original 8649: 8642: 8623: 8614: 8595: 8589: 8572: 8571: 8568: 8563: 8558: 8542: 8536: 8491: 8487: 8477: 8444: 8438: 8428:17 September 8426:. Retrieved 8390: 8387:Book History 8386: 8373: 8332: 8326: 8291: 8287: 8277: 8244: 8240: 8234: 8207: 8201: 8174: 8168: 8127: 8121: 8113: 8106:. Retrieved 8091: 8083:Oppy, Graham 8073: 8065: 8057: 8051: 8042: 8018: 8010: 8002: 7984: 7978: 7937: 7931: 7923: 7916:. Retrieved 7910: 7903: 7895: 7888:. Retrieved 7873: 7866: 7824: 7817: 7790: 7784: 7776: 7769:. Retrieved 7754: 7740: 7721: 7715: 7696: 7668: 7640: 7634: 7626: 7621: 7602: 7596: 7577: 7571: 7552: 7546: 7527: 7521: 7502: 7496: 7477: 7449: 7415: 7407: 7395:. Retrieved 7385: 7378: 7359: 7329: 7323: 7304: 7298: 7286:. Retrieved 7259: 7255: 7245: 7235:28 September 7233:. Retrieved 7224: 7214: 7202:. Retrieved 7174: 7170: 7160: 7141: 7135: 7116: 7056: 7022: 6990: 6935:. Retrieved 6915: 6908: 6707: 6696: 6677: 6654:21st century 6648: 6616: 6589:neurobiology 6568:B.F. Skinner 6553: 6461: 6453: 6430: 6339: 6336:Applications 6326:oceanography 6311: 6267:Neuroscience 6248: 6237:Bernard Katz 6214: 6182: 6167: 6149: 6134:soil science 6130:microbiology 6126:biogeography 6058: 6046: 6036: 6004: 5956:Lise Meitner 5942: 5935:ushered in " 5898:Arno Penzias 5886:Ralph Alpher 5882:George Gamow 5870:Edwin Hubble 5867: 5815: 5791: 5782:20th century 5764:ethnological 5729: 5705:, used more 5699:Georg Simmel 5680: 5644: 5609: 5541: 5517: 5499: 5489: 5441: 5426: 5417:biochemistry 5362: 5319: 5299: 5251: 5222: 5218: 5212: 5203:19th century 5197: 5176:mercantilism 5169: 5159: 5151: 5117:James Hutton 5089: 5080: 5046: 5030: 5011:Robert Hooke 5004: 4966:Encyclopédie 4964: 4911: 4910:Journal des 4899: 4864: 4859: 4839: 4837: 4790:Joseph Black 4779: 4778:in his work 4776:Robert Boyle 4769: 4748: 4742: 4728: 4710: 4667:Portrait of 4635:heliocentric 4632: 4601:Robert Boyle 4573:Isaac Newton 4553:Robert Hooke 4530: 4522:Isaac Newton 4515: 4505: 4497: 4491: 4472: 4448:antiquarians 4445: 4421:institutions 4403: 4398: 4395:Theophrastus 4393: 4378: 4335: 4287: 4266:Jean Buridan 4251: 4233:Pierre Duhem 4226: 4203: 4170:al-Khwarizmi 4131: 4105: 4083: 4061: 4055: 4049: 4043: 4034:ex hypothesi 4032: 4026: 4001: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3972:, consulted 3968:who visited 3959: 3936: 3921: 3903: 3899: 3818: 3809:Ibn al-Nafis 3800: 3785: 3773: 3758: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3689: 3683: 3679: 3653: 3636: 3617: 3575: 3559: 3551: 3515: 3496: 3485: 3470: 3459: 3424: 3415:North Africa 3382:Christianity 3358: 3351: 3335: 3331: 3317: 3313: 3306: 3291:Roman Empire 3280: 3257: 3241: 3189:Theophrastus 3187: 3170:hydrostatics 3140: 3125: 3099: 3048: 3023:star catalog 3015:Eratosthenes 3011:Solar System 3004: 2979: 2881: 2865: 2823: 2770:founded the 2737: 2715: 2709: 2691: 2596: 2574:(found near 2509: 2504: 2433: 2410:astronomical 2379:movable type 2294: 2279: 2237: 2218: 2214:Matteo Ricci 2210: 2192: 2119: 2103:Tang dynasty 2088: 2085: 2062: 2026: 2015: 2011: 2010:refined the 2006:philosopher 2001: 1979: 1932: 1929:Chandahsutra 1928: 1925:Indian logic 1924: 1922: 1909: 1877: 1867:therapeutics 1863:symptomology 1848: 1826: 1816: 1810: 1759: 1718:Jai Singh II 1703: 1701: 1689: 1687: 1672: 1664: 1662:Copy of the 1635: 1628:Govindasvāmi 1624:Parameshvara 1609: 1598: 1569: 1533:trigonometry 1531:function in 1522: 1516: 1507: 1500:place values 1491: 1462:, including 1445: 1440: 1434: 1403: 1371: 1354:Plimpton 322 1347: 1337:Near Eastern 1330: 1311:such as the 1301:clay tablets 1282: 1248: 1242: 