History of philosophy

2380: 3093: 2752: 1339: 85: 2233:. He posited that God has necessary existence, meaning that God's existence is inherent and not dependent on anything else. In contrast, everything else in the world is contingent, meaning that it was caused by God and depends on Him for its existence. In psychology, Avicenna viewed souls as substances that give life to beings. He categorized souls into different levels: plants possess the simplest form of souls, while the souls of animals and humans have additional faculties, such as the ability to move, sense, and think rationally. In ethics, Avicenna advocated for the pursuit of moral perfection, which can be achieved by adhering to the teachings of the Quran. His philosophical system profoundly influenced both Islamic and Western philosophy. 67: 76: 416:

emphasizing their claims and ongoing relevance rather than their historical evolution. Another approach sees the history of philosophy as an evolutionary process, assuming clear progress from one period to the next, with earlier theories being refined or replaced by more advanced later theories. Other historians seek to understand past philosophical theories as products of their time, focusing on the positions accepted by past philosophers and the reasons behind them, often without concern for their relevance today. These historians study how the historical context and the philosopher's

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scientific and philosophical inquiry within the Islamic world. Al-Ghazali's skepticism regarding the power of reason and the role of philosophy played a significant part in this development, leading to a shift in focus towards theology and religious doctrine. However, some contemporary scholars have questioned the extent of this so-called decline. They argue that it is better understood as a shift in philosophical interest rather than an outright decline. According to this view, philosophy did not disappear but was instead integrated into and continued within the framework of theology.

2251:(1126–1198) rejected Al-Ghazali's skeptical outlook and sought to demonstrate the harmony between the philosophical pursuit of knowledge and the spiritual dimensions of faith. Averroes' philosophy was heavily influenced by Aristotle, and he frequently criticized Avicenna for diverging too much from Aristotle's teachings. In the field of psychology, Averroes proposed that there is only one universal intellect shared by all humans. Although Averroes' work did not have a significant impact on subsequent Islamic scholarship, it had a considerable influence on European philosophy. 56: 2642:(1863–1902) emphasized the validity and universality of all religions. He used the principles of Advaita Vedanta to argue that different religious traditions are merely different paths leading to the same spiritual truth. According to Advaita Vedanta, there is only one ultimate reality, without any distinctions or divisions. This school of thought considers the diversity and multiplicity in the world as an illusion that obscures the underlying divine oneness. Vivekananda believed that different religions represent various ways of realizing this divine oneness. 1527: 2324:. It can be divided into three main periods: the ancient period, which lasted until the end of the 2nd century BCE, the classical and medieval period, which lasted until the end of the 18th century CE, and the modern period that followed. Indian philosophy is characterized by a deep interest in the nature of ultimate reality, often relating this topic to spirituality and asking questions about how to connect with the divine and reach a state of enlightenment. In this regard, Indian philosophers frequently served as gurus, guiding spiritual seekers. 2882: 2631: 47: 701: 2954: 2529:: perception, inference, analogical reasoning, and testimony. Nyaya is particularly known for its theory of logic, which emphasizes that inference depends on prior perception and aims to generate new knowledge, such as understanding the cause of an observed phenomenon. Vaisheshika, on the other hand, is renowned for its atomistic metaphysics. Although Nyaya and Vaisheshika were originally distinct schools, they later became intertwined and were often treated as a single tradition. 1718: 396:

contexts. The philosophical component, on the other hand, evaluates the studied theories for their truth and validity. It reflects on the arguments presented for these positions and assesses their hidden assumptions, making the philosophical heritage accessible to a contemporary audience while evaluating its continued relevance. Some historians of philosophy focus primarily on the historical component, viewing the history of philosophy as part of the broader discipline of

1037: 2180: 1650:(1839–1914) is usually considered the founder of pragmatism. He held that the meaning of ideas and theories lies in their practical and observable consequences. For example, to say that an object is hard means that, on a practical level, it is difficult to break, pierce, or scratch. Peirce argued that a true belief is a stable belief that works, even if it must be revised in the future. His pragmatist philosophy gained wider popularity through his lifelong friend 17229: 1959: 355: 38: 2245:, he argued that many philosophical teachings were riddled with contradictions and incompatible with Islamic faith. However, Al-Ghazali did not completely reject philosophy; he acknowledged its value but believed it should be subordinate to a form of mystical intuition. This intuition, according to Al-Ghazali, relied on direct personal experience and spiritual insight, which he considered essential for attaining a deeper understanding of reality. 1804: 1277: 2206:

with certain passages in the Quran that assign this role to Arabic grammar. In his political philosophy, Al-Farabi endorsed Plato's idea that a philosopher-king would be the best ruler. He discussed the virtues such a ruler should possess, the tasks they should undertake, and why this ideal is rarely realized. Al-Farabi also provided an influential classification of the different sciences and fields of inquiry.

400:. Others emphasize the philosophical component, arguing that the history of philosophy transcends intellectual history because its interest is not exclusively historical. It is controversial to what extent the history of philosophy can be understood as a discipline distinct from philosophy itself. Some theorists contend that the history of philosophy is an integral part of philosophy. For example, 1155:

valued the academic disciplines studying human society and culture. This shift in perspective also involved seeing humans as genuine individuals. Although Renaissance humanism was not primarily a philosophical movement, it brought about many social and cultural changes that affected philosophical activity. These changes were also accompanied by an increased interest in political philosophy.

17216: 901:, which emerged in the later part of the ancient period, began in the 3rd century CE and reached its peak by the 6th century CE. Neoplatonism inherited many ideas from Plato and Aristotle, transforming them in creative ways. Its central doctrine posits a transcendent and ineffable entity responsible for all existence, referred to as "the One" or "the Good." From the One emerges the 2020:(1905–1980), who developed the philosophy of existentialism. Existentialists hold that humans are fundamentally free and responsible for their choices. They also assert that life lacks a predetermined purpose, and the act of choosing one's path without such a guiding purpose can lead to anxiety. The idea that the universe is inherently meaningless was especially emphasized by 1545:(1770–1831) is often described as the culmination of this tradition. Hegel reconstructed a philosophical history in which the measure of progress is the actualization of freedom. He applied this not only to political life but also to philosophy, which he claimed aims for self-knowledge characterized by the identity of subject and object. His term for this is "the 2941:. He advocated for a balanced life characterized by harmony between humanity and nature as the path to true happiness. Liang criticized the modern European attitude for its excessive focus on exploiting nature to satisfy desires, and he viewed the Indian approach, with its focus on the divine and renunciation of desires, as an extreme in the opposite direction. 2190:(801–873) is often considered the first philosopher of this tradition, in contrast to the more theological works of his predecessors. He followed Aristotle in regarding metaphysics as the first philosophy and the highest science. From his theological perspective, metaphysics studies the essence and attributes of God. He drew on Plotinus's doctrine of 1238:. However, contemporary historians argue that this division is not a strict dichotomy but rather a matter of varying degrees. These schools share a common goal of establishing a clear, rigorous, and systematic method of inquiry. This philosophical emphasis on method mirrored the advances occurring simultaneously during the scientific revolution. 2217:(980–1037) drew on the philosophies of the Ancient Greeks and Al-Farabi to develop a comprehensive philosophical system aimed at providing a holistic and rational understanding of reality that encompasses science, religion, and mysticism. He regarded logic as the foundation of rational inquiry. In the field of metaphysics, Avicenna argued that 1322:(1711–1776) also upheld the empiricist principle that knowledge is derived from sensory experience. However, he took this idea further by arguing that it is impossible to know with certainty that one event causes another. Hume's reasoning was that the connection between cause and effect is not directly perceivable. Instead, the mind observes 2773:(399–295 BCE) employed parables and allegories to express his ideas. To illustrate the concept of wu wei in daily life, he used the example of a butcher who, after years of practice, could cut an ox effortlessly, with his knife naturally following the optimal path without any conscious effort. Zhuangzi is also famous for his story of the 2239:(1058–1111) was highly critical of Avicenna's rationalist approach and his adoption of Greek philosophy. He was skeptical of reason's ability to arrive at a true understanding of reality, God, and religion. Al-Ghazali viewed the philosophy of other Islamic philosophers as problematic, describing it as an illness. In his influential work, 681:, begins with simple questions to explore a topic and critically reflect on underlying ideas and assumptions. Unlike the Presocratics, Socrates was less concerned with metaphysical theories and more focused on moral philosophy. Many of his dialogues explore the question of what it means to lead a good life by examining virtues such as 1132:, as well as a shift toward scientific inquiry. This represented a significant departure from the medieval period, which had been primarily focused on religious and scholastic traditions. Another notable change was that intellectual activity was no longer as closely tied to the Church as before; most scholars of this period were not 1151:(1433–1499) argued that souls form a connection between the realm of Platonic forms and the sensory realm. According to Plato, love can be understood as a ladder leading to higher forms of understanding. Ficino interpreted this concept in an intellectual sense, viewing it as a way to relate to God through the love of knowledge. 2556:. While these schools agree on the core teachings of Gautama Buddha, they differ on certain key points. The Sarvāstivāda school holds that "all exists," including past, present, and future entities. This view is rejected by the Sautrāntika school, which argues that only the present exists. The Madhyamaka school, founded by 2270:. Mulla Sadra saw philosophy as a spiritual practice aimed at fostering wisdom and transforming oneself into a sage. His metaphysical theory of existence was particularly influential. He rejected the traditional Aristotelian notion that reality is composed of static substances with fixed essences. Instead, he advocated a 780:, and ethics. Aristotle introduced many technical terms in these fields that are still used today. While he accepted Plato's distinction between form and matter, he rejected the idea that forms could exist independently of matter, arguing instead that forms and matter are interdependent. This debate became central to the 552:—to emphasize the roles of gods and goddesses who continued to be worshipped even as Greek philosophy evolved. The Presocratic philosophers were among the first to challenge traditional Greek theology, seeking instead to provide empirical theories to explain how the world came into being and why it functions as it does. 3139:, which sought to reconstruct traditional African worldviews, often with the goal of rediscovering a lost African identity. However, this approach was contested by Afro-deconstructionists, who questioned the existence of a singular African identity. Other influential strands and topics in modern African thought include 2808:. Xuanxue, also known as Neo-Daoism, sought to synthesize Confucianism and Daoism while developing a metaphysical framework for these schools of thought. It posited that the Dao is the root of ultimate reality, leading to debates about whether this root should be understood as being or non-being. Philosophers such as 988:(477–524 CE) had a profound interest in Greek philosophy. He translated many of Aristotle's works and sought to integrate and reconcile them with Christian doctrine. Boethius addressed the problem of universals and developed a theory to harmonize Plato's and Aristotle's views. He proposed that universals exist in the 3061:

The colonial period was dominated by religious philosophy, particularly in the form of scholasticism. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the emphasis shifted to Enlightenment philosophy and the adoption of a scientific outlook, particularly through positivism. An influential current in the later part of

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became particularly influential. Unlike earlier forms of Confucianism, Neo-Confucianism placed greater emphasis on metaphysics, largely in response to similar developments in Daoism and Buddhism. It rejected the Daoist and Buddhist focus on non-being and emptiness, instead centering on the concept of

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The Upanishads introduce key concepts in Indian philosophy, such as Atman and Brahman. Atman refers to the self, regarded as the eternal soul that constitutes the essence of every conscious being. Brahman represents the ultimate reality and the highest principle governing the universe. The Upanishads

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emerged in the 19th and 20th centuries in response to the cultural changes brought about by modernity and the increasing influence of Western thought. Islamic modernists aimed to reassess the role of traditional Islamic doctrines and practices in the modern world. They sought to reinterpret and adapt

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The Renaissance period began in the mid-14th century and lasted until the early 17th century. This cultural and intellectual movement originated in Italy and gradually spread to other regions of Western Europe. Key aspects of the Renaissance included a renewed interest in Ancient Greek philosophy and

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to examine traditional philosophical problems in fields such as metaphysics, epistemology, science, and ethics. Continental philosophy was more prominent in European countries, particularly in Germany and France. It is an umbrella term without a precisely established meaning and covers philosophical

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The revival of Ancient Greek philosophy during the Renaissance was not limited to Platonism; it also encompassed other schools of thought, such as Skepticism, Epicureanism, and Stoicism. This revival was closely associated with the rise of Renaissance humanism, a human-centered worldview that highly

1029:, where he defined God as the greatest conceivable being and argued that such a being must exist outside of the mind. He posited that if God existed only in the mind, He would not be the greatest conceivable being, since a being that exists in reality is greater than one that exists only in thought. 3045:

Philosophy in Latin America is often considered part of Western philosophy. However, in a more specific sense, it represents a distinct tradition with its own unique characteristics, despite strong Western influence. Philosophical ideas concerning the nature of reality and the role of humans within

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and establishing order. They also dismissed the Confucian emphasis on virtues and moral conduct as the foundation of a harmonious society. In contrast, Legalists believed that the best way to achieve order was through the establishment of strict laws and the enforcement of punishments for those who

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The classical and medieval periods in Indian philosophy span roughly from 200 BCE to 1800 CE. Some scholars refer to this entire duration as the "classical period," while others divide it into two distinct periods: the classical period up until 1300 CE, and the medieval period afterward. During the

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theory of creation. Al-Farabi claimed that philosophy, rather than theology, is the best pathway to truth. His interest in logic earned him the title "the Second Master" after Aristotle. He concluded that logic is universal and forms the foundation of all language and thought, a view that contrasts

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which sought to reconcile two opposing views. The first truth, conventional realism, affirms the existence of ordinary things. The second truth posits that all phenomena are illusory or empty. The third truth attempts to reconcile these positions by claiming that the mundane world is both real and

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In traditional Chinese thought, philosophy was not distinctly separated from religious thought and other types of inquiry. It was primarily concerned with ethics and societal matters, often placing less emphasis on metaphysics compared to other traditions. Philosophical practice in China tended to

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to argue for the oneness and perfection of God. For Al-Kindi, God emanates the universe by "bringing being to be from non-being." In the field of psychology, he argued for a dualism that strictly distinguishes the immortal soul from the mortal body. Al-Kindi was a prolific author, producing around

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The medieval period in Western philosophy began between 400 and 500 CE and ended between 1400 and 1500 CE. A key distinction between this period and earlier philosophical traditions was its emphasis on religious thought. The Christian Emperor Justinian ordered the closure of philosophical schools,

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and Mīmāṃsā focus primarily on interpreting the Vedic scriptures. Vedānta is concerned mainly with the Upanishads, discussing metaphysical theories and exploring the possibilities of knowledge and liberation. In contrast, Mīmāṃsā is more focused on the ritualistic practices outlined in the Vedas.

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of philosophy, which examines the methods used by historians of philosophy. It is also interested in how dominant opinions in this field have changed over time. Different methods and approaches are used to study the history of philosophy. Some historians focus primarily on philosophical theories,

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to construct his philosophical system. This method begins with a small set of self-evident axioms and proceeds to derive a comprehensive philosophical system through deductive reasoning. Unlike Descartes, Spinoza arrived at a metaphysical monism, asserting that there is only one substance in the

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The early Arabic intellectual tradition before the classical period was characterized by various theological discussions, primarily focused on understanding the correct interpretation of Islamic revelation. Some historians view this as part of Arabic–Persian philosophy, while others draw a more

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that aims to provide a reflective assessment and critique of society and culture. Unlike traditional theory, its goal is not only to understand and explain but also to bring about practical change, particularly to emancipate people and liberate them from domination and oppression. Key themes of

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While the Vedas had a broad influence, not all Indian philosophical traditions originated from them. For example, the non-Vedic movements of Buddhism and Jainism emerged in the 6th century BCE. These movements agreed with certain Vedic teachings about the cycle of rebirth and the importance of

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Averroes is often considered the last major philosopher of the classical era of Islamic philosophy. The traditional view holds that the post-classical period was marked by a decline on several levels. This decline is understood both in terms of the global influence of Islam and in the realm of

2762:(6th century BCE) is traditionally regarded as the founder of Daoism. Like Confucius, he believed that living a good life involves being in harmony with the Dao. However, unlike Confucius, Laozi focused not only on society but also on the relationship between humans and nature. His concept of 2175:

Early classical Arabic–Persian philosophy was strongly influenced by Ancient Greek philosophy, particularly the works of Aristotle, but also other philosophers such as Plato. This influence came through both translations and comprehensive commentaries. A key motivation for this process was to

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The later part of the medieval period was dominated by scholasticism, a philosophical method heavily influenced by Aristotelian philosophy and characterized by systematic and methodological inquiry. The intensified interest in Aristotle during this period was largely due to the Arabic–Persian

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Arabic–Persian philosophy had a profound influence on Western philosophy. During the early medieval period, many of the Greek texts were unavailable in Western Europe. They became accessible in the later medieval period largely due to their preservation and transmission by the Arabic–Persian

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The history of philosophy has both a historical and a philosophical component. The historical component is concerned with how philosophical thought has unfolded throughout the ages. It explores which philosophers held particular views and how they were influenced by their social and cultural

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thought. It aims to provide a systematic and chronological exposition of philosophical concepts and doctrines, as well as the philosophers who conceived them and the schools of thought to which they belong. It is not merely a collection of theories but attempts to show how these theories are

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The latter half of the classical period saw further developments in both the orthodox and heterodox schools of Indian philosophy, often through detailed commentaries on foundational sutras. The Vedanta school gained significant influence during this time, particularly with the rise of the

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is still necessary since reason alone cannot comprehend all truths. This is particularly relevant to claims such as the eternality of the world and the intricate relationship between God and His creation. In metaphysics, Aquinas posited that every entity is characterized by two aspects:

1829:(1872–1970) was even more ambitious since it included not only arithmetic but also geometry and analysis. Although their attempts were very fruitful, they did not fully succeed, as additional axioms beyond those of logic are required. In the philosophy of language, Russell's theory of 2991:. The arrival of Confucianism and Buddhism in the 5th and 6th centuries CE transformed the intellectual landscape and led to various subsequent developments. Confucianism influenced political and social philosophy and was further developed into different strands of neo-Confucianism. 2560:(c. 150–250 CE), asserts that all phenomena are inherently empty, meaning that nothing possesses a permanent essence or independent existence. The Yogācāra school is traditionally interpreted as a form of idealism, arguing that the external world is an illusion created by the mind. 2172:). Theologians, who implicitly accepted the truth of revelation, restricted their inquiries to religious topics, such as proofs of the existence of God. Philosophers, on the other hand, investigated a broader range of topics, including those not directly covered by the scriptures. 1068:. Understanding a thing involves grasping its essence, which can be done without perceiving whether it exists. However, in the case of God, Aquinas argued that His existence is identical to His essence, making God unique. In ethics, Aquinas held that moral principles are rooted in 3134:

African philosophy before the 20th century was primarily conducted and transmitted orally as ideas by philosophers whose names have been lost to history. This changed in the 1920s with the emergence of systematic African philosophy. A significant movement during this period was

2399:, which are late Vedic texts that discuss profound philosophical topics. Some scholars consider the Vedas as part of philosophy proper, while others view them as a form of proto-philosophy. This period also saw the emergence of non-Vedic movements, such as Buddhism and Jainism. 1109:, which is used to choose between competing explanations of the same phenomenon. Ockham's Razor states that the simplest explanation, the one that assumes the existence of fewer entities, should be preferred. Ockham employed this principle to argue for nominalism and against 1875:. This principle claims that a statement is meaningless if it cannot be verified through sensory experience or the laws of logic. Carnap used this principle to reject the discipline of metaphysics in general. However, this principle was later criticized by Carnap's student 1033:(1079–1142) similarly emphasized the harmony between reason and faith, asserting that both emerge from the same divine source and therefore cannot be in contradiction. Abelard was also known for his nominalism, which claimed that universals exist only as mental constructs. 713:

Most of what is known about Socrates comes from the writings of his student Plato. Plato's works are presented in the form of dialogues between various philosophers, making it difficult to determine which ideas are Socrates' and which are Plato's own theories. Plato's

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lifestyle, emphasizing withdrawal from the world to achieve self-realization. Others emphasize active engagement with the world, rooted in the belief that individuals have social duties to their families and communities. These duties are prescribed by the concept of

2910:(1893–1976) played a dual role as both a philosopher who expounded these ideas and a revolutionary leader committed to their practical implementation. Chinese Marxism diverged from classical Marxism in several ways. For instance, while classical Marxism assigns the 1358:(1596–1650) played a pivotal role in its development. He sought to establish absolutely certain knowledge and employed methodological doubt, questioning all his beliefs to find an indubitable foundation for knowledge. He discovered this foundation in the statement " 2889:

The later part of the Qing dynasty and the subsequent modern period were marked by an encounter with Western philosophy, including the ideas of philosophers like Plato, Kant, and Mill, as well as movements like pragmatism. However, Marx's ideas of class struggle,

936:, and diverging from doctrinal orthodoxy was fraught with risks. Due to these developments, some scholars consider this era a "dark age" compared to what preceded and followed it. Central topics during this period included the problem of universals, the nature of 1796:. Moore was particularly influential in the field of ethics, where he claimed that our actions should promote the good. He argued that the concept of "good" cannot be defined in terms of other concepts and that whether something is good can be known through 2443:(563–483 BCE), who challenged the Vedic concept of Atman by arguing that there is no permanent, stable self. He taught that the belief in a permanent self leads to suffering and that liberation can be attained by realizing the absence of a permanent self. 673:(427–347 BCE) built on Presocratic philosophy but also introduced significant changes in focus and methodology. Socrates did not write anything himself, and his influence is largely due to the impact he made on his contemporaries, particularly through his 2096:(1930–2004) developed the philosophy of deconstruction, which aims to expose hidden contradictions within philosophical texts by subverting the oppositions they rely on, such as the opposition between presence and absence or between subject and object. 1094:

between essence and existence. Instead, he argued that this distinction is only formal, meaning essence and existence are two aspects of a thing that cannot be separated. Scotus further posited that each individual entity has a unique essence, known as

1507:, who argued that the conceptual activity of the subject is always partially constitutive of experience and knowledge. Subsequent German idealists critiqued what they saw as theoretical problems with Kant's dualisms and the contradictory status of the 1406:. This movement drew on both empiricism and rationalism to challenge traditional authorities and promote the pursuit of knowledge. It advocated for individual freedom and held an optimistic view of progress and the potential for societal improvement. 1564:

emphasized the validity and unique nature of historical knowledge of individual events, contrasting this with the universal knowledge of eternal truths. Neo-Kantianism was a diverse philosophical movement that revived and reinterpreted Kant's ideas.

529:, which lasted until about the mid-4th century BCE. Studying Presocratic philosophy can be challenging because many of the original texts have only survived in fragments and often have to be reconstructed based on quotations found in later works. 431:, which involves dividing the history of philosophy into distinct periods, each corresponding to one or several philosophical tendencies prevalent during that historical timeframe. Traditionally, the history of philosophy has focused primarily on 1817:(1848–1925) was another pioneer of the analytic tradition. His development of modern symbolic logic had a significant impact on subsequent philosophers, even outside the field of logic. Frege employed these advances in his attempt to prove that 2766:, often translated as "effortless action," was particularly influential. It refers to acting in a natural, spontaneous way that is in accordance with the Dao, which Laozi saw as an ideal state of being characterized by ease and spontaneity. 2653:

His complex philosophical system seeks to demonstrate how different historical and philosophical movements are part of a global evolution of consciousness. Other contributions to modern Indian philosophy were made by spiritual teachers like

2748:. In Confucian thought, the family is fundamental, with each member fulfilling their role to ensure the family's overall flourishing. Confucius extended this idea to society, viewing the state as a large family where harmony is essential. 2823:

In the realm of ethics and politics, the school of Legalism became particularly influential. Legalists rejected the Mohist idea that politics should aim to promote general welfare. Instead, they argued that statecraft is about wielding

2479:, which are aphoristic or concise texts that explain key philosophical ideas. The latter half of this period was characterized by detailed commentaries on these sutras, aimed at providing comprehensive explanations and interpretations. 1654:(1842–1910), who applied Peirce's ideas to psychology. James argued that the meaning of an idea consists of its experiential consequences and rejected the notion that experiences are isolated events, instead proposing the concept of a 2832:

Buddhism, which arrived in China from India in the 1st century CE, initially focused on the translation of original Sanskrit texts into Chinese. Over time, however, new and distinctive forms of Chinese Buddhism emerged. For instance,

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school. Ramanuja agreed that Brahman is the ultimate reality, but he argued that individual entities, such as qualities, persons, and objects, are also real as parts of the underlying unity of Brahman. He emphasized the importance of

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as the positive foundation of metaphysics. Li is understood as the rational principle that underlies being and governs all entities. It also forms the basis of human nature and is the source of virtues. Li is often contrasted with

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traditions are often excluded from the history of philosophy if their claims are not based on rational inquiry and argumentation. However, some theorists treat the topic broadly, including the philosophical aspects of traditional

296:. In the modern period, the exchange between Indian and Western thought led various Indian philosophers to develop comprehensive systems. They aimed to unite and harmonize diverse philosophical and religious schools of thought. 2850:

in Japan. In epistemology, Chan Buddhists advocated for a form of immediate acquaintance with reality, asserting that it transcends the distortions of linguistic distinctions and leads to direct knowledge of ultimate reality.

2777:, which explores the nature of subjective experience. In this story, Zhuangzi dreams of being a butterfly and, upon waking, questions whether he is a man who dreamt of being a butterfly or a butterfly dreaming of being a man. 1316:, giving primacy to perceptions and ideas over material objects. Berkeley argued that objects only exist insofar as they are perceived by the mind, leading to the conclusion that there is no reality independent of perception. 3002:

In the 19th and 20th centuries, interaction with Western thinkers had a major influence on Japanese philosophy, particularly through the schools of existentialism and phenomenology. This period saw the foundation of the

1993:. Heidegger explored how human pre-understanding of reality shapes the experience of and engagement with the world. He argued that pure description alone is insufficient for phenomenology and should be accompanied by 2859:

The next period in Chinese philosophy began with the emergence of the Song dynasty in 960 CE. Some scholars consider this period to end with the Opium Wars in 1840, while others extend it to the establishment of the

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The Stoics rejected this hedonistic outlook, arguing that desires and aversions are obstacles to living in accordance with reason and virtue. To overcome these desires, they advocated self-mastery and an attitude of

1047:(1224–1274 CE) is often considered the most influential medieval philosopher. Rooted in Aristotelianism, Aquinas developed a comprehensive system of scholastic philosophy that encompassed areas such as metaphysics, 1467:

also theorized political life using the concept of a social contract, but his political outlook differed significantly due to his more positive assessment of human nature. Rousseau's views led him to advocate for

2151:, focused particularly on the translation and interpretation of Ancient Greek philosophy. The late classical period, following Avicenna, was shaped by the engagement with his comprehensive philosophical system. 2736:, often translated as "the Way," played a central role during this period, with different schools of thought interpreting it in various ways. Early Chinese philosophy was heavily influenced by the teachings of 1329:

The empiricism promoted by Hume and other philosophers had a significant impact on the development of the scientific method, particularly in its emphasis on observation, experimentation, and rigorous testing.

3058:. These ideas developed independently of European influence. However, most discussions typically focus on the colonial and post-colonial periods, as very few texts from the pre-colonial period have survived. 2949:

Various philosophical traditions developed their own distinctive ideas. In some cases, these developments occurred independently, while in others, they were influenced by the major philosophical traditions.

2331:. The exact definitions of these terms are disputed. Orthodox schools typically accept the authority of the Vedas, the religious scriptures of Hinduism, and tend to acknowledge the existence of the self ( 2458:, which posits that reality is complex and multifaceted, and thus cannot be fully captured by any single perspective or expressed adequately in language. The third pillar of Jainism is the practice of 2428:, where individual souls are caught in a cycle of reincarnation. According to this belief, a person's actions in previous lives determine their circumstances in future lives, a principle known as the 1639:(1806–1873) became one of the foremost proponents of utilitarianism, further refining the theory by asserting that what matters is not just the quantity of pleasure and pain, but also their quality. 2740:(551–479 BCE). Confucius emphasized that a good life is one that aligns with the Dao, which he understood primarily in terms of moral conduct and virtuous behavior. He argued for the importance of 2638:

During this period, various philosophers attempted to create comprehensive systems that would unite and harmonize the diverse philosophical and religious schools of thought in India. For example,

693:. Despite being regarded as a great teacher of ethics, Socrates did not advocate specific moral doctrines. Instead, he aimed to prompt his audience to think for themselves and recognize their own 1025:(1033–1109 CE) is often regarded as the father of scholasticism. He viewed reason and faith as complementary, each depending on the other for a fuller understanding. Anselm is best known for his 2395:

were composed. These religious texts form the foundation of much of Indian philosophy, covering a wide range of topics, including hymns and rituals. Of particular philosophical interest are the

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The second half of this period saw the emergence of the Enlightenment movement, which used these philosophical advances to challenge traditional authorities while promoting progress, individual

2572:(c. 700–750 CE). Shankara advocated for a radical form of monism, asserting that Atman and Brahman are identical, and that the apparent multiplicity of the universe is merely an illusion, or 14132: 234:

developed a comprehensive philosophical system that synthesized Islamic faith and Greek philosophy. After the Islamic Golden Age, the influence of philosophical inquiry waned, partly due to

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which is usually translated as "place" and may be understood as an experiential domain that transcends the subject-object distinction. Other influential members of the Kyoto School include

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was influential. It explains how to make sense of paradoxical expressions like "the present King of France," which do not refer to any existing entity. Russell also developed the theory of

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Interest in academic philosophy increased rapidly in the 20th century, as evidenced by the growing number of philosophical publications and the increasing number of philosophers working at

1306:, which he believed are inherent in external objects and exist independently of any observer, and secondary qualities, which are the powers of objects to produce sensations in observers. 726:. The physical and changeable world of the senses, according to Plato, is merely an imperfect copy of these forms. The theory of forms has had a lasting influence on subsequent views of 1635:, i.e., on the pleasure and pain it produces. The goal of actions, according to Bentham, is to maximize happiness or to produce "the greatest good for the greatest number." His student 2800:

The next period in Chinese philosophy began with the establishment of the Qin dynasty in 221 BCE and lasted until the rise of the Song dynasty in 960 CE. This period was influenced by

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that emphasized continuous change and novelty. According to this view, the creation of the world is not a singular event in the past but an ongoing process. Mulla Sadra synthesized

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refers to the philosophical tradition associated with the intellectual and cultural heritage of Arabic- and Persian-speaking regions. This tradition is also commonly referred to as

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and the introduction of English education. These changes had various effects on Indian philosophers. Whereas previously, philosophy was predominantly conducted in the language of

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integrate and reconcile Greek philosophy with Islamic thought. Islamic philosophers emphasized the role of rational inquiry and examined how to harmonize reason and revelation.

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The 19th century was a rich and diverse period in philosophy, during which the term "philosophy" acquired the distinctive meaning it holds today: a discipline distinct from the

13412: 8547: 1055:. A key goal in Aquinas's writings was to demonstrate how faith and reason work in harmony. He argued that reason supports and reinforces Christian tenets, but faith in God's 1616:

as a fundamental driving force in nature. Nietzsche used this concept to critique many religious and philosophical ideas, arguing that they were disguised attempts to wield

772:(384–322 BCE), who began as a student at Plato's Academy, became a systematic philosopher whose teachings were transcribed into treatises on various subjects, including the 3127:. While early African intellectual history primarily focused on folklore, wise sayings, and religious ideas, it also included philosophical concepts, such as the idea of 2266:(1571–1636) is often regarded as the most influential philosopher of the post-classical era. He was a prominent figure in the philosophical and mystical school known as 792:

to explain why change and movement occur in nature. According to his teleological cause, for example, everything in nature has a purpose or goal toward which it moves.

12703: 2225:

always depend on something else to exist. For example, color is an accident that requires a body to manifest. Avicenna distinguished between two forms of existence:

1985:(1859–1938), who emphasized the importance of suspending all antecedent beliefs to achieve a pure and unbiased description of experience as it unfolds. His student, 1714:. Another change during this period was the increased presence of female philosophers. However, despite this progress, women remained underrepresented in the field. 2008:

Another influential aspect of Heidegger's philosophy is his focus on how humans care about the world. He explored how this concern is related to phenomena such as

1190:(1561–1626 CE) is often seen as a transitional figure between the Renaissance and modernity. He sought to revolutionize logic and scientific inquiry with his work 9216:

Catana, Leo (2013-07-05). "Philosophical Problems in the History of Philosophy: What Are They?". In Laerke, Mogens; Smith, Justin E. H.; Schliesser, Eric (eds.).

2979:

is characterized by its engagement with various traditions, including Chinese, Indian, and Western schools of thought. Ancient Japanese philosophy was shaped by

2074:

The second half of 20th-century continental philosophy was marked by a critical attitude toward many traditional philosophical concepts and assumptions, such as

1845:, the world is made up of a multitude of atomic facts. The world and language have the same logical structure, making it possible to represent these facts using 15041: 996:

in one sense, but also exist within material objects in another sense. This idea influenced subsequent medieval debates on the problem of universals, inspiring

1139:

An important aspect of the resurgence of Ancient Greek philosophy during the Renaissance was a revived enthusiasm for the teachings of Plato. This Renaissance

594:(c. 540–480 BCE) viewed the world as being in a state of constant flux, stating that one cannot step into the same river twice. He also emphasized the role of 3131:. Ubuntu is usually translated as "humanity" or "humanness" and emphasizes the deep moral connections between people, advocating for kindness and compassion. 2403:

explore the relationship between Atman and Brahman, with a key idea being that understanding their connection is a crucial step on the spiritual path toward

1973:

from a subjective perspective, using this description as a method to analyze and evaluate philosophical problems across various fields such as epistemology,

978:

for those choices. Augustine also made significant contributions in other areas, including arguments for the existence of God, his theory of time, and his

1759:

in philosophy, which studies and critiques traditional assumptions and power structures that disadvantage women. Prominent feminist philosophers include

408:

argue that philosophy is essentially historical and that it is not possible to understand a philosophical position without understanding how it emerged.

188:. The modern period was characterized by an increased focus on how philosophical and scientific knowledge is created. Its new ideas were used during the 2684:. Various periodizations of this tradition exist. One common periodization divides Chinese philosophy into four main eras: an early period before the 1410:(1724–1804) was one of the central thinkers of the Enlightenment. He emphasized the role of reason in understanding the world and used it to critique 1159:(1469–1527) argued that a key responsibility of rulers is to ensure stability and security. He believed they should govern effectively to benefit the 12380: 2001:(1900–2002), who held that human pre-understanding is dynamic and evolves through the process of interpretation. Gadamer explained this process as a 606:(c. 490–430 BCE) formulated several paradoxes to support this idea, asserting that motion and change are illusions, as illustrated by his paradox of 576:(c. 610–545 BCE) proposed a more abstract explanation, suggesting that the eternal substance responsible for the world's creation lies beyond human 379:

interconnected. For example, some schools of thought build on earlier theories, while others reject them and offer alternative explanations. Purely

14116: 6754: 1969:

Phenomenology was an important early movement in the tradition of continental philosophy. It aimed to provide an unprejudiced description of human

503:

Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE. This period is conventionally considered to have ended in 529 CE when the

13852: 10176: 704:

Plato (left) and Aristotle (right) gesturing to illustrate the differences in their ideas as the two founders of Western philosophy, detail from

1257:. While the emphasis on method was already foreshadowed in Renaissance thought, it only came to full prominence during the early modern period. 1463:

in which individuals cede some of their rights to a central and immensely powerful authority in exchange for protection from external threats.

2298:

Islamic teachings to demonstrate how the core tenets of Islam are compatible with modern principles, particularly in areas such as democracy,

1113:, contending that nominalism is the simpler explanation since it does not require the assumption of the independent existence of universals. 1026: 621:(c. 460–370 BCE), who posited that reality is composed of indivisible particles called atoms. Other notable Presocratic philosophers include 2732:

The first period in Chinese philosophy began in the 6th century BCE and lasted until the rise of the Qin dynasty in 221 BCE. The concept of

1488:. A rough division between two types of philosophical approaches in this period can be drawn. Some philosophers, like those associated with 10694: 9287:

The Conceptualization of Guardianship in Iranian Intellectual History (1800–1989): Reading Ibn ʿArabī's Theory of Wilāya in the Shīʿa World

9020: 8803: 2603:

movement within the Nyaya school, which introduced a more sophisticated framework of logic with a particular focus on linguistic analysis.

1674:. Analytic philosophy was dominant in English-speaking countries and emphasized clarity and precise language. It often employed tools like 11152: 15170: 12225: 11970: 11587: 9515: 2816:(226–249 CE) argued that the Dao is a formless non-being that acts as the source of all things and phenomena. This view was contested by 2482:

Samkhya is the oldest of the darśanas. It is a dualistic philosophy that asserts that reality is composed of two fundamental principles:

461:

Western philosophy refers to the philosophical traditions and ideas associated with the geographical region and cultural heritage of the

14552: 12761: 11555: 11094: 9547: 9483: 954:(354–430 CE) was deeply influenced by Platonism and utilized this perspective to interpret and explain key concepts and problems within 16013: 12852: 3193:

The exact periodization is disputed, with some sources stating it ended as early as 500 BCE, while others argue it lasted until 200 CE.

1896: 1515:(1762–1814) identified this principle as the activity of the subject or transcendental ego, which posits both itself and its opposite. 1646:

emerged in the United States. Pragmatists evaluate philosophical ideas based on their usefulness and effectiveness in guiding action.

1298:, he rejected the notion of innate knowledge and argued that all knowledge is derived from experience. He asserted that the mind is a 1202:

in empirical inquiry, which involves deriving general laws from numerous individual observations. Another key transitional figure was

886:

on matters where certainty is unattainable. Some skeptics went further, claiming that this suspension of judgment should apply to all

16291: 13404: 12728: 12538: 11644: 8539: 7026:, Indian philosophy: a brief historical overview, The classical period of Indian philosophy, The medieval period of Indian philosophy 1303: 958:. He embraced the Neoplatonist idea that God, or the ultimate source, is both good and incomprehensible. This led him to address the 14865: 13013: 3015:, for its reliance on the distinction between subject and object. He sought to overcome this dichotomy by developing the concept of 2627:(1887–1952). Philosophers during this period were influenced both by their own traditions and by new ideas from Western philosophy. 1147:

and often aimed to demonstrate how Plato's philosophy was compatible with and could be applied to Christian doctrines. For example,

9604: 2611:

The modern period in Indian philosophy began around 1800 CE, during a time of social and cultural changes, particularly due to the

11723: 10201: 2454:. This principle prohibits harming or killing any living being, whether in action or thought. Another central tenet of Jainism is 2363:. The heterodox schools are defined negatively, as those that do not adhere to the orthodox views. The main heterodox schools are 15099: 10226: 9326: 9317:

Chambre, Henri; Maurer, Armand; Stroll, Avrum; McLellan, David T.; Levi, Albert William; Wolin, Richard; Fritz, Kurt von (2023).