1239:East Semitic 1222: 1218: 1189:The ancient 1188: 1149:lime plaster 1130: 1091: 1047: 1003: 964: 952: 948:incantations 932:medicine man 924: 920:astronomical 893: 886:Protoscience 851: 817: 813: 805: 784:World War II 756:age of Earth 748:19th century 717: 695:. Among the 653:Muslim world 578: 538:Protoscience 505: 503: 501: 299:Liberal arts 177:Mathematical 115: 55: 48: 31: 26: 17522:Circumpolar 17484:Digital Age 17439:Renaissance 17419:Middle Ages 17164:Wikiversity 17055:Social work 16943:Linguistics 16868:Criminology 16785:criminology 16768:personality 16726:comparative 16704:Linguistics 16697:private law 16554:archaeology 16303:theories of 16288:and society 16284:Technology 16278:transitions 16268:determinism 16263:convergence 16238:Technocracy 16020:controversy 16006:Scientific 15990:post-normal 15935:Metascience 15905:Consilience 15890:Antiscience 15755:Neo-Luddism 15750:Fuzzy logic 15524:Engineering 15466:Archaeology 15433:Probability 15400:Mathematics 15266:Romanticism 15251:Renaissance 15020:(in French) 14911:McGraw-Hill 14751:Heinemann. 14366:Nature News 14228:10230/35942 14094:: 345–346. 13506:9 September 13297:. Ashgate. 12911:1 September 12831:(1): 1–20. 12532:Allen Debus 11754:24 November 11721:24 November 11675:25 November 10854:"De Caelo" 10142:Arthaśāstra 10095:arthaśāstra 9752:17 December 9723:Sarma, K.V. 9704:Paramesvara 9582:Kim Plofker 8705:21 December 8573:Agriculture 8335:. Chicago. 7288:20 February 7204:10 February 6690:were first 6684:Higgs boson 6581:linguistics 6560:behaviorism 6484:geopolitics 6472:game theory 6342:electricity 6322:meteorology 6275:David Rioch 6271:Eric Kandel 6235:. In 1962, 6148:. The word 6123:Humboldtian 6077:. By 1953, 6071:amino acids 6051:bond angles 6045:'s book on 6015:Big Science 5976:atomic bomb 5937:Big Science 5933:atomic bomb 5923:Big science 5856:formulated 5726:Romanticism 5659:Ivan Pavlov 5538:Germ theory 5385:John Dalton 5373:John Dalton 5108:John Walker 4933:mathematics 4561:Tycho Brahe 4520:in 1687 by 4504:, and also 4484:mechanistic 4417:observation 4404:During the 4399:Peri lithōn 4370:John Calvin 4347:Reformation 4309:Renaissance 4290:Black Death 4223:Duns Scotus 4215:Roger Bacon 4207:scholastics 4134:Reconquista 4106:On the Soul 4028:ex cathedra 4002:universitas 3970:monasteries 3917: 1275 3891:Roger Bacon 3845:Hulagu Khan 3821:Renaissance 3688:and Indian 3566:papermaking 3522:Renaissance 3516:During the 3477:monasteries 3421:Middle Ages 3336:Disciplines 3287:upper class 3104:Oxyrhynchus 3102:, found at 3068:Hippocrates 3056:Hippocrates 3027:engineering 2980:and again: 2933:Renaissance 2904:mathematics 2656:mathematics 2606:Mesoamerica 2597:During the 2472:wheelbarrow 2460:piston pump 2429:chain drive 2282:seismometer 2274:seismometer 2240:Song Empire 2183:One of the 2134:Zu Chongzhi 1997:Navya-Nyāya 1947:Vaisheshika 1911:Arthaśāstra 1893:Viṣhṇugupta 1886:policy and 1841:rhinoplasty 1794:Tolkāppiyam 1642:Jyeshtadeva 1632:Bhāskara II 1591:Bhaskara II 1537:Brahmagupta 1524:Aryabhatiya 1464:mensuration 1400:Mathematics 1344:Mathematics 1333:Babylonians 1317:lunar month 1303:created by 1261:prophylaxis 1209:2112 BCE – 1201:during the 1101:Mesopotamia 1070:incantation 975:Mesopotamia 896:prehistoric 839: 1874 780:big science 732:mechanistic 701:Mesoamerica 699:peoples of 661:Greek works 655:during the 645:Hellenistic 593:mathematics 585:Mesopotamia 566:Middle Ages 552:during the 403:Instruments 324:Professions 17600:Categories 17564:Industrial 17397:Prehistory 17383:Historical 17109:Humanities 17043:historical 