8977: 8392: 1857:, each with its own rules and conventions. According to this view, meaning is determined by usage and not by referring to facts. 1582:(1818–1883) was another philosopher inspired by Hegel's ideas. He applied them to the historical development of society based on 1294: 832:. These movements primarily focused on fields like ethics, physics, logic, and epistemology. This period began with the death of 14318: 12494: 9417: 7981:, lead section, 3. Five Fountainheads of Japanese Philosophy, 4. Historical Periods of Philosophical Development and Interaction 1230:

Early modern philosophy encompasses the 17th and 18th centuries. The philosophers of this period are traditionally divided into

16928: 3066:, which was inspired by Marxism and focused on themes such as political liberation, intellectual independence, and education. 1572:(1846–1924) argued that reality is an all-inclusive totality of being, identified with absolute spirit. He is also famous for 15126: 15068: 15035: 15002: 14944: 14911: 14834: 14801: 14768: 14736: 14715: 14682: 14650: 14629: 14598: 14577: 14546: 14513: 14480: 14409: 14378: 14345: 14299: 14224: 14191: 14158: 14126: 14068: 14035: 14002: 13975: 13944: 13911: 13878: 13788: 13755: 13722: 13689: 13656: 13623: 13602: 13567: 13546: 13525: 13504: 13471: 13439: 13381: 13360: 13304: 13271: 13238: 13205: 13172: 13139: 13106: 13073: 13040: 12969: 12950: 12915: 12879: 12846: 12813: 12755: 12697: 12664: 12631: 12598: 12565: 12519: 12475: 12439: 12406: 12351: 12318: 12285: 12252: 12195: 12141: 12109: 12059: 12029: 11996: 11964: 11931: 11898: 11871: 11852: 11833: 11814: 11783: 11750: 11614: 11581: 11549: 11516: 11483: 11451: 11418: 11366: 11333: 11306: 11276: 11234: 11213: 11179: 11121: 11088: 11067: 11008: 10975: 10929: 10891: 10858: 10753: 10721: 10634: 10601: 10568: 10535: 10514: 10484: 10451: 10418: 10386: 10350: 10317: 10284: 10252: 10145: 10112: 10079: 10046: 9989: 9968: 9937: 9895: 9863: 9788: 9730: 9697: 9664: 9631: 9573: 9541: 9509: 9477: 9444: 9386: 9353: 9295: 9262: 9235: 9206: 9176: 9143: 9111: 9078: 9046: 9014: 8946: 8925: 8870: 8838: 8748: 8715: 8694: 8661: 8628: 8595: 8574: 8484: 8451: 8418: 8386: 8354: 8322: 8290: 8257: 8199: 2439:

seeking liberation but rejected many of the rituals and the social hierarchy described in the Vedas. Buddhism was founded by

1422:

explored how the mind, through its pre-established categories, shapes human experience of reality. In ethics, he developed a

1105:(1285–1347 CE) is one of the last scholastic philosophers. He is known for formulating the methodological principle known as 843:

The Epicureans built upon and refined Democritus's idea that nature is composed of indivisible atoms. In ethics, they viewed

17: 15132: 15074: 15008: 14950: 14917: 14840: 14807: 14774: 14742: 14688: 14656: 14604: 14519: 14486: 14384: 14351: 14230: 14197: 14164: 14074: 14041: 14008: 13950: 13917: 13884: 13794: 13761: 13728: 13695: 13662: 13629: 13573: 13477: 13445: 13387: 13310: 13277: 13244: 13211: 13178: 13145: 13112: 13079: 13046: 12921: 12885: 12819: 12670: 12637: 12604: 12571: 12445: 12412: 12357: 12324: 12291: 12258: 12201: 12168: 12147: 12115: 12035: 12002: 11937: 11904: 11789: 11756: 11620: 11522: 11489: 11457: 11424: 11372: 11339: 11282: 11240: 11185: 11127: 11014: 10981: 10948: 10897: 10864: 10640: 10607: 10574: 10541: 10490: 10457: 10424: 10392: 10356: 10323: 10290: 10258: 10151: 10118: 10085: 10052: 9995: 9943: 9901: 9869: 9736: 9703: 9670: 9637: 9579: 9450: 9392: 9359: 9301: 9268: 9182: 9149: 9117: 9084: 9052: 8952: 8876: 8844: 8787: 8754: 8721: 8667: 8634: 8601: 8523: 8490: 8457: 8424: 8360: 8328: 8296: 8263: 8205: 2619:, many philosophers of this period began to write in English. An example of this shift is the influential multi-volume work 2540:

Buddhist philosophy also flourished during this period, leading to the development of four main schools of Indian Buddhism:

1496:, sought to provide comprehensive and all-encompassing systems. In contrast, other thinkers, such as Bentham, Mill, and the 1390:

posits that everything has a reason or explanation. Leibniz used this principle to develop his metaphysical system known as

14975: 10831: 10019: 8900: 2937:(1893–1988), who was influenced by Confucianism, Buddhism, and Western philosophy. Liang is often regarded as a founder of 2820:(267–300 CE), who claimed that non-being could not give rise to being; instead, he argued that being gives rise to itself. 1019:

tradition, which preserved, translated, and interpreted many of Aristotle's works that had been lost in the Western world.

12907:

Revelation, Intellectual Intuition and Reason in the Philosophy of Mulla Sadra: An Analysis of the al-hikmah al-'arshiyyah

11039: 9761: 8230: 2139:

The classical period of Arabic–Persian philosophy began in the early 9th century CE, roughly 200 years after the death of

1338: 948:. The early medieval period was heavily influenced by Plato's philosophy, while Aristotelian ideas became dominant later. 2933:

Traditional Chinese thought also remained influential during the modern period. This is exemplified in the philosophy of

2241: 2005:, which involves an interplay between the interpreter's current horizon and the horizon of the object being interpreted. 235: 14428: 2751: 331:. The modern period in Chinese philosophy was characterized by its encounter with Western philosophy, specifically with 230:. One of its key topics was the relation between reason and revelation as two compatible ways of arriving at the truth. 15497: 1732:

Some schools of thought in 20th-century philosophy do not clearly fall into either analytic or continental traditions.

1516: 1004:, addressing the Christian doctrine of how God can exist as three persons—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—simultaneously. 16554: 16579: 15025: 14890: 13846: 11704: 11677: 8781: 8517: 8106: 2861: 2092:(1926–1984) examined the relationship between knowledge and power, arguing that knowledge is always shaped by power. 1090:(1266–1308 CE) engaged critically with many of Aquinas's ideas. In metaphysics, Scotus rejected Aquinas's claim of a 319:

focused on the relation between humans and nature. Later developments include the introduction and transformation of

2525:

Nyaya and Vaisheshika are two other significant orthodox schools. In epistemology, Nyaya posits that there are four

1863:

developed in parallel to these ideas and was strongly influenced by empiricism. It is primarily associated with the

1312:(1685–1753) was strongly influenced by Locke but proposed a more radical form of empiricism. He developed a form of 754:, each responsible for different mental phenomena and interacting in various ways. Plato also made contributions to 17111: 2680:

Chinese philosophy encompasses the philosophical thought associated with the intellectual and cultural heritage of

2462:, which involves detaching oneself from worldly possessions and desires to avoid emotional entanglement with them. 1914:(1911–1960) was an influential early contribution to this field. Other prominent figures in this tradition include 788:

as a framework for classifying and analyzing different aspects of existence. He also introduced the concept of the

14275: 12786: 1182:. One such development was the emphasis on empirical observation in scientific inquiry. Another was the idea that 17141: 15163: 11268:

The History of Human Resource Development: Understanding the Unexplored Philosophies, Theories, and Methodologies

3202:

These dates are traditionally cited, but some recent scholars suggest that his life spanned from 1077 to 1157 CE.

2774: 1110: 16749: 3092: 2792:, arguing that political actions should be evaluated based on how they contribute to the welfare of the people. 1892: 1503:

Among the most influential philosophical schools of this period was German idealism, a tradition inaugurated by

1459:. According to Hobbes, the purpose of civil society is to avoid this state of chaos. This is achieved through a 17254: 17167: 16327: 13819: 11397: 11358:

The Relevance of Hegel's Concept of Philosophy: From Classical German Philosophy to Contemporary Metaphilosophy

10759: 10742:

Gracia, Jorge J. E.; Millán-Zaibert, Elizabeth (2006). "Latin American Philosophy". In Borchert, Donald (ed.).

10727: 3036: 1842: 1387: 1347: 1323: 256:

is characterized by its combined interest in the nature of reality, the ways of arriving at knowledge, and the

14099: 12988: 2788:, which advocates for universal love or impartial caring. Based on this concept, he promoted an early form of 1402:

The latter half of the modern period saw the emergence of the cultural and intellectual movement known as the

847:

as the highest good but rejected the notion that luxury and indulgence in sensory pleasures lead to long-term

718:

asserts that the true nature of reality is found in abstract and eternal forms or ideas, such as the forms of

130:

thought. It focuses on philosophy as rational inquiry based on argumentation, but some theorists also include

17259: 15741: 15326: 2717: 2391:

The ancient period of Indian philosophy began around 900 BCE and lasted until 200 BCE. During this time, the

1542: 1530: 1418:. Kant sought to synthesize both empiricism and rationalism within a comprehensive philosophical system. His 3115:. However, the term is often understood more narrowly to refer primarily to the philosophical traditions of 2450:(599–527 BCE). Jainism emphasizes respect for all forms of life, a principle expressed in its commitment to 489:. Spanning over 2,500 years, Western philosophy began in the 6th century BCE and continues to evolve today. 17146: 17051: 16699: 15416: 14453: 13335: 9807: 2044: 1997:

to uncover and avoid possible misunderstandings. This line of thought was further developed by his student

1919: 1903: 1850: 1617: 1608:, concluding that the expressions of the will ultimately lead to suffering. He had a profound influence on 14505:

Logic, Theology and Poetry in Boethius, Anselm, Abelard, and Alan of Lille: Words in the Absence of Things

13296:

Africa, Asia, and the History of Philosophy: Racism in the Formation of the Philosophical Canon, 1780–1830

12374: 2327:

Indian philosophy is traditionally divided into orthodox and heterodox schools of thought, referred to as

1245:

as the foundation of knowledge. In contrast, rationalism emphasizes reason—particularly the principles of

784:, which was discussed by many subsequent philosophers. In metaphysics, Aristotle presented a set of basic 16950: 16664: 15293: 6582:, lead section, 3. Al-Ghazâlî’s “Refutations” of falsafa and Ismâ’îlism, 4. The Place of Falsafa in Islam 4477: 3079: 1377:(1632–1677) placed even greater emphasis on deductive reasoning. He developed and employed the so-called 598:, which he saw as an underlying order governing both the inner self and the external world. In contrast, 13263:

Cultural Politics in Modern India: Postcolonial prospects, colourful cosmopolitanism, global proximities

13197:

Guide to Discrete Mathematics: An Accessible Introduction to the History, Theory, Logic and Applications

8144:, lead section, 1. Introduction, 5. The Movements in African Philosophy, 6. Epochs in African Philosophy 1568:

British idealism developed later in the 19th century and was strongly influenced by Hegel. For example,

1519:(1775–1854) rejected this focus on the ego, instead proposing a more abstract principle, referred to as 16817: 16486: 15792: 15568: 15156: 1854: 1684: 1456: 558:(c. 624–545 BCE), often regarded as the first philosopher, sought to describe the cosmos in terms of a 209: 192:

to challenge traditional authorities. Influential developments in the 19th and 20th centuries included

15202: 13836: 11113:

Routledge Revivals: The Dilemma of Qualitative Method (1989): Herbert Blumer and the Chicago Tradition

10407:

Fletcher, Robert; Romero, Paola; Talbot, Marianne; Warburton, Nigel; Whiston, Amna (5 November 2020).

6183: 2100:(1925–1995) drew on psychoanalytic theory to critique and reimagine traditional concepts like desire, 1549:" because such knowledge—achieved through art, religion, and philosophy—is entirely self-conditioned. 17264: 17023: 15235: 15225: 2013: 1383: 1343: 1241:

Empiricism and rationalism differ concerning the type of method they advocate. Empiricism focuses on

607: 569: 369: 340: 261: 246:

emerged in the 19th and 20th centuries as an attempt to reconcile traditional Islamic doctrines with

13595:

Philosophy of Law as an Integral Part of Philosophy: Essays on the Jurisprudence of Gerald J Postema

12623:

Kant's 'Critique of Aesthetic Judgment' in the 20th Century: A Companion to Its Main Interpretations

1906:, which analyzed everyday language to understand philosophical concepts and problems. The theory of 1891:

provide the most reliable framework for understanding the world. He used this outlook to argue that

1788:(1873–1958) was one of the founding figures of analytic philosophy. He emphasized the importance of 1500:, focused on more specific questions related to particular fields, such as ethics and epistemology. 1163:

as a whole, even if harsh circumstances require the use of force and ruthless actions. In contrast,

532:

A key innovation of Presocratic philosophy was its attempt to provide rational explanations for the

17126: 16689: 15939: 15779: 15776: 15502: 15336: 15321: 10710:

Gracia, Jorge J. E. (2006). "History And Historiography Of Philosophy". In Borchert, Donald (ed.).

3215: 3101: 3063: 2511: 2226: 2079: 1880: 1793: 1091: 498: 181: 12939:"History of Philosophy of Science as Philosophy of Science by Other Means? Commen on Thomas Uebel" 9780:

Virtue, Success, Pleasure, and Liberation: The Four Aims of Life in the Tradition of Ancient India

9227: 6323: 1366:, to build a comprehensive philosophical system upon this foundation. His philosophy is rooted in 16704: 16645: 16598: 16456: 16419: 15787: 15702: 15692: 15616: 15482: 15454: 14936:

An Unconventional History of Western Philosophy: Conversations Between Men and Women Philosophers

2584: 2328: 1884: 1876: 1655: 1605: 1604:, which he saw as an irrational and blind force. Influenced by Indian philosophy, he developed a 1587: 1569: 1561: 1451: 1419: 269: 10686: 10342:

A Critical Introduction to the Philosophy of Language: Central Themes from Locke to Wittgenstein

8994: 8830:

Understanding African Philosophy: A Cross-cultural Approach to Classical and Contemporary Issues

6648: 974:, asserting that God granted humans the ability to choose between good and evil, along with the 16837: 16769: 15849: 15687: 15265: 15240: 15230: 14760:

The Science of the Rishis: The Spiritual and Material Discoveries of the Ancient Sages of India

11144: 9919:

Freedom and Religion in Kant and his Immediate Successors: The Vocation of Humankind, 1784–1800

6901: 3123:. The philosophical tradition in Africa draws from both ancient Egypt and scholarly texts from 2279: 2230: 2218: 1953: 1872: 1671: 1647: 1512: 1427: 1302:

at birth, relying entirely on sensory experience to acquire ideas. Locke distinguished between

1122: 914: 829: 602:(c. 515–450 BCE) argued that true reality is unchanging, eternal, and indivisible. His student 526: 520: 152:. Subsequent philosophical developments covered a wide range of topics including the nature of 13590: 13515: 13494: 12687: 12656:

History of Management Thought: Genesis and Development from Ancient Origins to the Present Day

12217: 11954: 11571: 10443:

The Early Medieval World: From the Fall of Rome to the Time of Charlemagne [2 Volumes]

9499: 8229:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. lead section, 3. Metaphysics, 4. Psychology. 8115: 7827: 7794: 7628: 7619: 7503: 7454: 7424: 7415: 7367: 7323: 7296: 7278: 7191: 7155: 7042: 7006: 6997: 6934: 6775: 6745: 6715: 6565: 6413: 6234: 6225: 6120: 6111: 6102: 6036: 6027: 6000: 5820: 5721: 5635: 5542: 5533: 5497: 5488: 5461: 5392: 5297: 5178: 5130: 5103: 5028: 4974: 4875: 4866: 4857: 4818: 4785: 4543: 4451: 4290: 4281: 4188: 4098: 3840: 3801: 3723: 3696: 3669: 3507: 3489: 3474: 3409: 3388: 3328: 3301: 3244: 2510:

initially formed a part of Samkhya and later became an independent school. It is based on the

1326:

between events and develops a habit of expecting certain outcomes based on prior experiences.

1156: 762:. Additionally, Plato founded the Academy, which is often considered the first institution of 17074: 17013: 16993: 16827: 16739: 16719: 16709: 16342: 16191: 15824: 15756: 15631: 15459: 15439: 15245: 14707:

Enduring Controversies in Military History: Critical Analyses and Context [2 volumes]

14536: 12938: 12745: 11539: 11226:

The Popular Encyclopedia of Apologetics: Surveying the Evidence for the Truth of Christianity

11078: 9531: 9467: 8653:

Vegetative Powers: The Roots of Life in Ancient, Medieval and Early Modern Natural Philosophy

8169: 8160: 8151: 8073: 8031: 7973: 7883: 7729: 7696: 7687: 7654: 7610: 7445: 7382: 7182: 7101: 7092: 7033: 6970: 6943: 6790: 6706: 6601: 6574: 6538: 6529: 6473: 6386: 6362: 6216: 6093: 6072: 5928: 5859: 5763: 5662: 5599: 5572: 5551: 5506: 5410: 5401: 5366: 5357: 5324: 5288: 5279: 5264: 5151: 5001: 4947: 4932: 4905: 4884: 4836: 4758: 4639: 4510: 4397: 4388: 4331: 4299: 4272: 4239: 4230: 4197: 4089: 4014: 3861: 3762: 3594: 3564: 3555: 3418: 3352: 2870: 2817: 2624: 2222: 2105: 1867:

and focused on logical analysis and empirical verification. One of its prominent members was

1830: 1711: 1704: 1546: 1520: 1464: 1439: 1207: 1179: 816:

After Aristotle, ancient philosophy saw the rise of broader philosophical movements, such as

781: 622: 374:

The history of philosophy is the field of inquiry that studies the historical development of

12836: 8136: 7922: 7767: 6874: 6811: 6736: 6639: 6377: 6296: 5712: 5626: 4827: 4677: 4630: 4424: 4119: 3939: 3918: 3909: 3660: 3633: 3573: 3337: 3280: 3259: 2724:

focus on practical wisdom, with philosophers often serving as sages or thoughtful advisors.

1430:, which defines universal moral duties. Other important Enlightenment philosophers included 1051:, ethics, and political theory. Many of his insights were compiled in his seminal work, the 272:, which are closely associated with the teachings of the Vedas, and heterodox schools, like 17091: 17046: 17008: 16955: 16884: 16640: 16436: 16347: 16170: 16140: 15881: 15409: 15255: 15250: 3212: 3083: 2915: 1990: 1911: 1573: 1455:. Hobbes had a pessimistic view of the natural state of humans, arguing that it involves a 1129: 1022: 1000:

to argue that universals exist only in the mind. Boethius also explored the problem of the

975: 932:

such as Plato's Academy. As a result, intellectual activity became concentrated within the

773: 759: 706: 397: 189: 185: 13903:

Before and After Avicenna: Proceedings of the First Conference of the Avicenna Study Group

12720: 12530: 11636: 2592:, or devotion to the divine, as a spiritual path and was instrumental in popularizing the 8: 17232: 17187: 17177: 17136: 17084: 17069: 16998: 16978: 16960: 16792: 16759: 16620: 16607: 16414: 16211: 16122: 16077: 15983: 15869: 15682: 15530: 14857: 13005: 6927:, Indian philosophy: a brief historical overview, The ancient period of Indian philosophy 6894:, Indian philosophy: a brief historical overview, The ancient period of Indian philosophy 2976: 2971: 2321: 1929: 1838: 1785: 1780: 1679: 1667: 1609: 1597: 1497: 1363: 1199: 1081: 926: 833: 793: 785: 336: 226:

was strongly influenced by Ancient Greek philosophers. It had its peak period during the

15944: 9596: 9217: 8804:"Review of Nineteenth Century Philosophy: Revolutionary Responses to the Existing Order" 8249:

Byzantine and Renaissance Philosophy: A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps, Volume 6

7343:, Indian philosophy: a brief historical overview, The modern period of Indian philosophy 2490:, or matter. Samkhya teaches that Prakriti is characterized by three qualities known as 2356: 2332: 808:, laying the foundation for formal logic that would influence philosophy for centuries. 507:

and other philosophical schools in Athens were closed by order of the Byzantine Emperor

17182: 17151: 17131: 17079: 17061: 17036: 17031: 16983: 16970: 16937: 16832: 16734: 16669: 16625: 16569: 16409: 16238: 16132: 16040: 15844: 15723: 15714: 15677: 15672: 15578: 15573: 15550: 15469: 15283: 15210: 14267: 12461: 12086: 11715: 10803: 10791: 10673: 10193: 9840: 3120: 3108: 3075: 2996: 2967: 2675: 2663: 2519: 2503: 2440: 2271: 2144: 2117: 2002: 1998: 1978: 1933: 1860: 1760: 1721: 1481: 1285: 1242: 1211: 1144: 955: 951: 678: 545: 456: 444: 436: 432: 405: 344: 300: 227: 223: 141: 15091: 13098:

Does God Make a Difference?: Taking Religion Seriously in Our Schools and Universities

12719:

McAfee, Noëlle; Garry, Ann; Superson, Anita; Grasswick, Heidi; Khader, Serene (2023).

10218: 10168: 9318: 8969: 1744:(1926–2016). It was applied to new fields of inquiry, such as epistemology, politics, 17220: 17121: 17116: 17101: 17041: 17003: 16988: 16945: 16516: 16476: 16394: 16322: 16305: 16283: 15911: 15886: 15697: 15517: 15260: 15122: 15064: 15031: 14998: 14940: 14907: 14886: 14830: 14797: 14764: 14732: 14711: 14678: 14646: 14625: 14594: 14573: 14542: 14509: 14476: 14405: 14374: 14341: 14310: 14295: 14259: 14220: 14187: 14154: 14122: 14064: 14031: 13998: 13940: 13907: 13874: 13842: 13784: 13751: 13718: 13685: 13652: 13619: 13598: 13563: 13542: 13521: 13500: 13467: 13435: 13377: 13356: 13300: 13267: 13234: 13201: 13168: 13135: 13102: 13069: 13065:

Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present: Philosophy in the Land of Prophecy

13036: 12965: 12946: 12911: 12875: 12842: 12809: 12751: 12693: 12660: 12627: 12594: 12561: 12515: 12486: 12471: 12435: 12402: 12347: 12314: 12281: 12248: 12191: 12137: 12105: 12055: 12025: 11992: 11960: 11927: 11894: 11848: 11829: 11810: 11779: 11746: 11700: 11673: 11610: 11577: 11545: 11512: 11479: 11447: 11414: 11393: 11362: 11329: 11272: 11230: 11209: 11175: 11117: 11084: 11063: 11004: 11000:

An Introduction to Indian Philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom

10971: 10925: 10921: 10887: 10854: 10795: 10749: 10717: 10630: 10597: 10564: 10531: 10510: 10480: 10447: 10414: 10382: 10346: 10313: 10280: 10248: 10141: 10108: 10075: 10042: 9985: 9964: 9933: 9891: 9859: 9844: 9784: 9726: 9693: 9660: 9627: 9569: 9537: 9505: 9473: 9440: 9409: 9382: 9349: 9291: 9258: 9231: 9202: 9172: 9139: 9107: 9074: 9042: 9010: 8942: 8921: 8866: 8834: 8777: 8744: 8711: 8690: 8657: 8624: 8591: 8570: 8513: 8480: 8447: 8414: 8382: 8350: 8318: 8286: 8253: 8195: 3128: 3124: 3112: 3087: 3051: 2992: 2639: 2541: 2507: 2455: 2315: 2294: 2048: 2039: 1601: 1534: 1403: 1367: 1250: 1246: 1106: 1102: 440: 253: 243: 9254:

Daoist Encounters with Phenomenology: Thinking Interculturally about Human Existence

6063: 1355: 1174:

The Renaissance also witnessed various developments in the philosophy of nature and

17172: 17106: 17096: 16797: 16744: 16694: 16674: 16635: 16630: 16471: 16399: 16117: 16028: 15919: 15891: 15876: 15839: 15545: 15525: 15492: 15397: 15359: 14370:

Effortless Action: Wu-wei As Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China

13559:

The International Encyclopedia of Communication Theory and Philosophy, 4 Volume Set

13496:

Classical Indian Metaphysics: Refutations of Realism and the Emergence of New Logic

12078: 11890:

Theorizing Confucian Virtue Politics: The Political Philosophy of Mencius and Xunzi

11692: 11691:. Routledge. lead section, 2. Nishida’s logic of basho and logic of the predicate. 11665: 11410:

Medieval Philosophy and the Classical Tradition: In Islam, Judaism and Christianity

11055: 10917: 10787: 10665: 9832: 9689:

The Foundations of Social Research: Meaning and Perspective in the Research Process

9223: 9002: 3040: 2938: 2865: 2834: 2825: 2805: 2789: 2745: 2417: 2035: 2017: 1986: 1962: 1936:(1917–1981) were influential ethical philosophers in the analytic tradition, while 1888: 1826: 1636: 1493: 1370:, positing that the mind and body are distinct, independent entities that coexist. 1359: 1254: 1215: 1077: 1052: 941: 933: 763: 723: 504: 328: 304: 13967: 11863: 11298: 8381:. A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps. Vol. 3. Oxford University Press. 8349:. A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. 8317:. A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps. Vol. 4. Oxford University Press. 5655:, Philosophy in the Twentieth Century, Analytic Philosophy, Continental Philosophy 2914:

the responsibility for both the rise of the capitalist economy and the subsequent

2183:

Al-Kindi drew on Aristotle and Neoplatonism in formulating his Islamic philosophy.

2082:, universal explanations, reason, and progress. This outlook is sometimes labeled 16878: 16847: 16812: 16777: 16655: 16506: 16404: 16362: 16273: 16261: 16246: 16221: 16196: 15966: 15834: 15829: 15746: 15731: 15404: 15288: 15116: 15058: 14992: 14934: 14901: 14824: 14791: 14758: 14726: 14705: 14672: 14640: 14588: 14503: 14470: 14368: 14335: 14214: 14181: 14148: 14058: 14025: 13992: 13934: 13901: 13868: 13778: 13745: 13712: 13679: 13646: 13613: 13557: 13536: 13461: 13429: 13371: 13294: 13261: 13228: 13195: 13162: 13129: 13096: 13063: 13030: 12905: 12869: 12803: 12654: 12621: 12588: 12555: 12465: 12429: 12396: 12341: 12308: 12275: 12242: 12185: 12164: 12131: 12099: 12019: 11986: 11921: 11888: 11773: 11740: 11696: 11669: 11604: 11506: 11473: 11441: 11408: 11356: 11323: 11266: 11224: 11171:

The Beginning of Western Philosophy: Interpretation of Anaximander and Parmenides

11169: 11111: 10998: 10965: 10940: 10881: 10848: 10624: 10591: 10558: 10525: 10474: 10441: 10408: 10376: 10340: 10307: 10274: 10242: 10135: 10102: 10069: 10036: 9979: 9961:

A Chaos of Delight: Science, Religion and Myth and the Shaping of Western Thought

9927: 9885: 9853: 9778: 9720: 9687: 9654: 9621: 9563: 9434: 9376: 9343: 9285: 9252: 9166: 9133: 9101: 9068: 9036: 8936: 8860: 8828: 8771: 8738: 8705: 8684: 8651: 8618: 8585: 8564: 8507: 8474: 8441: 8408: 8376: 8344: 8312: 8280: 8247: 8189: 5991: 5736: 3156: 3140: 3024: 2927: 2903: 2697: 2659: 2655: 2593: 2573: 2565: 2267: 2093: 2089: 2068: 2031: 1923: 1834: 1764: 1749: 1700: 1526: 1508: 1489: 1460: 1309: 1203: 1148: 979: 959: 715: 674: 559: 537: 281: 193: 16018: 14967: 14883:

A history of women philosophers. 4: Contemporary women philosophers 1900 - today

14337:

Philosophy of Mind in Antiquity: The History of the Philosophy of Mind, Volume 1

10823: 10011: 9533:

Fateful Shapes of Human Freedom: John William Miller and the Crises of Modernity

9436:

Writing the History of the Mind: Philosophy and Science in France, 1900 to 1960s

9006: 8995:"The Philosophers Strike Back: Averroes and Islamic Philosophy After al-Ghazali" 8892: 6651:, The Philosophers Strike Back: Averroes and Islamic Philosophy After al-Ghazali 2471:

first half of this era, the orthodox schools of Indian philosophy, known as the

16787: 16782: 16650: 16615: 16547: 16521: 16357: 16206: 16145: 16058: 15901: 15797: 15540: 15220: 11031: 9753: 8938:

Ancient Greek Philosophy: From the Presocratics to the Hellenistic Philosophers

8282:

Classical Indian Philosophy: A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps, Volume 5

8222: 6464: 3148: 3116: 3008: 2097: 2064: 2060: 2052: 1982: 1841:(1889–1951). According to Wittgenstein's early philosophy, as presented in the 1696: 1692: 1628: 1624: 1583: 1557: 1374: 1168: 1160: 1044: 837: 474: 466: 435:. However, in a broader sense, it includes many non-Western traditions such as 424: 412: 213: 149: 106: 66: 16228: 16003: 9836: 2634:

Swami Vivekananda argued that all religions are valid paths toward the divine.

2630: 2600: 2545: 2526: 2425: 2143:. It continued until the late 12th century CE and was an integral part of the 285: 17248: 16842: 16754: 16684: 16426: 16216: 16150: 16107: 15976: 15601: 15387: 15369: 14420: 14263: 14150:

Models of the History of Philosophy: Volume II: From Cartesian Age to Brucker

12021:

Gods in the Global Village: The World's Religions in Sociological Perspective

10799: 3020: 2953: 2934: 2843: 2646: 2553: 2132: 2084: 1941: 1868: 1864: 1814: 1807: 1768: 1741: 1737: 1651: 1613: 1504: 1446: 1407: 1191: 1187: 1167:(1478–1535) envisioned an ideal society characterized by communal ownership, 1072:. He believed that ethics is about pursuing what is good and that humans, as 1030: 1013: 482: 478: 462: 428: 293: 217: 98: 46: 13615:

The Integral Philosophy of Aurobindo: Hermeneutics and the Study of Religion

13517:

The Crisis in Continental Philosophy: History, Truth and the Hegelian Legacy

9823:

Decock, Lieven (2002). "Quine's Weak and Strong Indispensability Argument".

2881: 2451: 1666:

Philosophy in the 20th century is usually divided into two main traditions:

1511:. They sought a single unifying principle as the foundation of all reality. 1362:." Descartes used various rationalist principles, particularly the focus on 796:

emphasizes that leading a good life involves cultivating virtues to achieve

700: 16873: 16863: 16822: 16802: 16574: 16537: 16496: 16382: 16332: 15993: 15971: 15949: 15896: 15864: 15736: 15596: 15507: 15303: 12901: 12340:

Lovat, Terence; Dally, Kerry; Clement, Neville; Toomey, Ron (6 July 2011).

11201: 3160: 3096:

Ancient Egyptian papyrus "The Dispute Between a Man and His Ba" written in

3004: 2847: 2741: 2701: 2693: 2689: 2569: 2299: 2202: 2101: 2025: 1994: 1922:(1919–2006). The shift in emphasis on the role of language is known as the 1915: 1846: 1789: 1688: 1675: 1265: 1219: 1183: 1069: 967: 898: 817: 731: 603: 470: 401: 308: 257: 205: 165: 110: 75: 14180:

Santis, Daniele De; Hopkins, Burt C.; Majolino, Claudio (24 August 2020).

12985:

Association for the Development of Philosophy Teaching - Spring Conference

9378:

Atuolu Omalu: Some Unanswered Questions in Contemporary African Philosophy

5789:, 2. Metaethical Innovations, 3. Impersonal Consequentialism, 4. The Ideal 3144: 1849:. Despite the influence of this theory, Wittgenstein came to reject it in 16868: 16807: 16679: 16659: 16564: 16501: 16461: 16441: 16367: 16337: 15998: 15934: 15626: 15611: 15487: 15477: 15426: 15392: 15331: 14292:

IX. Philosophy of Science, Logic and Mathematics in the Twentieth Century

12838:

Islamic Modernism, Nationalism, and Fundamentalism: Episode and Discourse

12467:

Encyclopedia of Contemporary Literary Theory: Approaches, Scholars, Terms

12069:

Lamprecht, Sterling P. (17 August 1939). "Historiography of Philosophy".

2911: 2770: 2685: 2612: 2344: 2303: 2287: 2263: 1907: 1600:(1788–1860) proposed that the underlying principle of all reality is the 1553: 1485: 1435: 1299: 1235: 1164: 1087: 1073: 1040:

Thomas Aquinas developed a comprehensive system of scholastic philosophy.

963: 789: 727: 573: 541: 508: 239: 177: 145: 13405:"Scholasticism and Aristotelianism: Fourteenth to Seventeenth Centuries" 10807: 10775: 6699:, lead section, 3. Metaphysics, 4. Noetics — Epistemology and Psychology 3379: 2599:

Another significant development in this period was the emergence of the

2320:

Indian philosophy is the philosophical tradition that originated on the

962:—specifically, how evil could exist in a world created by a benevolent, 909:, which generates the material world. Influential Neoplatonists include 16714: 16542: 16491: 16481: 16352: 16256: 16201: 16008: 15988: 15854: 15621: 15535: 15364: 15311: 15275: 15179: 14994:

Schelling's Theory of Symbolic Language: Forming the System of Identity

14642:

Understanding Prajñā: Sengzhao's "Wild Words" and the Search for Wisdom

14538:

Ramanuja and Schleiermacher: Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology

14271: 14247: 14183:

The Routledge Handbook of Phenomenology and Phenomenological Philosophy

12778: 12343:

Values Pedagogy and Student Achievement: Contemporary Research Evidence

12090: 10677: 9855:

The Mozi as an Evolving Text: Different Voices in Early Chinese Thought

8566:

The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam

7287: 3012: 2907: 2899: 2549: 2459: 2408: 2396: 2236: 1970: 1937: 1818: 1733: 1643: 1523:

or the world-soul, as the foundation of both consciousness and nature.

1423: 1391: 1319: 1289: 1231: 1056: 997: 875: 825: 805: 797: 735: 650: 638: 634: 630: 626: 618: 599: 591: 577: 375: 289: 201: 197: 127: 14216:

A Comparative History of World Philosophy: From the Upanishads to Kant

3046:

it can be found in the region's indigenous civilizations, such as the

2533: 2290:, arguing that all entities possess consciousness to varying degrees. 1965:

made contributions to phenomenology, hermeneutics, and existentialism.

1717: 1292:(1632–1704) is often considered the father of empiricism. In his book 16729: 16724: 16584: 16511: 16446: 16317: 16251: 16063: 16053: 16048: 16023: 15819: 15379: 15341: 14974:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2.2.1 The Question. 11847:. A new history of Western philosophy (1 ed.). Clarendon Press. 11828:. A new history of Western philosophy (1 ed.). Clarendon Press. 11809:. A new history of Western philosophy (1 ed.). Clarendon Press. 10372: 7915:, lead section, 5. The Traditional Trend in Modern Chinese Philosophy 7891:, lead section, 5. The Traditional Trend in Modern Chinese Philosophy 2923: 2895: 2891: 2737: 2557: 2404: 2198: 2021: 1958: 1797: 1745: 1594:

rather than spirit is the basic force behind historical development.

1591: 1579: 1469: 1415: 1411: 1140: 1096: 1065: 971: 891: 848: 769: 694: 642: 486: 417: 389: 384: 247: 114: 84: 15954: 13747:

The Limits of Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of the Vedas

12082: 12052:

Encyclopedia of medieval philosophy: philosophy between 500 and 1500

10743: 10711: 10669: 10244:

The Geography of Nowhere: Finding One's Self in the Postmodern World

8022: 2476: 2475:, developed. Their foundational scriptures usually take the form of 1944:(1938–2002) made significant contributions to political philosophy. 1036: 16559: 16466: 16431: 16389: 16377: 16165: 15959: 15859: 15802: 15606: 15560: 15444: 12980: 12373:

MacDonald, Scott; Kretzmann, Norman (1996). "Medieval philosophy".

10656:

Gordon, Jeffrey (September 1984). "Nagel or Camus on the Absurd?".

9199:

Philosophy of Meaning, Knowledge and Value in the Twentieth Century

3870: 3097: 2709: 2616: 2580: 2487: 2472: 2447: 2421: 2364: 2248: 2214: 2187: 2179: 2148: 2140: 2056: 1974: 1822: 1756: 1725: 1431: 1354:

Another dominant school of thought in this period was rationalism.

1313: 1048: 985: 910: 905:, which contemplates the One, and this, in turn, gives rise to the 871: 864: 856: 852: 844: 821: 666: 646: 380: 320: 273: 231: 173: 169: 135: 102: 94: 55: 37: 13835:

Raymond, Geuss (1996). "Critical theory". In Craig, Edward (ed.).

10137:

Global Dictionary of Theology: A Resource for the Worldwide Church

8509:

The Cambridge History of Later Greek and Early Medieval Philosophy

4811:, The Rise of Modern Thought; The Eighteenth-century Enlightenment 3111:

encompasses philosophical ideas that originated across the entire

1186:

explanations should be employed to understand these observations.

354: 16186: 16160: 16155: 16097: 16092: 15924: 15812: 15807: 15766: 15588: 15434: 15316: 3152: 3011:(1870–1945). Nishida criticized Western philosophy, particularly 2984: 2813: 2801: 2784:(c. 470–391 BCE). Central to Mozi's philosophy is the concept of 2483: 2384: 2368: 2360: 2348: 2336: 2169: 2009: 1632: 1397: 1284:

Empiricism in the early modern period was mainly associated with

1261: 1195: 1175: 1061: 1001: 686: 682: 654: 614: 585: 335:. Other influential traditions in the history of philosophy were 332: 324: 280:. Influential schools based on them include the Hindu schools of 277: 153: 14445: 13811: 13431:

Science and Apocalypse in Bertrand Russell: A Cultural Sociology

13327: 11988:

Causation in International Relations: Reclaiming Causal Analysis

9722:

Philosophy, Who Needs It?: A Layman's Introduction to Philosophy

7760:, 2. Philosophy from the Qin (221 B.C.E.) to the Tang (618 C.E.) 2902:

and his vision of a classless society led to the development of

2837:, founded in the 6th century CE, introduced the doctrine of the 1552:

Further influential currents of thought in this period included

16451: 16372: 16102: 15761: 15751: 15449: 15351: 14091: 13556:

Pooley, Jefferson D.; Rothenbuhler, Eric W. (31 October 2016).

10134:

Dyrness, William A.; Kärkkäinen, Veli-Matti (25 October 2009).

3047: 2980: 2919: 2842:

empty at the same time. This period also witnessed the rise of

2809: 2763: 2713: 2705: 2589: 2495: 2413: 2275: 1133: 1099:, which distinguishes it from other entities of the same kind. 993: 887: 883: 755: 751: 747: 743: 719: 690: 555: 533: 316: 312: 161: 13538:

The Wiley Blackwell Companion to East and Inner Asian Buddhism

11573:

Subaltern Saints in India: Women and Sudras in Bhakti Movement

11145:"Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West" 8443:

The Human Record: Sources of Global History, Volume I: To 1500

7960:, lead section, 3. Theory of Universals and the Logic of Place 2424:. Another influential idea from this period is the concept of 1803: 16267: 15929: 15215: 15148: 14900:

Wang, Yueqing; Bao, Qinggang; Guan, Guoxing (16 March 2020).

10406: 9799: 8707:

Baron Friedrich Von Hügel and the Modernist Crisis in England

7128: 5759: 5207: 3569: 3184:

Some historians also include pragmatism as a third tradition.

2983:, the indigenous religion of Japan, which included a form of 2759: 2681: 2515: 2499: 2491: 2431: 2392: 2340: 2283: 2165: 2075: 1276: 945: 879: 801: 777: 670: 595: 564: 265: 12981:"Plato's Philosophy of Education and the Common Core Debate" 12718: 5768: 2987:

that saw natural phenomena and objects as spirits, known as

2201:(c. 872–950), strongly influenced by Al-Kindi, accepted his 1989:(1889–1976), adopted this method into an approach he termed 14027:

Integrating Ecofeminism, Globalization, and World Religions

11772:

Kaylor, Noel Harold; Phillips, Philip Edward (3 May 2012).

10776:"The Structure of Explanation in the History of Philosophy" 9316: 6200: 6137: 6053: 6017: 4775: 4733: 4706: 4682: 4602: 3055: 2988: 2781: 2352: 2286:

that encompasses all individual entities. He also defended

1853:. He argued instead that language consists of a variety of 1631:. He argued that whether an action is right depends on its 989: 882:

lead to emotional disturbances and recommended that people

836:

in 323 BCE and had its main influence until the end of the

739: 549: 157: 131: 15060:

Giving Beyond the Gift: Apophasis and Overcoming Theomania

2885:

Mao Zedong interpreted and implemented Marxist philosophy.

1736:

evolved from its 19th-century roots through scholars like

1586:. However, he rejected the idealistic outlook in favor of 1076:

beings, have a natural inclination to pursue the Good. In

16112: 14147:

Santinello, Giovanni; Piaia, Gregorio (1 December 2010).

10593:

From Geocentric to Heliocentric: How Discoveries Are Made

8773:

The Fate of Reason: German Philosophy from Kant to Fichte

8740:

The Oxford Handbook of The History of Analytic Philosophy

8440:

Andrea, Alfred J.; Overfield, James H. (1 January 2015).

2733: 2034:

emerged in the first half of the 20th century within the

1280:

John Locke is sometimes seen as the father of empiricism.

937: 536:

as a whole. This approach contrasted with the prevailing

525:

The first period of Ancient Greek philosophy is known as

264:. Its roots are in the religious scriptures known as the 12395:

Mackey, David A.; Elvey, Kathryn M. (14 February 2020).

12163:

Legg, Catherine; Hookway, Christopher (16 August 2008).

11355:

Illetterati, Luca; Miolli, Giovanna (16 December 2021).

8968:

Bohman, James; Flynn, Jeffrey; Celikates, Robin (2021).

3100:

text, thought to date to the Middle Kingdom, likely the

1724:

was one of the philosophers responsible for the rise of

970:

God. Augustine's explanation centered on the concept of

13936:

Metaphilosophy: Philosophy in Philosophical Perspective

13353:

IV. The Renaissance and Seventeenth-century Rationalism

12339: 10623:

Glenney, Brian; Silva, José Filipe (21 February 2019).

9981:

Wretched Aristotle: Using the Past to Rescue the Future

7802:, 2a. Syncretic Philosophies in the Qin and Han Periods 5924: 2875: 1620:

rather than expressions of pure spiritual achievement.

12802:

Meynard, Thierry; Major, Philippe (20 February 2023).

8188:

Adamson, Peter; Taylor, Richard C. (9 December 2004).

8010:, lead section, 1. History, 2. The Contemporary Period 2995:

thought evolved particularly within the traditions of

1642:

Toward the end of the 19th century, the philosophy of

1445:

Political philosophy during this period was shaped by

14248:"Ramanuja: Social Influence of His Life and Teaching" 14179: 13593:. In Bustamante, Thomas; Decat, Thiago Lopes (eds.). 13230:

Philosophy and Public Administration: An Introduction

13029:

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Leaman, Oliver (7 March 2013).

12310:

Classical Islamic Philosophy: A Thematic Introduction

11258:

An introduction to Hegel: Freedom, Truth, and History

8650:

Baldassarri, Fabrizio; Blank, Andreas (25 May 2021).

8476:

Experimental Philosophy and the Origins of Empiricism

5260: 2755:

Laozi is traditionally seen as the founder of Daoism.

734:. Plato is also considered a pioneer in the field of 363: 268:. Subsequent Indian philosophy is often divided into 14671:

Tritten, Tyler; Whistler, Daniel (7 December 2018).