16976:psychology 16948:Management 16790:demography 16748:Psychology 16731:philosophy 16692:public law 16623:integrated 16441:Technology 16393:science of 16388:history of 16273:revolution 16181:disruptive 16171:Innovation 16166:Hype cycle 16111:Technology 16082:ecological 16055:skepticism 16045:misconduct 16030:enterprise 15848:scientific 15775:Positivism 15745:Empiricism 15727:Philosophy 15501:Technology 15486:Psychology 15438:Statistics 15285:By culture 15189:Background 15032:, Vols 1–4 14960:Roy Porter 14407:genome.gov 13459:5 February 12952:: 74–111. 12871:4 December 12710:4 December 12553:Bruno 1989 12320:26 October 12290:26 October 11910:"Avicenna" 10950:4 December 10232:. (2007). 10125:Viṣṇugupta 9834:29 January 9629:9004132023 8918:(1): 7–18. 8662:1880/51835 8193:1048657291 8108:13 October 8027:. p. 7956:1235416152 7918:13 October 7890:13 October 7771:13 October 6900:References 6532:monetarism 6476:psephology 6370:television 6354:phonograph 6350:automobile 6306:continents 6193:Kamiokande 5964:Niels Bohr 5876:theory by 5826:Niels Bohr 5818:Max Planck 5776:Franz Boas 5742:and later 5736:Positivism 5623:capitalism 5580:antisepsis 5166:Adam Smith 5148:Adam Smith 5053:John Walsh 4991:Adam Smith 4979:David Hume 4971:philosophy 4941:technology 4871:vertebrate 4863:published 4739:elliptical 4429:statistics 4389:microscope 4283:kinematics 4254:scholastic 4228:Opus Majus 4057:Quadrivium 3943:Cistercian 3928:Marco Polo 3889:Statue of 3708:Hipparchus 3704:Al-Battani 3466:Latin West 3399:handmaiden 3387:Tertullian 3365:barbarians 3324:Posidonius 3233:lapidaries 3209:octahedral 3146:Archimedes 3072:Herophilos 3019:Hipparchus 2973:Archimedes 2929:scientists 2896:mineralogy 2841:empiricism 2794:and later 2792:Democritus 2764:Pythagoras 2720:physicians 2711:scientists 2676:logographs 2664:base of 20 2584:Long Count 2576:La Mojarra 2468:seed drill 2454:, sliding 2425:escapement 2413:clocktower 2406:metallurgy 2402:mineralogy 2317:true north 2313:navigation 2270:Zhang Heng 2254:Inventions 2246:, Chinese 2229:Zhang Heng 2203:thanks to 2017:Tetralemma 1971:tetralemma 1969:; and the 1965:school of 1880:statecraft 1708:treatise, 1637:Yuktibhāṣā 1468:arithmetic 1452:arithmetic 1335:and other 1313:solar year 1295:, and the 1215:Babylonian 1166:divination 1153:Metallurgy 944:divination 936:wise woman 928:underworld 651:-speaking 639:-speaking 627:-speaking 564:, and the 554:Bronze Age 465:navigation 461:philosophy 455:This is a 445:Technology 319:Polemology 314:Philosophy 304:Literature 279:Humanities 269:Futurology 226:Economical 126:Philosophy 121:Literature 17527:Subarctic 17495:societies 17214:Overviews 16987:Planning 16966:economics 16883:Education 16780:Sociology 16758:cognitive 16709:semiotics 16660:political 16618:technical 16603:Geography 16576:Economics 16348:Factor 10 16176:diffusion 16015:consensus 16010:community 15975:education 15815:Sociology 15790:Scientism 15669:Economics 15595:Timelines 15572:Pathology 15567:Nutrition 15491:Sociology 15471:Economics 15380:Chemistry 15370:Astronomy 15307:Byzantine 15302:Brazilian 15297:Argentine 14894:, Mainz: 14382:182916902 14122:Karl Benz 13977:128410978 13969:1573-0387 13549:cite book 13541:913218837 13089:166044943 13081:1923-3280 12861:253894214 12845:0003-9519 12790:0022-2968 12743:0003-049X 12692:1125-3819 12614:Routledge 11711:2474-1795 11161:1063-6145 11102:2008-0387 10994:, p. 177. 10932:0021-1753 10893:144547689 9682:0025-570X 9638:0169-8729 9566:3 October 9514:, Wiley. 