13648:

Globalized Knowledge Flows and Chinese Social Theory

13370:

Pasnau, Robert; Dyke, Christina van (19 June 2014).

12277:

Hellenistic Philosophy: Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics

12133:

A History of Psychology: From Antiquity to Modernity

10741: 9038:

Columbia Companion to Twentieth-Century Philosophies

8967: 8473:

Anstey, Peter R.; Vanzo, Alberto (31 January 2023).

8018: 7909:, 5. The Chinese and Western Encounter in Philosophy 7870:, 5. The Chinese and Western Encounter in Philosophy 6167: 2854: 2596:, which continued until the 17th to 18th centuries. 613:

Another significant theory from this period was the

411:

Closely related to the history of philosophy is the

242:

developed a metaphysical system based on mysticism.

14903:

History of Chinese Philosophy Through Its Key Terms

14115:Safi, Omid (2005). "Modernism: Islamic Modernism". 12871:

Thought in Action: Expertise and the Conscious Mind

10967:

The Formation of Post-Classical Philosophy in Islam

6755:

lead section, §Westernization and Islamic Paradigms

2957:

Kitaro Nishida was the founder of the Kyoto School.

2147:. The early classical period, prior to the work of 1198:. Bacon's work discussed, for example, the role of 13867:Rée, Jonathan; Urmson, J. O. (30 September 2004). 13555: 13428:Pérez-Jara, Javier; Camprubí, Lino (August 2022). 13427: 12943:The Present Situation in the Philosophy of Science 12620:Marino, Stefano; Terzi, Pietro (9 November 2020). 12372: 12187:The Theory of Intuition in Husserl's Phenomenology 11660:Kasulis, Thomas P. (2016). "Japanese philosophy". 6897: 5855: 4178: 4136: 2744:, the respect for one's elders, and advocated for 2282:by claiming that there is a transcendent unity of 511:, who sought to suppress non-Christian teachings. 15118:History of Chinese Philosophy in the Ming Dynasty 14864:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 14568:Taylor, Christopher Charles Whiston, ed. (1997). 14427:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 13974:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 13777:Ramgotra, Manjeet; Choat, Simon (30 March 2023). 13012:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 12727:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 12537:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 12493:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 12244:Neo-Confucianism: Metaphysics, Mind, and Morality 11643:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 11602: 11354: 11305:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 11151:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 11038:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 10947:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 10745:Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2nd Edition 10713:Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2nd Edition 10693:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 10133: 10018:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 9760:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 9623:Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction 8976:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 8899:. 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Lexington Books. 13589:Priel, Dan (2020). 12904:(5 November 2013). 12808:. Springer Nature. 12659:. Springer Nature. 12462:Makaryk, Irene Rima 11807:Medieval Philosophy 11446:. The Other Press. 11206:A Theory of History 10886:. Clarendon Press. 10596:. Springer Nature. 9290:. Springer Nature. 8656:. Springer Nature. 8314:Medieval Philosophy 6909:, Indian Philosophy 6861:, Indian Philosophy 6843:, Indian Philosophy 6201:Chambre et al. 2023 6138:Chambre et al. 2023 6054:Chambre et al. 2023 6018:Chambre et al. 2023 5350:, pp. 1–3, 181 4776:Chambre et al. 2023 4734:Chambre et al. 2023 4707:Chambre et al. 2023 4683:Chambre et al. 2023 4603:Chambre et al. 2023 3159:, and critiques of 2977:Japanese philosophy 2972:Japanese philosophy 2906:. In this context, 2383:A passage from the 2322:Indian subcontinent 2231:necessary existence 1930:Richard Mervyn Hare 1839:Ludwig Wittgenstein 1786:George Edward Moore 1781:Analytic philosophy 1680:linguistic analysis 1668:analytic philosophy 1610:Friedrich Nietzsche 1606:pessimistic outlook 1598:Arthur Schopenhauer 1364:deductive reasoning 1324:consistent patterns 1253:—and the belief in 1200:inductive reasoning 1157:Niccolò Machiavelli 1080:, Aquinas's famous 927:Medieval philosophy 878:. They argued that 834:Alexander the Great 786:categories of being 465:. It originated in 337:Japanese philosophy 144:originated with an 16833:Post-structuralism 16735:Scientific realism 16690:Quinean naturalism 16670:Logical positivism 16626:Analytical Marxism 15845:Peripatetic school 15757:Chinese naturalism 15284:Aesthetic response 15211:Applied philosophy 14968:"Martin Heidegger" 14402:World philosophies 14315:www.britannica.com 12779:"Vedanta, Advaita" 12777:Menon, Sangeetha. 12464:(1 January 1993). 11956:A History of India 11720:www.britannica.com 10223:www.britannica.com 10198:www.britannica.com 10173:www.britannica.com 9798:Dasti, Matthew R. 9323:www.britannica.com 8060:, pp. 433–452 7442:Raghuramaraju 2016 7408:, pp. 529–531 7375:, pp. 529–531 6681:, pp. 295–302 6636:López-Farjeat 2021 6609:, pp. 179–193 6558:, pp. 140–146 6439:, pp. 109–110 6209:, Deleuze, Derrida 6064:2.2.1 The Question 5942:, pp. 231–250 5903:, pp. 193–213 5885:, pp. 157–192 5834:, pp. 124–149 5769:McAfee et al. 2023 5317:, pp. 111–116 5272:, pp. 108–111 5234:, pp. 290–297 4793:, pp. 387–394 4715:, pp. 298–304 4656:, pp. 155–157 4593:, pp. 155–157 4536:, pp. 297–298 4205:, pp. 290–296 4082:, pp. 357–388 4076:, pp. 209–215 4046:, pp. 253–286 4001:, pp. 222–252 3971:, pp. 188–221 3833:, pp. 329–354 3809:, pp. 298–316 3443:, pp. 449–451 3121:sub-Saharan Africa 3109:African philosophy 3105: 3076:African philosophy 2999:and Zen Buddhism. 2997:Pure Land Buddhism 2968:Eastern philosophy 2959: 2887: 2802:Xuanxue philosophy 2757: 2746:universal altruism 2698:three main schools 2676:Chinese philosophy 2664:Jiddu Krishnamurti 2636: 2441:Gautama Siddhartha 2389: 2272:process philosophy 2185: 2145:Islamic Golden Age 2131:philosophy in the 2127:Islamic philosophy 2118:Islamic philosophy 2055:, and the role of 2003:fusion of horizons 1999:Hans-Georg Gadamer 1979:philosophy of mind 1967: 1934:John Leslie Mackie 1861:Logical positivism 1812: 1761:Simone de Beauvoir 1730: 1722:Simone de Beauvoir 1541:The philosophy of 1539: 1482:empirical sciences 1379:geometrical method 1352: 1286:British philosophy 1282: 1243:sensory experience 1214:, rather than the 1145:Christian theology 1042: 956:Christian doctrine 952:Augustine of Hippo 711: 679:Socratic dialogues 669:(469–399 BCE) and 665:The philosophy of 457:Western philosophy 445:Chinese philosophy 433:Western philosophy 423:Another important 406:Wilhelm Windelband 345:African philosophy 301:Chinese philosophy 299:Central topics in 228:Islamic Golden Age 142:Western philosophy 17242: 17241: 17204: 17203: 17200: 17199: 17196: 17195: 16902: 16901: 16898: 16897: 16894: 16893: 16621:Analytic feminism 16593: 16592: 16555:Kierkegaardianism 16517:Transcendentalism 16477:Neo-scholasticism 16323:Classical Realism 16300: 16299: 16072: 16071: 15887:Neopythagoreanism 15644: 15643: 15640: 15639: 15261:Social philosophy 15128:978-981-15-8963-8 15070:978-0-8232-5572-6 15037:978-0-470-99737-6 15004:978-0-19-967373-5 14946:978-0-7425-6460-2 14913:978-981-15-2572-8 14836:978-1-349-02804-7 14803:978-0-8101-5197-0 14770:978-1-62055-387-9 14738:978-87-628-0794-5 14717:978-1-4408-4120-0 14684:978-1-351-37941-0 14652:978-0-8204-8826-4 14631:978-0-203-03066-0 14600:978-1-135-58277-7 14579:978-0-415-06272-5 14548:978-0-227-90035-2 14515:978-1-137-06373-1 14482:978-1-61564-538-1 14411:978-0-415-41188-2 14380:978-0-19-987457-6 14347:978-0-429-01965-4 14301:978-0-203-02947-3 14226:978-0-7914-3683-7 14193:978-1-000-17058-0 14160:978-90-481-9507-7 14128:978-0-02-865733-2 14070:978-1-59752-103-1 14037:978-1-4616-3822-3 14004:978-1-000-36288-6 13946:978-0-7391-9978-7 13913:978-90-04-12978-8 13880:978-1-134-33177-2 13790:978-0-19-884739-7 13757:978-0-8248-1542-4 13724:978-0-7914-8131-8 13691:978-1-134-91758-7 13658:978-1-134-69162-3 13625:978-1-317-19447-7 13604:978-1-5099-3390-7 13569:978-1-118-29073-6 13548:978-1-118-61035-0 13527:978-1-4411-6237-3 13520:. A&C Black. 13506:978-81-208-1488-2 13473:978-0-521-85356-9 13441:978-1-7936-1848-1 13383:978-1-139-95292-7 13362:978-0-203-02914-5 13306:978-1-4384-4643-1 13273:978-1-317-35215-0 13240:978-1-83910-034-5 13207:978-3-319-44561-8 13174:978-1-4384-1511-6 13141:978-3-11-134194-1 13108:978-0-19-989022-4 13075:978-0-7914-6800-5 13042:978-1-136-78043-1 12971:978-0-203-00286-5 12952:978-90-481-9115-4 12917:978-1-136-85866-6 12881:978-0-19-108170-5 12848:978-0-226-53333-9 12815:978-3-031-18002-6 12757:978-1-134-08082-3 12699:978-0-7486-3794-2 12666:978-3-030-62337-1 12633:978-3-11-059649-6 12600:978-0-486-12193-2 12567:978-0-19-537948-8 12521:978-0-203-02846-9 12477:978-0-8020-6860-6 12441:978-1-350-06325-9 12408:978-1-284-19964-2 12353:978-94-007-1563-9 12320:978-1-315-38926-4 12287:978-0-520-05808-8 12254:978-1-118-61914-8 12197:978-0-8101-1281-0 12143:978-1-317-22849-3 12111:978-1-85109-534-6 12061:978-94-024-1663-3 12031:978-1-4129-9125-4 11998:978-1-139-47076-6 11966:978-0-415-15482-6 11933:978-1-58901-296-7 11900:978-1-108-57739-7 11854:978-0-19-875277-6 11835:978-0-19-875279-0 11816:978-0-19-875277-6 11785:978-90-04-18354-4 11752:978-1-78074-168-0 11616:978-0-7619-2729-7 11583:978-81-208-4299-1 11551:978-0-7391-3668-3 11518:978-0-19-152013-6 11485:978-1-317-81404-7 11453:978-967-5062-31-5 11420:978-1-135-79088-2 11368:978-1-350-16260-0 11335:978-1-134-68043-6 11278:978-1-137-52698-4 11236:978-0-7369-3635-4 11215:978-1-317-26883-3 11204:(14 April 2016). 11181:978-0-253-01561-7 11123:978-1-351-03768-6 11090:978-1-134-43781-8 11069:978-0-19-513731-6 11056:Haaparanta, Leila 11010:978-1-136-65309-4 10977:978-0-19-088634-9 10931:978-0-19-539930-1 10893:978-0-19-926643-2 10860:978-0-241-98086-6 10755:978-0-02-865790-5 10723:978-0-02-865790-5 10636:978-1-351-73106-5 10603:978-981-16-7779-3 10570:978-94-009-2903-6 10537:978-1-64722-185-0 10516:978-0-203-02845-2 10486:978-0-19-884072-5 10453:978-1-59884-996-7 10420:978-0-241-50422-2 10388:978-0-19-063973-0 10352:978-0-429-64906-6 10319:978-1-317-51909-6 10286:978-90-04-09156-6 10279:. Brill Archive. 10254:978-1-55612-716-8 10217:EB staff (2020). 10192:EB staff (2023). 10167:EB staff (2017). 10147:978-0-8308-7811-6 10114:978-1-61530-301-4 10081:978-1-61530-143-0 10048:978-1-61530-141-6 9991:978-0-7391-4006-2 9970:978-1-315-47872-2 9939:978-94-007-7690-6 9897:978-1-135-95102-3 9865:978-90-04-23434-5 9790:978-0-89281-218-9 9732:978-1-4982-1979-2 9699:978-1-4462-8313-4 9666:978-0-19-535225-2 9633:978-0-19-157832-8 9575:978-0-8264-6895-6 9543:978-0-8265-1433-2 9511:978-1-135-88419-2 9479:978-0-415-18905-7 9446:978-1-134-78815-6 9388:978-0-7618-6455-4 9355:978-0-521-38772-9 9297:978-3-030-22692-3 9264:978-1-350-06956-5 9237:978-0-19-985714-2 9208:978-0-203-03068-4 9178:978-0-8262-6622-4 9145:978-94-6270-356-8 9113:978-0-19-024724-9 9080:978-0-19-258407-6 9048:978-0-231-14203-8 9016:978-1-137-54157-4 8970:"Critical Theory" 8948:978-1-4443-9608-9 8927:978-0-415-30976-9 8872:978-90-04-15587-9 8840:978-1-135-94866-5 8750:978-0-19-166266-9 8717:978-0-521-08178-8 8696:978-81-7156-291-6 8663:978-3-030-69709-9 8630:978-1-107-11186-8 8597:978-1-351-21744-6 8576:978-0-19-981257-8 8486:978-1-009-03467-8 8453:978-1-305-53746-0 8420:978-1-000-94696-3 8388:978-0-19-957749-1 8356:978-0-19-872802-3 8324:978-0-19-884240-8 8292:978-0-19-885176-9 8259:978-0-19-266992-6 8201:978-1-107-49469-5 5925:Lovat et al. 2011 3113:African continent 3088:Ubuntu philosophy 3007:, established by 2993:Japanese Buddhist 2862:Republic of China 2640:Swami Vivekananda 2516:physical postures 2316:Indian philosophy 2295:Islamic modernism 2108:, and knowledge. 2067:(1895–1973), and 2040:social philosophy 1895:because they are 1535:absolute idealism 1438:(1689–1755), and 1386:(1646–1716). His 1368:substance dualism 1304:primary qualities 1251:sufficient reason 1247:non-contradiction 1128:the emergence of 1103:William of Ockham 940:, proofs for the 884:suspend judgments 738:. He divided the 441:Indian philosophy 254:Indian philosophy 244:Islamic modernism 148:of the cosmos in 16:(Redirected from 17272: 17265:History by topic 17231: 17230: 17219: 17218: 17217: 16934: 16933: 16925: 16924: 16908: 16907: 16798:Frankfurt School 16745:Transactionalism 16695:Normative ethics 16675:Legal positivism 16651:Falsificationism 16636:Consequentialism 16631:Communitarianism 16604: 16603: 16472:New Confucianism 16311: 16310: 16118:Neo-Confucianism 16083: 16082: 15892:Second Sophistic 15877:Middle Platonism 15720: 15719: 15661: 15660: 15650: 15649: 15493:Epiphenomenalism 15360:Consequentialism 15294:Institutionalism 15199: 15198: 15188: 15187: 15173: 15166: 15159: 15150: 15149: 15144: 15142: 15140: 15111: 15109: 15107: 15086: 15084: 15082: 15053: 15051: 15049: 15020: 15018: 15016: 14987: 14985: 14983: 14962: 14960: 14958: 14929: 14927: 14925: 14896: 14877: 14875: 14873: 14852: 14850: 14848: 14819: 14817: 14815: 14786: 14784: 14782: 14753: 14751: 14750: 14721: 14700: 14698: 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He identified 540:, which offered 505:Platonic Academy 357: 329:Neo-Confucianism 305:self-cultivation 270:orthodox schools 87: 78: 69: 58: 49: 40: 21: 17280: 17279: 17275: 17274: 17273: 17271: 17270: 17269: 17245: 17244: 17243: 17238: 17215: 17213: 17192: 17156: 17056: 17018: 16965: 16919: 16918: 16890: 16879:Russian cosmism 16852: 16848:Western Marxism 16813:New Historicism 16778:Critical theory 16764: 16760:Wittgensteinian 16656:Foundationalism 16589: 16526: 16507:Social contract 16363:Foundationalism 16296: 16278: 16262:Illuminationism 16247:Aristotelianism 16233: 16222:Vishishtadvaita 16175: 16127: 16068: 16035: 15906: 15835:Megarian school 15830:Eretrian school 15771: 15732:Agriculturalism 15709: 15655: 15636: 15583: 15555: 15512: 15464: 15421: 15405:Incompatibilism 15374: 15346: 15298: 15270: 15193: 15182: 15177: 15147: 15138: 15136: 15129: 15105: 15103: 15080: 15078: 15071: 15047: 15045: 15038: 15014: 15012: 15005: 14981: 14979: 14956: 14954: 14947: 14923: 14921: 14914: 14893: 14871: 14869: 14846: 14844: 14837: 14813: 14811: 14804: 14780: 14778: 14771: 14748: 14746: 14739: 14718: 14694: 14692: 14685: 14662: 14660: 14653: 14632: 14610: 14608: 14601: 14580: 14558: 14556: 14549: 14525: 14523: 14516: 14492: 14490: 14483: 14459: 14457: 14434: 14432: 14412: 14390: 14388: 14381: 14357: 14355: 14348: 14324: 14322: 14302: 14281: 14279: 14236: 14234: 14227: 14203: 14201: 14194: 14170: 14168: 14161: 14138: 14136: 14129: 14105: 14103: 14080: 14078: 14071: 14047: 14045: 14038: 14014: 14012: 14005: 13981: 13979: 13956: 13954: 13947: 13923: 13921: 13914: 13890: 13888: 13881: 13858: 13856: 13849: 13825: 13823: 13800: 13798: 13791: 13767: 13765: 13758: 13734: 13732: 13725: 13701: 13699: 13692: 13668: 13666: 13659: 13635: 13633: 13626: 13605: 13579: 13577: 13570: 13549: 13528: 13507: 13483: 13481: 13474: 13451: 13449: 13442: 13418: 13416: 13393: 13391: 13384: 13363: 13341: 13339: 13316: 13314: 13307: 13283: 13281: 13274: 13250: 13248: 13241: 13217: 13215: 13208: 13184: 13182: 13175: 13151: 13149: 13142: 13118: 13116: 13109: 13085: 13083: 13076: 13052: 13050: 13043: 13019: 13017: 12994: 12992: 12972: 12953: 12927: 12925: 12918: 12891: 12889: 12882: 12858: 12856: 12849: 12825: 12823: 12816: 12792: 12790: 12767: 12765: 12758: 12734: 12732: 12709: 12707: 12700: 12676: 12674: 12667: 12643: 12641: 12634: 12610: 12608: 12601: 12577: 12575: 12568: 12544: 12542: 12522: 12500: 12498: 12478: 12451: 12449: 12442: 12418: 12416: 12409: 12386: 12384: 12363: 12361: 12354: 12330: 12328: 12321: 12297: 12295: 12288: 12264: 12262: 12255: 12231: 12229: 12207: 12205: 12198: 12174: 12172: 12153: 12151: 12144: 12121: 12119: 12112: 12083:10.2307/2018864 12077:(17): 449–460. 12062: 12041: 12039: 12032: 12008: 12006: 11999: 11976: 11974: 11967: 11943: 11941: 11934: 11910: 11908: 11901: 11877: 11875: 11855: 11836: 11817: 11795: 11793: 11786: 11762: 11760: 11753: 11729: 11727: 11707: 11680: 11650: 11648: 11626: 11624: 11617: 11593: 11591: 11584: 11561: 11559: 11552: 11528: 11526: 11519: 11495: 11493: 11486: 11463: 11461: 11454: 11430: 11428: 11421: 11400: 11378: 11376: 11369: 11345: 11343: 11336: 11312: 11310: 11288: 11286: 11279: 11246: 11244: 11237: 11216: 11191: 11189: 11182: 11158: 11156: 11133: 11131: 11124: 11100: 11098: 11091: 11070: 11045: 11043: 11020: 11018: 11011: 10987: 10985: 10978: 10954: 10952: 10932: 10903: 10901: 10894: 10870: 10868: 10861: 10837: 10835: 10812: 10810: 10765: 10763: 10756: 10733: 10731: 10724: 10700: 10698: 10670:10.2307/2107324 10646: 10644: 10637: 10613: 10611: 10604: 10580: 10578: 10571: 10547: 10545: 10538: 10517: 10496: 10494: 10487: 10463: 10461: 10454: 10430: 10428: 10421: 10398: 10396: 10389: 10362: 10360: 10353: 10329: 10327: 10320: 10296: 10294: 10287: 10264: 10262: 10255: 10232: 10230: 10207: 10205: 10182: 10180: 10157: 10155: 10148: 10124: 10122: 10115: 10091: 10089: 10082: 10058: 10056: 10049: 10025: 10023: 10001: 9999: 9992: 9971: 9949: 9947: 9940: 9907: 9905: 9898: 9875: 9873: 9866: 9813: 9811: 9791: 9767: 9765: 9742: 9740: 9733: 9709: 9707: 9700: 9676: 9674: 9667: 9643: 9641: 9634: 9610: 9608: 9585: 9583: 9576: 9553: 9551: 9544: 9521: 9519: 9512: 9489: 9487: 9480: 9456: 9454: 9447: 9423: 9421: 9398: 9396: 9389: 9365: 9363: 9356: 9332: 9330: 9307: 9305: 9298: 9274: 9272: 9265: 9242: 9240: 9238: 9209: 9188: 9186: 9179: 9155: 9153: 9146: 9123: 9121: 9114: 9090: 9088: 9081: 9058: 9056: 9049: 9026: 9024: 9017: 8983: 8981: 8958: 8956: 8949: 8928: 8906: 8904: 8882: 8880: 8873: 8850: 8848: 8841: 8817: 8815: 8793: 8791: 8784: 8760: 8758: 8751: 8727: 8725: 8718: 8710:. CUP Archive. 8697: 8673: 8671: 8664: 8640: 8638: 8631: 8607: 8605: 8598: 8577: 8553: 8551: 8529: 8527: 8520: 8496: 8494: 8487: 8463: 8461: 8454: 8430: 8428: 8421: 8398: 8396: 8389: 8366: 8364: 8357: 8334: 8332: 8325: 8302: 8300: 8293: 8269: 8267: 8260: 8236: 8234: 8211: 8209: 8202: 8183: 8178: 8174: 8142:Chimakonam 2023 8133:Chimakonam 2014 8128: 8124: 8120: 8098: 8094: 8086: 8082: 8078: 8064:Chimakonam 2023 8047: 8040: 8036: 8003: 7999: 7995: 7947: 7943: 7939:, pp. 1–12 7935: 7931: 7927: 7907:Littlejohn 2023 7902: 7898: 7894: 7868:Littlejohn 2023 7863: 7859: 7855: 7840: 7836: 7832: 7818:Littlejohn 2023 7813: 7809: 7805: 7800:Littlejohn 2023 7780: 7776: 7772: 7758:Littlejohn 2023 7742: 7738: 7734: 7720:Littlejohn 2023 7709: 7705: 7701: 7673: 7669: 7665: 7641: 7637: 7633: 7601:Littlejohn 2023 7585: 7581: 7577: 7573:Littlejohn 2023 7557: 7553: 7549: 7528: 7524: 7516: 7512: 7508: 7489:Littlejohn 2023 7473: 7469: 7465: 7437: 7433: 7429: 7401: 7397: 7393: 7359: 7355: 7351: 7336: 7332: 7328: 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5618: 5614: 5610: 5591: 5587: 5583: 5580:, pp. 4–25 5564: 5560: 5556: 5519: 5515: 5511: 5474: 5470: 5466: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5398:Hammersley 2018 5379: 5375: 5371: 5363:Colapietro 2003 5343: 5339: 5335: 5310: 5306: 5302: 5256: 5252: 5248: 5227: 5223: 5219: 5197: 5193: 5189: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5143: 5139: 5135: 5116: 5112: 5108: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5014: 5010: 5006: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4924: 4920: 4916: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4751:, pp. 1–14 4744: 4740: 4732: 4728: 4724: 4702: 4698: 4694: 4691:, pp. 1–14 4664: 4660: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4587:, pp. 1–14 4580: 4576: 4572: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4027: 4023: 4019: 3988: 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2210:Later classical 2161: 2120: 2114: 2094:Jacques Derrida 2090:Michel Foucault 2069:Herbert Marcuse 2032:Critical Theory 1956: 1950: 1924:linguistic turn 1835:logical atomism 1783: 1777: 1765:Martha Nussbaum 1750:social sciences 1701:critical theory 1683:movements like 1664: 1509:thing-in-itself 1478: 1461:social contract 1400: 1336: 1310:George Berkeley 1274: 1228: 1204:Galileo Galilei 1149:Marsilio Ficino 1125: 1119: 1016: 1010: 980:just war theory 960:problem of evil 929: 923: 894:is impossible. 814: 776:, metaphysics, 722:, justice, and 716:theory of forms 663: 560:first principle 538:Greek mythology 523: 517: 501: 495: 459: 453: 372: 366: 361: 360: 359: 358: 311:explored moral 282:Advaita Vedanta 194:German idealism 120: 119: 118: 117: 90: 89: 88: 80: 79: 71: 70: 61: 60: 59: 51: 50: 42: 41: 30: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 17278: 17268: 17267: 17262: 17257: 17240: 17239: 17237: 17236: 17224: 17209: 17206: 17205: 17202: 17201: 17198: 17197: 17194: 17193: 17191: 17190: 17185: 17180: 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16616:Applied ethics 16612: 16610: 16601: 16595: 16594: 16591: 16590: 16588: 16587: 16582: 16580:Nietzscheanism 16577: 16572: 16567: 16562: 16557: 16552: 16551: 16550: 16540: 16534: 16532: 16528: 16527: 16525: 16524: 16522:Utilitarianism 16519: 16514: 16509: 16504: 16499: 16494: 16489: 16484: 16479: 16474: 16469: 16464: 16459: 16454: 16449: 16444: 16439: 16434: 16429: 16424: 16423: 16422: 16420:Transcendental 16417: 16412: 16407: 16402: 16397: 16387: 16386: 16385: 16375: 16370: 16365: 16360: 16358:Existentialism 16355: 16350: 16345: 16340: 16335: 16330: 16325: 16320: 16314: 16308: 16302: 16301: 16298: 16297: 16295: 16294: 16288: 16286: 16280: 16279: 16277: 16276: 16271: 16264: 16259: 16254: 16249: 16243: 16241: 16235: 16234: 16232: 16231: 16226: 16225: 16224: 16219: 16214: 16209: 16204: 16199: 16194: 16183: 16181: 16177: 16176: 16174: 16173: 16168: 16163: 16158: 16153: 16148: 16146:Augustinianism 16143: 16137: 16135: 16129: 16128: 16126: 16125: 16120: 16115: 16110: 16105: 16100: 16095: 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OUP Oxford. 14988: 14963: 14945: 14930: 14912: 14897: 14891: 14878: 14853: 14835: 14820: 14802: 14787: 14769: 14754: 14737: 14722: 14716: 14701: 14683: 14668: 14651: 14645:. Peter Lang. 14636: 14630: 14617: 14599: 14584: 14578: 14565: 14547: 14532: 14514: 14499: 14481: 14466: 14441: 14416: 14410: 14397: 14379: 14364: 14346: 14331: 14306: 14300: 14287: 14258:(5): 292–298. 14243: 14225: 14219:. SUNY Press. 14210: 14192: 14177: 14159: 14144: 14127: 14112: 14087: 14069: 14054: 14036: 14021: 14003: 13988: 13963: 13945: 13930: 13912: 13897: 13879: 13864: 13847: 13832: 13807: 13789: 13774: 13756: 13741: 13723: 13708: 13690: 13675: 13657: 13642: 13624: 13609: 13603: 13586: 13568: 13553: 13547: 13532: 13526: 13511: 13505: 13490: 13472: 13457: 13440: 13425: 13400: 13382: 13367: 13361: 13348: 13323: 13305: 13290: 13272: 13257: 13239: 13224: 13206: 13191: 13173: 13158: 13140: 13125: 13107: 13092: 13074: 13068:. 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OUP Oxford. 11502: 11484: 11469: 11452: 11437: 11419: 11404: 11398: 11385: 11367: 11352: 11334: 11319: 11294: 11277: 11262: 11253: 11235: 11220: 11214: 11198: 11180: 11165: 11140: 11122: 11107: 11089: 11074: 11068: 11052: 11027: 11009: 10994: 10976: 10961: 10936: 10930: 10909: 10892: 10877: 10859: 10853:. Penguin UK. 10844: 10819: 10786:(2): 158–170. 10780:Metaphilosophy 10771: 10754: 10739: 10722: 10707: 10682: 10653: 10635: 10620: 10602: 10587: 10569: 10554: 10536: 10521: 10515: 10502: 10485: 10470: 10452: 10437: 10419: 10404: 10387: 10369: 10351: 10336: 10318: 10303: 10285: 10270: 10253: 10238: 10214: 10189: 10164: 10146: 10131: 10113: 10098: 10080: 10065: 10047: 10032: 10007: 9990: 9975: 9969: 9956: 9938: 9923: 9914: 9896: 9881: 9864: 9849: 9831:(2): 231–250. 9820: 9795: 9789: 9774: 9749: 9731: 9716: 9698: 9683: 9665: 9650: 9632: 9626:. 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OUP Oxford. 8734: 8716: 8701: 8695: 8680: 8662: 8647: 8629: 8614: 8596: 8581: 8575: 8560: 8535: 8518: 8503: 8485: 8470: 8452: 8437: 8419: 8404: 8387: 8372: 8355: 8340: 8323: 8308: 8291: 8276: 8258: 8243: 8218: 8200: 8184: 8182: 8179: 8177: 8176: 8173: 8172: 8163: 8154: 8145: 8139: 8129: 8122: 8119: 8118: 8109: 8099: 8092: 8080: 8077: 8076: 8067: 8061: 8055: 8048: 8038: 8035: 8034: 8025: 8016: 8011: 8004: 7997: 7994: 7993: 7987: 7982: 7976: 7967: 7961: 7955: 7948: 7941: 7929: 7926: 7925: 7916: 7910: 7903: 7896: 7893: 7892: 7886: 7877: 7871: 7864: 7857: 7854: 7853: 7848: 7841: 7834: 7831: 7830: 7821: 7814: 7807: 7804: 7803: 7797: 7788: 7781: 7774: 7771: 7770: 7761: 7755: 7750: 7743: 7736: 7733: 7732: 7723: 7717: 7710: 7703: 7700: 7699: 7690: 7681: 7674: 7667: 7664: 7663: 7657: 7648: 7642: 7635: 7632: 7631: 7622: 7613: 7604: 7598: 7592: 7586: 7579: 7576: 7575: 7570: 7565: 7558: 7551: 7548: 7547: 7541: 7536: 7529: 7522: 7520:, pp. 1–3 7510: 7507: 7506: 7497: 7491: 7486: 7481: 7474: 7467: 7464: 7463: 7460:Bilimoria 2018 7457: 7451:Paranjape 2016 7448: 7438: 7431: 7428: 7427: 7418: 7409: 7406:Bilimoria 2018 7402: 7395: 7392: 7391: 7390:, lead section 7385: 7379:Rambachan 1994 7376: 7373:Bilimoria 2018 7370: 7360: 7353: 7350: 7349: 7344: 7337: 7330: 7327: 7326: 7317: 7310: 7303: 7300: 7299: 7290: 7281: 7272: 7265: 7258: 7246: 7243: 7242: 7236: 7229: 7222: 7219: 7218: 7212: 7205: 7198: 7195: 7194: 7185: 7176: 7169: 7162: 7159: 7158: 7149: 7142: 7135: 7132: 7131: 7122: 7115: 7108: 7105: 7104: 7095: 7086: 7079: 7072: 7069: 7068: 7063: 7056: 7049: 7046: 7045: 7036: 7027: 7020: 7013: 7010: 7009: 7000: 6991: 6984: 6977: 6974: 6973: 6964: 6957: 6950: 6947: 6946: 6937: 6928: 6921: 6914: 6911: 6910: 6904: 6895: 6888: 6881: 6878: 6877: 6871:Rambachan 2012 6868: 6862: 6855: 6848: 6845: 6844: 6838: 6831: 6824: 6821: 6820: 6814: 6804: 6797: 6794: 6793: 6784: 6778: 6768: 6761: 6758: 6757: 6748: 6739: 6729: 6722: 6719: 6718: 6709: 6700: 6693: 6686: 6683: 6682: 6676: 6669: 6662: 6659: 6658: 6652: 6642: 6632: 6625: 6622: 6621: 6615: 6610: 6604: 6594: 6587: 6584: 6583: 6577: 6568: 6559: 6552: 6545: 6542: 6541: 6532: 6523: 6517: 6511: 6504: 6501: 6500: 6494: 6487: 6480: 6477: 6476: 6467: 6458: 6451: 6444: 6441: 6440: 6434: 6433:, 11. Al-Kindi 6427: 6420: 6417: 6416: 6410:Armstrong 1967 6407: 6400: 6393: 6390: 6389: 6380: 6371: 6370:, pp. 8–9 6365: 6356: 6349: 6342: 6339: 6338: 6332: 6326: 6316: 6309: 6306: 6305: 6304:, pp. 5–6 6299: 6290: 6284: 6279: 6272: 6265: 6262: 6261: 6255: 6248: 6241: 6238: 6237: 6228: 6219: 6210: 6204: 6197: 6190: 6187: 6186: 6177: 6176:, lead section 6171: 6170:, lead section 6164: 6157: 6154: 6153: 6147: 6141: 6134: 6127: 6124: 6123: 6114: 6105: 6096: 6086: 6079: 6076: 6075: 6066: 6057: 6050: 6043: 6040: 6039: 6030: 6021: 6014: 6007: 6004: 6003: 5994: 5985: 5978: 5971: 5968: 5967: 5966:, lead section 5961: 5954: 5947: 5944: 5943: 5937: 5931: 5921: 5914: 5911: 5910: 5904: 5897: 5890: 5887: 5886: 5880: 5873: 5866: 5863: 5862: 5853: 5846: 5839: 5836: 5835: 5829: 5823: 5813: 5806: 5803: 5802: 5796: 5790: 5783: 5776: 5773: 5772: 5771:, Lead Section 5766: 5757: 5750: 5743: 5740: 5739: 5730: 5724: 5718:Brinkmann 2018 5715: 5706: 5700: 5693: 5681: 5669: 5666: 5665: 5656: 5649: 5642: 5639: 5638: 5632:Brinkmann 2018 5629: 5619: 5612: 5609: 5608: 5602: 5592: 5585: 5582: 5581: 5575: 5565: 5558: 5555: 5554: 5548:Critchley 2001 5545: 5536: 5527: 5520: 5513: 5510: 5509: 5503:Critchley 2001 5500: 5491: 5482: 5475: 5468: 5465: 5464: 5455: 5448: 5441: 5438: 5437: 5431: 5424: 5417: 5414: 5413: 5404: 5395: 5386: 5380: 5373: 5370: 5369: 5360: 5351: 5344: 5337: 5334: 5333: 5327: 5321:Critchley 2001 5318: 5311: 5304: 5301: 5300: 5291: 5285:Critchley 2001 5282: 5273: 5267: 5257: 5250: 5247: 5246: 5241: 5235: 5228: 5221: 5218: 5217: 5216:, pp. 1–3 5211: 5205: 5198: 5191: 5188: 5187: 5181: 5171: 5164: 5161: 5160: 5154: 5144: 5137: 5134: 5133: 5124: 5117: 5110: 5107: 5106: 5097: 5090: 5083: 5080: 5079: 5073: 5066: 5059: 5056: 5055: 5049: 5042: 5035: 5032: 5031: 5022: 5015: 5008: 5005: 5004: 4995: 4988: 4981: 4978: 4977: 4968: 4961: 4954: 4951: 4950: 4941: 4935: 4925: 4918: 4915: 4914: 4908: 4898: 4891: 4888: 4887: 4878: 4872:Stevenson 2014 4869: 4860: 4850: 4843: 4840: 4839: 4830: 4821: 4812: 4805: 4798: 4795: 4794: 4788: 4779: 4772: 4765: 4762: 4761: 4752: 4749:Parkinson 2005 4745: 4738: 4726: 4723: 4722: 4716: 4710: 4703: 4696: 4693: 4692: 4689:Parkinson 2005 4686: 4680: 4671: 4665: 4658: 4646: 4643: 4642: 4633: 4624: 4617: 4610: 4607: 4606: 4600: 4594: 4588: 4585:Parkinson 2005 4581: 4574: 4571: 4570: 4564: 4557: 4550: 4547: 4546: 4537: 4531: 4524: 4517: 4514: 4513: 4504: 4497: 4490: 4487: 4486: 4480: 4470: 4463: 4460: 4459: 4454: 4445: 4438: 4431: 4428: 4427: 4418: 4411: 4404: 4401: 4400: 4391: 4382: 4375: 4368: 4365: 4364: 4358: 4355:Dougherty 2009 4352: 4345: 4338: 4335: 4334: 4325: 4320: 4313: 4306: 4303: 4302: 4293: 4287:Frassetto 2013 4284: 4275: 4266: 4260: 4253: 4246: 4243: 4242: 4233: 4224: 4217: 4210: 4207: 4206: 4200: 4191: 4182: 4181:, lead section 4175: 4168: 4165: 4164: 4163:, pp. 3–4 4158: 4151: 4144: 4141: 4140: 4139:, lead section 4134: 4133:, lead section 4128: 4125:Lagerlund 2020 4122: 4112: 4105: 4102: 4101: 4092: 4083: 4077: 4071: 4064: 4057: 4054: 4053: 4047: 4041: 4035: 4028: 4021: 4018: 4017: 4008: 4002: 3996: 3989: 3982: 3979: 3978: 3977:, Epicureanism 3972: 3966: 3959: 3952: 3949: 3948: 3942: 3932: 3925: 3922: 3921: 3912: 3903: 3897: 3891: 3890:, 4. Aristotle 3884: 3877: 3874: 3873: 3864: 3854: 3847: 3844: 3843: 3834: 3828: 3821: 3814: 3811: 3810: 3804: 3795: 3788: 3781: 3769: 3766: 3765: 3756: 3749: 3742: 3730: 3727: 3726: 3717: 3710: 3703: 3700: 3699: 3690: 3683: 3676: 3673: 3672: 3663: 3654: 3647: 3640: 3637: 3636: 3627: 3620: 3613: 3610: 3609: 3603: 3597: 3587: 3580: 3577: 3576: 3567: 3561:Heidegger 2015 3558: 3548: 3541: 3538: 3537: 3536:, pp. 1–2 3531: 3525: 3518: 3511: 3496: 3493: 3492: 3483: 3480:Copleston 2003 3477: 3468: 3461: 3454: 3451: 3450: 3449:, p. ix–x 3444: 3441:Lamprecht 1939 3438: 3432: 3425: 3422: 3421: 3412: 3402: 3395: 3392: 3391: 3382: 3372: 3365: 3362: 3361: 3355: 3346: 3340: 3331: 3321: 3314: 3311: 3310: 3309:, pp. 1–2 3307:Parkinson 2005 3304: 3295: 3294:, pp. 1–3 3289: 3283: 3273: 3266: 3263: 3262: 3253: 3252:, pp. 4–6 3250:Copleston 2003 3247: 3237: 3229: 3227: 3224: 3221: 3220: 3204: 3195: 3186: 3176: 3175: 3173: 3170: 3168: 3165: 3149:pan-Africanism 3071: 3068: 3032: 3031:Latin American 3029: 3009:Kitaro Nishida 2963: 2960: 2946: 2943: 2856: 2853: 2797: 2794: 2729: 2726: 2674:Main article: 2671: 2668: 2608: 2605: 2467: 2464: 2376: 2373: 2314:Main article: 2311: 2308: 2256: 2255:Post-classical 2253: 2229:existence and 2211: 2208: 2160: 2157: 2116:Main article: 2113: 2112:Arabic–Persian 2110: 2098:Gilles Deleuze 2065:Max Horkheimer 2061:Theodor Adorno 2053:social justice 2024:thinkers like 1995:interpretation 1983:Edmund Husserl 1952:Main article: 1949: 1946: 1779:Main article: 1776: 1773: 1697:deconstruction 1693:existentialism 1663: 1660: 1629:utilitarianism 1625:Jeremy Bentham 1612:, who saw the 1584:class struggle 1558:neo-Kantianism 1477: 1474: 1399: 1396: 1375:Baruch Spinoza 1356:René Descartes 1335: 1332: 1273: 1270: 1227: 1224: 1169:egalitarianism 1121:Main article: 1118: 1115: 1107:Ockham's Razor 1045:Thomas Aquinas 1012:Main article: 1009: 1006: 976:responsibility 925:Main article: 922: 919: 917:(234–305 CE). 