9187:3 October 9148:3 October 9106:3 October 9043:122508567 8981:, p. 55, 8933:Rationale 8792:1891–1908 8762:3 October 8469:115323404 8415:151427109 8407:1529-1499 8359:cite book 8351:868276095 8318:144777485 8310:0007-0874 8269:147175644 8261:0073-2753 8226:555643149 8154:cite book 8146:984327399 7964:cite book 7852:cite book 7844:950521936 7278:258069710 7199:224789083 7177:: 80–94. 6672:electrons 6597:CAT scans 6593:PET scans 6374:computers 6362:airliners 6168:In 1925, 6007:cyclotron 5945:Otto Hahn 5906:Bell Labs 5838:spacetime 5691:Max Weber 5611:Karl Marx 5502:evolution 5312:in 1846. 5266:Georg Ohm 5219:scientist 5065:galvanism 4921:Descartes 4673:astronomy 4414:empirical 4385:telescope 4381:Cristallo 4262:parsimony 4150:Aristotle 4114:Aristotle 4018:Cambridge 4012:in 1150, 3986:collegium 3982:collegium 3978:collegium 3974:libraries 3793:cataracts 3700:astronomy 3691:Siddhanta 3672:algorithm 3295:statesman 3248:Herodotus 3217:engravers 3160:with the 3084:surgeries 2908:astronomy 2900:geography 2829:Aristotle 2776:Leucippus 2648:astronomy 2622:the Olmec 2496:astronomy 2484:gunpowder 2452:dry docks 2360:petrified 2329:clepsydra 2311:used for 2276:of 132 CE 2233:torquetum 2201:pole star 2185:star maps 2012:Catuskoti 2008:Nagarjuna 1975:Nagarjuna 1955:inference 1941:rules of 1934:anviksiki 1845:lithotomy 1829:Neolithic 1734:New Delhi 1648:Astronomy 1644:in 1530. 1519:Aryabhata 1510:mātrāmeru 1506:, called 1350:cuneiform 1257:poultices 1174:haruspicy 1062:medicines 1011:surveying 760:evolution 746:. In the 744:chemistry 597:astronomy 550:astrology 457:subseries 435:Scientist 236:Political 51:(journal) 17537:Pastoral 17493:Types of 17128:Category 16996:regional 16991:land use 16826:business 16795:internet 16753:abnormal 16655:military 16645:economic 16635:cultural 16608:physical 16569:physical 16559:cultural 16468:Scholars 16463:Journals 16453:Category 16427:Portals 16308:transfer 16298:dynamics 16248:feminist 16050:priority 16035:literacy 15995:rhetoric 15961:Science 15925:Logology 15618:Category 15577:Pharmacy 15534:Medicine 15423:Geometry 15413:Calculus 15332:Japanese 15131:Archived 15087:Archived 15075:Archived 15046:Archived 14837:(1978). 14820:(2006). 14797:(1996). 14700:(1983). 14538:(1989). 14339:Archived 14306:Archived 14268:21086524 14180:Archived 14125:Archived 14108:10845068 14070:Archived 14047:Archived 13890:13054692 13835:43648512 13764:Archived 13741:Archived 13722:23 March 13713:Archived 13680:18893719 13500:Archived 13496:75299209 13446:14223586 13369:17152615 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9904:16598247 9584:(2009). 9536:Archived 9477:Archived 9455:(2008). 9353:(2009). 9271:Archived 9267:45700796 9233:(1985). 9181:Archived 9142:Archived 9124:(2001). 9100:Archived 8957:Archived 8889:Archived 8845:Archived 8756:Archived 8699:Archived 8622:(1999). 8578:teosinte 8547:Archived 8528:11983901 8419:Archived 8089:(eds.). 8044:science. 7809:14692886 7752:(eds.). 7391:Archived 7282:Archived 7229:Archived 6931:Archived 6719:See also 6703:xenobots 6692:detected 6670:and two 6449:Internet 6412:design, 6410:database 6358:airplane 6352:and the 6245:synapses 6239:modeled 6185:SN 1987A 5943:In 1938 5894:Big Bang 5874:Big Bang 5864:Big Bang 5794:physical 5752:colonial 5594:against 5554:against 5532:genetics 5450:ice ages 5381:elements 5302:asteroid 5248:in 1801. 5246:Napoleon 5094:and the 4995:Voltaire 4983:religion 4882:arteries 4374:Vesalius 4351:Catholic 4209:such as 4182:Averroes 4178:Avicenna 4138:Crusades 4136:and the 4100:De Anima 4090:Master's 4085:Magister 3994:collegia 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