897:The school of 838:Roman Republic 813: 810: 662: 659: 519:Main article: 516: 513: 497:Main article: 494: 491: 475:Western Europe 467:Ancient Greece 455:Main article: 452: 449: 425:methodological 413:historiography 365: 362: 352: 351: 350: 349: 214:existentialism 150:Ancient Greece 107:Gautama Buddha 92: 91: 82: 81: 73: 72: 64: 63: 62: 53: 52: 44: 43: 35: 34: 33: 32: 31: 28: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 17277: 17266: 17263: 17261: 17258: 17256: 17253: 17252: 17250: 17235: 17234: 17225: 17223: 17222: 17211: 17210: 17207: 17189: 17186: 17184: 17181: 17179: 17176: 17174: 17171: 17169: 17166: 17165: 17163: 17161:Miscellaneous 17159: 17153: 17150: 17148: 17145: 17143: 17140: 17138: 17135: 17133: 17130: 17128: 17125: 17123: 17120: 17118: 17115: 17113: 17110: 17108: 17105: 17103: 17100: 17098: 17095: 17093: 17090: 17086: 17083: 17082: 17081: 17078: 17076: 17073: 17071: 17068: 17067: 17065: 17063: 17059: 17053: 17050: 17048: 17045: 17043: 17040: 17038: 17035: 17033: 17030: 17029: 17027: 17025: 17021: 17015: 17012: 17010: 17007: 17005: 17002: 17000: 16997: 16995: 16992: 16990: 16987: 16985: 16982: 16980: 16977: 16976: 16974: 16972: 16968: 16962: 16959: 16957: 16954: 16952: 16949: 16947: 16944: 16943: 16941: 16939: 16935: 16932: 16930: 16926: 16922: 16914: 16913: 16909: 16905: 16887: 16886: 16882: 16880: 16877: 16875: 16872: 16870: 16867: 16865: 16862: 16861: 16859: 16857:Miscellaneous 16855: 16849: 16846: 16844: 16843:Structuralism 16841: 16839: 16836: 16834: 16831: 16829: 16828:Postmodernism 16826: 16824: 16821: 16819: 16818:Phenomenology 16816: 16814: 16811: 16809: 16806: 16804: 16801: 16799: 16796: 16794: 16791: 16789: 16786: 16784: 16781: 16779: 16776: 16775: 16773: 16771: 16767: 16761: 16758: 16756: 16755:Vienna Circle 16753: 16751: 16748: 16746: 16743: 16741: 16738: 16736: 16733: 16731: 16728: 16726: 16723: 16721: 16718: 16716: 16713: 16711: 16708: 16706: 16703: 16701: 16698: 16696: 16693: 16691: 16688: 16686: 16685:Moral realism 16683: 16681: 16678: 16676: 16673: 16671: 16668: 16666: 16663: 16661: 16657: 16654: 16652: 16649: 16647: 16644: 16642: 16639: 16637: 16634: 16632: 16629: 16627: 16624: 16622: 16619: 16617: 16614: 16613: 16611: 16609: 16605: 16602: 16600: 16596: 16586: 16583: 16581: 16578: 16576: 16573: 16571: 16568: 16566: 16563: 16561: 16558: 16556: 16553: 16549: 16546: 16545: 16544: 16541: 16539: 16536: 16535: 16533: 16529: 16523: 16520: 16518: 16515: 16513: 16510: 16508: 16505: 16503: 16500: 16498: 16495: 16493: 16490: 16488: 16487:Phenomenology 16485: 16483: 16480: 16478: 16475: 16473: 16470: 16468: 16465: 16463: 16460: 16458: 16455: 16453: 16450: 16448: 16445: 16443: 16440: 16438: 16435: 16433: 16430: 16428: 16427:Individualism 16425: 16421: 16418: 16416: 16413: 16411: 16408: 16406: 16403: 16401: 16398: 16396: 16393: 16392: 16391: 16388: 16384: 16381: 16380: 16379: 16376: 16374: 16371: 16369: 16366: 16364: 16361: 16359: 16356: 16354: 16351: 16349: 16346: 16344: 16341: 16339: 16336: 16334: 16331: 16329: 16326: 16324: 16321: 16319: 16316: 16315: 16312: 16309: 16307: 16303: 16293: 16292:Judeo-Islamic 16290: 16289: 16287: 16285: 16281: 16275: 16272: 16270: 16269: 16268:ʿIlm al-Kalām 16265: 16263: 16260: 16258: 16255: 16253: 16250: 16248: 16245: 16244: 16242: 16240: 16236: 16230: 16227: 16223: 16220: 16218: 16217:Shuddhadvaita 16215: 16213: 16210: 16208: 16205: 16203: 16200: 16198: 16195: 16193: 16190: 16189: 16188: 16185: 16184: 16182: 16178: 16172: 16169: 16167: 16164: 16162: 16159: 16157: 16154: 16152: 16151:Scholasticism 16149: 16147: 16144: 16142: 16139: 16138: 16136: 16134: 16130: 16124: 16121: 16119: 16116: 16114: 16111: 16109: 16106: 16104: 16101: 16099: 16096: 16094: 16091: 16090: 16088: 16084: 16081: 16079: 16075: 16065: 16062: 16060: 16057: 16055: 16052: 16050: 16047: 16046: 16044: 16042: 16038: 16030: 16027: 16025: 16022: 16020: 16017: 16015: 16012: 16010: 16007: 16005: 16002: 16000: 15997: 15995: 15992: 15990: 15987: 15986: 15985: 15982: 15978: 15975: 15973: 15970: 15969: 15968: 15965: 15961: 15958: 15956: 15953: 15951: 15948: 15946: 15943: 15941: 15938: 15936: 15933: 15931: 15928: 15926: 15923: 15922: 15921: 15918: 15917: 15915: 15913: 15909: 15903: 15900: 15898: 15895: 15893: 15890: 15888: 15885: 15883: 15880: 15878: 15875: 15871: 15868: 15866: 15863: 15861: 15858: 15856: 15853: 15852: 15851: 15848: 15846: 15843: 15841: 15838: 15836: 15833: 15831: 15828: 15826: 15823: 15821: 15818: 15814: 15811: 15809: 15806: 15804: 15801: 15799: 15796: 15794: 15791: 15790: 15789: 15786: 15785: 15783: 15781: 15778: 15774: 15768: 15765: 15763: 15760: 15758: 15755: 15753: 15750: 15748: 15745: 15743: 15740: 15738: 15735: 15733: 15730: 15729: 15727: 15725: 15721: 15718: 15716: 15712: 15704: 15701: 15699: 15696: 15694: 15691: 15689: 15686: 15684: 15681: 15680: 15679: 15676: 15674: 15671: 15670: 15668: 15666: 15662: 15658: 15651: 15647: 15633: 15630: 15628: 15625: 15623: 15620: 15618: 15615: 15613: 15610: 15608: 15605: 15603: 15602:Conceptualism 15600: 15598: 15595: 15594: 15592: 15590: 15586: 15580: 15577: 15575: 15572: 15570: 15567: 15566: 15564: 15562: 15558: 15552: 15549: 15547: 15544: 15542: 15539: 15537: 15534: 15532: 15531:Particularism 15529: 15527: 15524: 15523: 15521: 15519: 15515: 15509: 15506: 15504: 15501: 15499: 15498:Functionalism 15496: 15494: 15491: 15489: 15486: 15484: 15483:Eliminativism 15481: 15479: 15476: 15475: 15473: 15471: 15467: 15461: 15458: 15456: 15453: 15451: 15448: 15446: 15443: 15441: 15438: 15436: 15433: 15432: 15430: 15428: 15424: 15418: 15415: 15411: 15408: 15407: 15406: 15403: 15399: 15396: 15395: 15394: 15391: 15389: 15388:Compatibilism 15386: 15385: 15383: 15381: 15377: 15371: 15368: 15366: 15363: 15361: 15358: 15357: 15355: 15353: 15349: 15343: 15340: 15338: 15335: 15333: 15330: 15328: 15327:Particularism 15325: 15323: 15320: 15318: 15315: 15313: 15310: 15309: 15307: 15305: 15301: 15295: 15292: 15290: 15287: 15285: 15282: 15281: 15279: 15277: 15273: 15267: 15264: 15262: 15259: 15257: 15254: 15252: 15249: 15247: 15244: 15242: 15239: 15237: 15234: 15232: 15229: 15227: 15224: 15222: 15219: 15217: 15214: 15212: 15209: 15208: 15206: 15204: 15200: 15196: 15189: 15185: 15181: 15174: 15169: 15167: 15162: 15160: 15155: 15154: 15151: 15134: 15130: 15124: 15120: 15119: 15113: 15101: 15097: 15093: 15088: 15076: 15072: 15066: 15062: 15061: 15055: 15043: 15039: 15033: 15029: 15028: 15022: 15010: 15006: 15000: 14996: 14995: 14989: 14977: 14973: 14969: 14964: 14952: 14948: 14942: 14938: 14937: 14931: 14919: 14915: 14909: 14905: 14904: 14898: 14894: 14892:9780792328087 14888: 14884: 14879: 14867: 14863: 14859: 14854: 14842: 14838: 14832: 14828: 14827: 14821: 14809: 14805: 14799: 14795: 14794: 14788: 14776: 14772: 14766: 14762: 14761: 14755: 14744: 14740: 14734: 14730: 14729: 14723: 14719: 14713: 14709: 14708: 14702: 14690: 14686: 14680: 14677:. Routledge. 14676: 14675: 14669: 14658: 14654: 14648: 14644: 14643: 14637: 14633: 14627: 14623: 14618: 14606: 14602: 14596: 14593:. Routledge. 14592: 14591: 14585: 14581: 14575: 14571: 14566: 14554: 14550: 14544: 14540: 14539: 14533: 14521: 14517: 14511: 14507: 14506: 14500: 14488: 14484: 14478: 14474: 14473: 14467: 14455: 14451: 14447: 14442: 14430: 14426: 14422: 14417: 14413: 14407: 14403: 14398: 14386: 14382: 14376: 14372: 14371: 14365: 14353: 14349: 14343: 14340:. Routledge. 14339: 14338: 14332: 14320: 14316: 14312: 14307: 14303: 14297: 14293: 14288: 14277: 14273: 14269: 14265: 14261: 14257: 14253: 14249: 14244: 14232: 14228: 14222: 14218: 14217: 14211: 14199: 14195: 14189: 14186:. Routledge. 14185: 14184: 14178: 14166: 14162: 14156: 14152: 14151: 14145: 14134: 14130: 14124: 14120: 14119: 14113: 14101: 14097: 14093: 14088: 14076: 14072: 14066: 14062: 14061: 14055: 14043: 14039: 14033: 14029: 14028: 14022: 14010: 14006: 14000: 13997:. Routledge. 13996: 13995: 13989: 13977: 13973: 13969: 13968:"Mulla Sadra" 13964: 13952: 13948: 13942: 13938: 13937: 13931: 13919: 13915: 13909: 13905: 13904: 13898: 13886: 13882: 13876: 13873:. Routledge. 13872: 13871: 13865: 13854: 13850: 13848:9780415073103 13844: 13841:. Routledge. 13840: 13839: 13833: 13821: 13817: 13813: 13808: 13796: 13792: 13786: 13782: 13781: 13775: 13763: 13759: 13753: 13749: 13748: 13742: 13730: 13726: 13720: 13716: 13715: 13709: 13697: 13693: 13687: 13684:. Routledge. 13683: 13682: 13676: 13664: 13660: 13654: 13651:. Routledge. 13650: 13649: 13643: 13631: 13627: 13621: 13617: 13616: 13610: 13606: 13600: 13596: 13592: 13587: 13575: 13571: 13565: 13561: 13560: 13554: 13550: 13544: 13540: 13539: 13533: 13529: 13523: 13519: 13518: 13512: 13508: 13502: 13498: 13497: 13491: 13479: 13475: 13469: 13465: 13464: 13458: 13447: 13443: 13437: 13433: 13432: 13426: 13414: 13410: 13406: 13401: 13389: 13385: 13379: 13375: 13374: 13368: 13364: 13358: 13354: 13349: 13337: 13333: 13329: 13324: 13312: 13308: 13302: 13298: 13297: 13291: 13279: 13275: 13269: 13266:. Routledge. 13265: 13264: 13258: 13246: 13242: 13236: 13232: 13231: 13225: 13213: 13209: 13203: 13199: 13198: 13192: 13180: 13176: 13170: 13166: 13165: 13159: 13147: 13143: 13137: 13133: 13132: 13126: 13114: 13110: 13104: 13100: 13099: 13093: 13081: 13077: 13071: 13067: 13066: 13060: 13048: 13044: 13038: 13035:. Routledge. 13034: 13033: 13027: 13015: 13011: 13007: 13002: 12990: 12986: 12982: 12977: 12973: 12967: 12964:. Routledge. 12963: 12958: 12954: 12948: 12944: 12940: 12935: 12923: 12919: 12913: 12910:. Routledge. 12909: 12908: 12903: 12902:Moris, Zailan 12899: 12887: 12883: 12877: 12873: 12872: 12866: 12854: 12850: 12844: 12840: 12839: 12833: 12821: 12817: 12811: 12807: 12806: 12800: 12788: 12784: 12780: 12775: 12763: 12759: 12753: 12750:. Routledge. 12749: 12748: 12742: 12730: 12726: 12722: 12717: 12705: 12701: 12695: 12691: 12690: 12684: 12672: 12668: 12662: 12658: 12657: 12651: 12639: 12635: 12629: 12625: 12624: 12618: 12606: 12602: 12596: 12592: 12591: 12585: 12573: 12569: 12563: 12559: 12558: 12552: 12540: 12536: 12532: 12527: 12523: 12517: 12513: 12508: 12496: 12492: 12488: 12483: 12479: 12473: 12469: 12468: 12463: 12459: 12447: 12443: 12437: 12433: 12432: 12426: 12414: 12410: 12404: 12400: 12399: 12393: 12382: 12379:. Routledge. 12378: 12377: 12371: 12359: 12355: 12349: 12345: 12344: 12338: 12326: 12322: 12316: 12313:. Routledge. 12312: 12311: 12305: 12293: 12289: 12283: 12279: 12278: 12272: 12260: 12256: 12250: 12246: 12245: 12239: 12227: 12223: 12219: 12214: 12203: 12199: 12193: 12189: 12188: 12182: 12170: 12166: 12161: 12149: 12145: 12139: 12136:. Routledge. 12135: 12134: 12128: 12117: 12113: 12107: 12103: 12102: 12096: 12092: 12088: 12084: 12080: 12076: 12072: 12067: 12063: 12057: 12053: 12048: 12037: 12033: 12027: 12023: 12022: 12016: 12004: 12000: 11994: 11990: 11989: 11983: 11972: 11968: 11962: 11958: 11957: 11951: 11939: 11935: 11929: 11925: 11924: 11918: 11906: 11902: 11896: 11892: 11891: 11885: 11873: 11869: 11865: 11862:Kerr, Gaven. 11860: 11856: 11850: 11846: 11841: 11837: 11831: 11827: 11822: 11818: 11812: 11808: 11803: 11791: 11787: 11781: 11777: 11776: 11770: 11758: 11754: 11748: 11744: 11743: 11737: 11725: 11721: 11717: 11712: 11708: 11706:9780415250696 11702: 11698: 11694: 11690: 11685: 11681: 11679:9780415250696 11675: 11671: 11667: 11663: 11658: 11646: 11642: 11638: 11633: 11622: 11618: 11612: 11608: 11607: 11601: 11589: 11585: 11579: 11575: 11574: 11568: 11557: 11553: 11547: 11543: 11542: 11536: 11524: 11520: 11514: 11510: 11509: 11503: 11491: 11487: 11481: 11478:. Routledge. 11477: 11476: 11470: 11459: 11455: 11449: 11445: 11444: 11438: 11426: 11422: 11416: 11413:. Routledge. 11412: 11411: 11405: 11401: 11395: 11391: 11386: 11374: 11370: 11364: 11360: 11359: 11353: 11341: 11337: 11331: 11328:. Routledge. 11327: 11326: 11320: 11308: 11304: 11300: 11295: 11284: 11280: 11274: 11270: 11269: 11263: 11259: 11254: 11242: 11238: 11232: 11228: 11227: 11221: 11217: 11211: 11208:. Routledge. 11207: 11203: 11202:Heller, Agnes 11199: 11187: 11183: 11177: 11173: 11172: 11166: 11154: 11150: 11146: 11141: 11129: 11125: 11119: 11116:. Routledge. 11115: 11114: 11108: 11096: 11092: 11086: 11083:. Routledge. 11082: 11081: 11075: 11071: 11065: 11061: 11057: 11053: 11041: 11037: 11033: 11028: 11016: 11012: 11006: 11003:. Routledge. 11002: 11001: 10995: 10983: 10979: 10973: 10969: 10968: 10962: 10950: 10946: 10942: 10937: 10933: 10927: 10923: 10919: 10915: 10910: 10899: 10895: 10889: 10885: 10884: 10878: 10866: 10862: 10856: 10852: 10851: 10845: 10833: 10829: 10825: 10820: 10809: 10805: 10801: 10797: 10793: 10789: 10785: 10781: 10777: 10772: 10761: 10757: 10751: 10748:. Macmillan. 10747: 10746: 10740: 10729: 10725: 10719: 10716:. Macmillan. 10715: 10714: 10708: 10696: 10692: 10688: 10683: 10679: 10675: 10671: 10667: 10663: 10659: 10654: 10642: 10638: 10632: 10629:. Routledge. 10628: 10627: 10621: 10609: 10605: 10599: 10595: 10594: 10588: 10576: 10572: 10566: 10562: 10561: 10555: 10543: 10539: 10533: 10529: 10528: 10522: 10518: 10512: 10508: 10503: 10492: 10488: 10482: 10478: 10477: 10471: 10459: 10455: 10449: 10445: 10444: 10438: 10426: 10422: 10416: 10412: 10411: 10405: 10394: 10390: 10384: 10380: 10379: 10374: 10370: 10358: 10354: 10348: 10345:. Routledge. 10344: 10343: 10337: 10325: 10321: 10315: 10312:. Routledge. 10311: 10310: 10304: 10292: 10288: 10282: 10278: 10277: 10271: 10260: 10256: 10250: 10246: 10245: 10239: 10228: 10224: 10220: 10215: 10203: 10199: 10195: 10190: 10178: 10174: 10170: 10165: 10153: 10149: 10143: 10139: 10138: 10132: 10120: 10116: 10110: 10106: 10105: 10099: 10087: 10083: 10077: 10073: 10072: 10066: 10054: 10050: 10044: 10040: 10039: 10033: 10021: 10017: 10013: 10008: 9997: 9993: 9987: 9983: 9982: 9976: 9972: 9966: 9963:. Routledge. 9962: 9957: 9945: 9941: 9935: 9931: 9930: 9924: 9920: 9915: 9903: 9899: 9893: 9890:. Routledge. 9889: 9888: 9882: 9871: 9867: 9861: 9857: 9856: 9850: 9846: 9842: 9838: 9834: 9830: 9826: 9821: 9809: 9805: 9801: 9796: 9792: 9786: 9782: 9781: 9775: 9763: 9759: 9755: 9750: 9738: 9734: 9728: 9724: 9723: 9717: 9705: 9701: 9695: 9691: 9690: 9684: 9672: 9668: 9662: 9658: 9657: 9651: 9639: 9635: 9629: 9625: 9624: 9618: 9606: 9602: 9598: 9593: 9581: 9577: 9571: 9568:. Continuum. 9567: 9566: 9560: 9549: 9545: 9539: 9535: 9534: 9528: 9517: 9513: 9507: 9504:. Routledge. 9503: 9502: 9496: 9485: 9481: 9475: 9471: 9470: 9464: 9452: 9448: 9442: 9439:. Routledge. 9438: 9437: 9431: 9419: 9415: 9411: 9406: 9394: 9390: 9384: 9380: 9379: 9373: 9361: 9357: 9351: 9347: 9346: 9340: 9328: 9324: 9320: 9315: 9303: 9299: 9293: 9289: 9288: 9282: 9270: 9266: 9260: 9256: 9255: 9249: 9239: 9233: 9229: 9225: 9221: 9220: 9214: 9210: 9204: 9200: 9195: 9184: 9180: 9174: 9170: 9169: 9163: 9151: 9147: 9141: 9137: 9136: 9130: 9119: 9115: 9109: 9105: 9104: 9098: 9086: 9082: 9076: 9072: 9071: 9065: 9054: 9050: 9044: 9040: 9039: 9033: 9022: 9018: 9012: 9008: 9004: 9000: 8996: 8991: 8979: 8975: 8971: 8966: 8954: 8950: 8944: 8940: 8939: 8933: 8929: 8923: 8920:. Routledge. 8919: 8914: 8902: 8898: 8894: 8889: 8878: 8874: 8868: 8864: 8863: 8857: 8846: 8842: 8836: 8833:. Routledge. 8832: 8831: 8825: 8813: 8809: 8805: 8800: 8789: 8785: 8783:9780674020696 8779: 8775: 8774: 8768: 8756: 8752: 8746: 8742: 8741: 8735: 8723: 8719: 8713: 8709: 8708: 8702: 8698: 8692: 8688: 8687: 8681: 8669: 8665: 8659: 8655: 8654: 8648: 8636: 8632: 8626: 8622: 8621: 8615: 8603: 8599: 8593: 8590:. Routledge. 8589: 8588: 8582: 8578: 8572: 8568: 8567: 8561: 8549: 8545: 8541: 8536: 8525: 8521: 8519:9780521040549 8515: 8511: 8510: 8504: 8492: 8488: 8482: 8478: 8477: 8471: 8459: 8455: 8449: 8445: 8444: 8438: 8426: 8422: 8416: 8412: 8411: 8405: 8394: 8390: 8384: 8380: 8379: 8373: 8362: 8358: 8352: 8348: 8347: 8341: 8330: 8326: 8320: 8316: 8315: 8309: 8298: 8294: 8288: 8284: 8283: 8277: 8265: 8261: 8255: 8251: 8250: 8244: 8232: 8228: 8224: 8219: 8207: 8203: 8197: 8193: 8192: 8186: 8185: 8171: 8167: 8164: 8162: 8158: 8155: 8153: 8149: 8146: 8143: 8140: 8138: 8134: 8131: 8130: 8126: 8117: 8113: 8110: 8108: 8104: 8101: 8100: 8096: 8089: 8084: 8075: 8071: 8068: 8065: 8062: 8059: 8056: 8053: 8052:Grayling 2019 8050: 8049: 8045: 8043: 8033: 8029: 8026: 8024: 8020: 8017: 8015: 8012: 8009: 8006: 8005: 8001: 7991: 7988: 7986: 7983: 7980: 7977: 7975: 7971: 7968: 7965: 7964:Kasulis 2016a 7962: 7959: 7956: 7953: 7950: 7949: 7945: 7938: 7933: 7924: 7920: 7917: 7914: 7911: 7908: 7905: 7904: 7900: 7890: 7887: 7885: 7881: 7878: 7875: 7872: 7869: 7866: 7865: 7861: 7852: 7851:EB staff 2017 7849: 7846: 7843: 7842: 7838: 7829: 7825: 7822: 7819: 7816: 7815: 7811: 7801: 7798: 7796: 7792: 7789: 7786: 7785:Grayling 2019 7783: 7782: 7778: 7769: 7765: 7762: 7759: 7756: 7754: 7753:EB staff 2017 7751: 7748: 7745: 7744: 7740: 7731: 7727: 7724: 7721: 7718: 7715: 7714:Grayling 2019 7712: 7711: 7707: 7698: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7685: 7682: 7679: 7678:Grayling 2019 7676: 7675: 7671: 7661: 7660:Grayling 2019 7658: 7656: 7652: 7649: 7647: 7646:EB staff 2017 7644: 7643: 7639: 7630: 7626: 7623: 7621: 7617: 7614: 7612: 7608: 7605: 7602: 7599: 7596: 7593: 7591: 7590:EB staff 2017 7588: 7587: 7583: 7574: 7571: 7569: 7568:EB staff 2017 7566: 7563: 7560: 7559: 7555: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7539:EB staff 2017 7537: 7534: 7531: 7530: 7526: 7519: 7514: 7505: 7501: 7498: 7495: 7494:Grayling 2019 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7484:EB staff 2017 7482: 7479: 7476: 7475: 7471: 7462:, p. 240 7461: 7458: 7456: 7452: 7449: 7447: 7443: 7440: 7439: 7435: 7426: 7422: 7419: 7417: 7413: 7410: 7407: 7404: 7403: 7399: 7389: 7386: 7384: 7380: 7377: 7374: 7371: 7369: 7365: 7364:Banhatti 1995 7362: 7361: 7357: 7348: 7347:EB staff 2023 7345: 7342: 7339: 7338: 7334: 7325: 7321: 7318: 7315: 7312: 7311: 7307: 7298: 7294: 7291: 7289: 7285: 7284:Seshadri 1996 7282: 7280: 7276: 7273: 7270: 7267: 7266: 7262: 7255: 7250: 7240: 7237: 7234: 7231: 7230: 7226: 7216: 7213: 7210: 7207: 7206: 7202: 7193: 7189: 7186: 7184: 7180: 7177: 7174: 7171: 7170: 7166: 7157: 7153: 7152:Daniélou 1993 7150: 7147: 7144: 7143: 7139: 7130: 7126: 7123: 7120: 7117: 7116: 7112: 7103: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7090: 7089:Vanamali 2015 7087: 7084: 7081: 7080: 7076: 7067: 7064: 7061: 7058: 7057: 7053: 7044: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7031: 7028: 7025: 7022: 7021: 7017: 7008: 7004: 7001: 6999: 6995: 6992: 6989: 6986: 6985: 6981: 6972: 6968: 6965: 6962: 6959: 6958: 6954: 6945: 6941: 6938: 6936: 6932: 6929: 6926: 6923: 6922: 6918: 6908: 6907:Grayling 2019 6905: 6903: 6899: 6896: 6893: 6890: 6889: 6885: 6876: 6872: 6869: 6866: 6863: 6860: 6859:Grayling 2019 6857: 6856: 6852: 6842: 6841:Grayling 2019 6839: 6836: 6833: 6832: 6828: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6809: 6806: 6805: 6801: 6792: 6788: 6785: 6782: 6779: 6777: 6773: 6772:Phillips 1998 6770: 6769: 6765: 6756: 6752: 6749: 6747: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6734: 6731: 6730: 6726: 6717: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6704: 6701: 6698: 6695: 6694: 6690: 6680: 6677: 6674: 6671: 6670: 6666: 6656: 6655:Grayling 2019 6653: 6650: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6637: 6634: 6633: 6629: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6599: 6596: 6595: 6591: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6563: 6562:Marenbon 2012 6560: 6557: 6554: 6553: 6549: 6540: 6536: 6533: 6531: 6527: 6524: 6521: 6520:Grayling 2019 6518: 6516: 6513: 6512: 6508: 6498: 6495: 6492: 6491:Grayling 2019 6489: 6488: 6484: 6475: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6462: 6459: 6456: 6455:Grayling 2019 6453: 6452: 6448: 6438: 6435: 6432: 6429: 6428: 6424: 6415: 6411: 6408: 6405: 6404:Grayling 2019 6402: 6401: 6397: 6388: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6375: 6372: 6369: 6366: 6364: 6360: 6357: 6354: 6351: 6350: 6346: 6336: 6333: 6330: 6327: 6325: 6321: 6318: 6317: 6313: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6294: 6291: 6288: 6287:Grayling 2019 6285: 6283: 6282:EB staff 2020 6280: 6277: 6274: 6273: 6269: 6259: 6256: 6253: 6252:Grayling 2019 6250: 6249: 6245: 6236: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6223: 6220: 6218: 6214: 6211: 6208: 6207:Grayling 2019 6205: 6202: 6199: 6198: 6194: 6185: 6181: 6178: 6175: 6172: 6169: 6166: 6165: 6161: 6151: 6148: 6145: 6144:Grayling 2019 6142: 6139: 6136: 6135: 6131: 6122: 6118: 6117:Thompson 2008 6115: 6113: 6109: 6106: 6104: 6100: 6097: 6095: 6091: 6088: 6087: 6083: 6074: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6061: 6058: 6055: 6052: 6051: 6047: 6038: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6025: 6022: 6019: 6016: 6015: 6011: 6002: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5989: 5986: 5983: 5982:Grayling 2019 5980: 5979: 5975: 5965: 5962: 5959: 5958:Grayling 2019 5956: 5955: 5951: 5941: 5938: 5935: 5934:Grayling 2019 5932: 5930: 5926: 5923: 5922: 5918: 5909:, p. 173 5908: 5905: 5902: 5899: 5898: 5894: 5884: 5881: 5878: 5875: 5874: 5870: 5861: 5857: 5854: 5851: 5848: 5847: 5843: 5833: 5830: 5827: 5826:Grayling 2019 5824: 5822: 5818: 5815: 5814: 5810: 5800: 5799:Canfield 2005 5797: 5794: 5793:Grayling 2019 5791: 5788: 5785: 5784: 5780: 5770: 5767: 5765: 5761: 5758: 5755: 5754:Grayling 2019 5752: 5751: 5747: 5738: 5734: 5731: 5728: 5727:Grayling 2019 5725: 5723: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5710: 5707: 5705: 5702: 5701: 5697: 5690: 5685: 5678: 5677:Grayling 2019 5673: 5664: 5660: 5657: 5654: 5653:Grayling 2019 5651: 5650: 5646: 5637: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5624: 5621: 5620: 5616: 5606: 5605:Grayling 2019 5603: 5601: 5597: 5594: 5593: 5589: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5570: 5567: 5566: 5562: 5553: 5549: 5546: 5544: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5531: 5528: 5525: 5522: 5521: 5517: 5508: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5486: 5483: 5480: 5477: 5476: 5472: 5463: 5459: 5456: 5453: 5450: 5449: 5445: 5435: 5432: 5429: 5428:Grayling 2019 5426: 5425: 5421: 5412: 5408: 5407:Hamilton 2004 5405: 5403: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5381: 5377: 5368: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5355: 5352: 5349: 5348:Houlgate 2005 5346: 5345: 5341: 5331: 5330:Grayling 2019 5328: 5326: 5322: 5319: 5316: 5313: 5312: 5308: 5299: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5277: 5276:Whistler 2013 5274: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5262: 5259: 5258: 5254: 5245: 5242: 5239: 5236: 5233: 5230: 5229: 5225: 5215: 5212: 5209: 5206: 5203: 5202:Grayling 2019 5200: 5199: 5195: 5185: 5182: 5180: 5176: 5173: 5172: 5168: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5149: 5146: 5145: 5141: 5132: 5128: 5125: 5122: 5121:Grayling 2019 5119: 5118: 5114: 5105: 5101: 5098: 5095: 5094:Grayling 2019 5092: 5091: 5087: 5077: 5074: 5071: 5070:Grayling 2019 5068: 5067: 5063: 5053: 5052:Grayling 2019 5050: 5047: 5044: 5043: 5039: 5030: 5026: 5023: 5020: 5017: 5016: 5012: 5003: 4999: 4996: 4993: 4990: 4989: 4985: 4976: 4972: 4969: 4966: 4965:Grayling 2019 4963: 4962: 4958: 4949: 4945: 4942: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4930: 4927: 4926: 4922: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4903: 4900: 4899: 4895: 4886: 4882: 4881:Chappell 1994 4879: 4877: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4855: 4852: 4851: 4847: 4838: 4834: 4831: 4829: 4825: 4822: 4820: 4816: 4813: 4810: 4809:Grayling 2019 4807: 4806: 4802: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4783: 4782:Ge (葛云保) 2022 4780: 4777: 4774: 4773: 4769: 4760: 4756: 4753: 4750: 4747: 4746: 4742: 4735: 4730: 4720: 4719:Grayling 2019 4717: 4714: 4711: 4708: 4705: 4704: 4700: 4690: 4687: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4669:Grendler 2010 4667: 4666: 4662: 4655: 4650: 4641: 4637: 4634: 4632: 4628: 4625: 4622: 4621:Grayling 2019 4619: 4618: 4614: 4604: 4601: 4598: 4597:Grayling 2019 4595: 4592: 4589: 4586: 4583: 4582: 4578: 4568: 4565: 4562: 4561:Grayling 2019 4559: 4558: 4554: 4545: 4541: 4538: 4535: 4534:Marenbon 2004 4532: 4530:, Duns Scotus 4529: 4528:Grayling 2019 4526: 4525: 4521: 4512: 4508: 4505: 4502: 4499: 4498: 4494: 4484: 4481: 4479: 4475: 4472: 4471: 4467: 4458: 4455: 4453: 4449: 4446: 4443: 4442:Grayling 2019 4440: 4439: 4435: 4426: 4422: 4419: 4416: 4415:Grayling 2019 4413: 4412: 4408: 4399: 4395: 4392: 4390: 4386: 4383: 4380: 4379:Grayling 2019 4377: 4376: 4372: 4362: 4359: 4357:, p. 120 4356: 4353: 4351:, p. 153 4350: 4347: 4346: 4342: 4333: 4329: 4326: 4324: 4321: 4318: 4317:Grayling 2019 4315: 4314: 4310: 4301: 4297: 4294: 4292: 4288: 4285: 4283: 4279: 4276: 4274: 4270: 4267: 4264: 4263:Grayling 2019 4261: 4258: 4255: 4254: 4250: 4241: 4237: 4234: 4232: 4228: 4225: 4222: 4221:Grayling 2019 4219: 4218: 4214: 4204: 4201: 4199: 4195: 4192: 4190: 4186: 4183: 4180: 4177: 4176: 4172: 4162: 4159: 4156: 4155:Grayling 2019 4153: 4152: 4148: 4138: 4135: 4132: 4131:Marenbon 2023 4129: 4126: 4123: 4121: 4117: 4116:Duignan 2010a 4114: 4113: 4109: 4100: 4096: 4093: 4091: 4087: 4084: 4081: 4078: 4075: 4072: 4069: 4066: 4065: 4061: 4051: 4050:Grayling 2019 4048: 4045: 4042: 4039: 4036: 4033: 4030: 4029: 4025: 4016: 4012: 4009: 4006: 4005:Grayling 2019 4003: 4000: 3997: 3994: 3991: 3990: 3986: 3976: 3975:Grayling 2019 3973: 3970: 3967: 3964: 3961: 3960: 3956: 3946: 3945:Blackson 2011 3943: 3941: 3937: 3934: 3933: 3929: 3920: 3916: 3913: 3911: 3907: 3904: 3901: 3900:Grayling 2019 3898: 3895: 3892: 3889: 3886: 3885: 3881: 3872: 3868: 3865: 3863: 3859: 3856: 3855: 3851: 3842: 3838: 3835: 3832: 3829: 3826: 3823: 3822: 3818: 3808: 3805: 3803: 3799: 3796: 3794:, 2. Socrates 3793: 3790: 3789: 3785: 3778: 3773: 3764: 3760: 3757: 3754: 3751: 3750: 3746: 3739: 3734: 3725: 3721: 3718: 3715: 3712: 3711: 3707: 3698: 3694: 3691: 3688: 3685: 3684: 3680: 3671: 3667: 3664: 3662: 3658: 3655: 3652: 3649: 3648: 3644: 3635: 3631: 3628: 3625: 3622: 3621: 3617: 3607: 3604: 3601: 3598: 3596: 3592: 3591:Blackson 2011 3589: 3588: 3584: 3575: 3571: 3568: 3566: 3562: 3559: 3557: 3553: 3550: 3549: 3545: 3535: 3532: 3529: 3528:Grayling 2019 3526: 3523: 3520: 3519: 3515: 3509: 3505: 3500: 3491: 3487: 3484: 3481: 3478: 3476: 3472: 3469: 3466: 3463: 3462: 3458: 3448: 3445: 3442: 3439: 3437: 3434: 3433: 3429: 3420: 3416: 3413: 3411: 3407: 3404: 3403: 3399: 3390: 3386: 3383: 3381: 3377: 3374: 3373: 3369: 3359: 3358:Chimisso 2016 3356: 3354: 3350: 3347: 3344: 3341: 3339: 3335: 3332: 3330: 3326: 3323: 3322: 3318: 3308: 3305: 3303: 3299: 3296: 3293: 3290: 3287: 3284: 3282: 3278: 3275: 3274: 3270: 3261: 3257: 3254: 3251: 3248: 3246: 3242: 3239: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3217: 3214: 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OUP USA. 11594:7 September 11080:Historicism 10012:"al-Farabi" 9656:Duns Scotus 8168:, pp. 8166:McEwan 2008 8159:, pp. 8135:, pp. 8103:Wiredu 2008 7972:, pp. 7921:, pp. 7882:, pp. 7826:, pp. 7766:, pp. 7695:, pp. 7653:, pp. 7627:, pp. 7609:, pp. 7546:, p. 3 7421:Prince 2017 7414:, pp. 7381:, pp. 7366:, pp. 7286:, pp. 7269:Ranganathan 7254:Ranganathan 7239:Sydnor 2012 7233:Ranganathan 7154:, pp. 7098:Gannon 2020 7041:, pp. 6996:, pp. 6931:Tebbit 2013 6873:, pp. 6837:, p. 3 6744:, pp. 6735:, pp. 6714:, pp. 6647:, pp. 6598:Dehsen 2013 6571:Dehsen 2013 6564:, pp. 6497:Druart 2021 6493:, Al-Farabi 6412:, pp. 6383:Inglis 2005 6361:, pp. 6355:, p. 1 6295:, pp. 6278:, p. 1 6260:, p. 5 6222:Eberle 1994 6215:, pp. 6213:Dehsen 2013 6150:Gordon 1984 6090:Dehsen 2013 6069:Crotty 1998 5999:, pp. 5990:, pp. 5940:Decock 2002 5720:, pp. 5689:Waithe 1995 5661:, pp. 5634:, pp. 5598:, pp. 5596:Dehsen 2013 5571:, pp. 5569:Dehsen 2013 5530:Dehsen 2013 5496:, pp. 5485:Dehsen 2013 5458:Dehsen 2013 5400:, pp. 5384:Beiser 2011 5365:, pp. 5356:, pp. 5238:Beiser 1987 5175:Dehsen 2013 5148:Dehsen 2013 5127:Tucker 2017 5100:Dehsen 2013 5025:Dehsen 2013 4998:Dehsen 2013 4973:, pp. 4946:, pp. 4929:Dehsen 2013 4902:Dehsen 2013 4874:, pp. 4863:Leahey 2017 4854:Dehsen 2013 4833:Ongaro 2020 4817:, pp. 4784:, pp. 4755:Dehsen 2013 4509:, pp. 4507:Elders 1990 4474:Murphy 2019 4448:Dehsen 2013 4421:Dehsen 2013 4385:Dehsen 2013 4349:Marias 2012 4298:, pp. 4280:, pp. 4269:Dehsen 2013 4238:, pp. 4236:Warren 2008 4229:, pp. 4223:, Augustine 4127:, p. v 4095:Lawson 2004 4080:Furley 2005 4068:Graham 2023 4044:Furley 2005 4032:Graham 2023 3999:Furley 2005 3993:Graham 2023 3969:Furley 2005 3963:Graham 2023 3908:, pp. 3902:, Aristotle 3894:Furley 2005 3888:Graham 2023 3867:Murphy 2015 3831:Taylor 1997 3825:Graham 2023 3807:Taylor 1997 3798:Singer 2023 3792:Graham 2023 3777:Graham 2023 3759:Lawson 2004 3753:Graham 2023 3738:Graham 2023 3722:, pp. 3720:Dobson 2016 3714:Graham 2023 3695:, pp. 3693:Dobson 2016 3687:Graham 2023 3659:, pp. 3651:Graham 2023 3632:, pp. 3624:Graham 2023 3606:Graham 2023 3572:, pp. 3522:Taylor 1997 3506:, pp. 3504:Heller 2016 3473:, pp. 3436:Gracia 2006 3408:, pp. 3378:, pp. 3376:Graham 1988 3349:Beaney 2013 3345:, p. x 3336:, pp. 3334:Verene 2008 3327:, pp. 3325:Catana 2013 3279:, pp. 3258:, pp. 3256:Verene 2008 3243:, pp. 2912:proletariat 2686:Qin dynasty 2601:Navya-Nyāya 2546:Sautrāntika 2508:Yoga school 2304:colonialism 2288:panpsychism 2264:Mulla Sadra 2080:objectivity 1948:Continental 1908:speech acts 1554:historicism 1486:mathematics 1436:Montesquieu 1334:Rationalism 1300:blank slate 1232:empiricists 1165:Thomas More 1117:Renaissance 1088:Duns Scotus 998:nominalists 964:all-knowing 840:in 31 BCE. 790:four causes 728:metaphysics 574:Anaximander 542:theological 515:Presocratic 509:Justinian I 286:Navya-Nyāya 240:Mulla Sadra 178:Renaissance 17249:Categories 17168:Amerindian 17075:Australian 17014:Vietnamese 16994:Indonesian 16543:Kantianism 16492:Positivism 16482:Pragmatism 16457:Naturalism 16437:Liberalism 16415:Subjective 16353:Empiricism 16257:Avicennism 16202:Bhedabheda 16086:East Asian 16009:Madhyamaka 15989:Abhidharma 15855:Pyrrhonism 15622:Nominalism 15617:Naturalism 15546:Skepticism 15536:Relativism 15526:Absolutism 15455:Naturalism 15365:Deontology 15337:Skepticism 15322:Naturalism 15312:Empiricism 15276:Aesthetics 15180:Philosophy 14749:2023-06-07 14663:2023-06-07 14472:Philosophy 14282:2023-09-07 14139:2023-09-08 13859:2023-10-22 13812:"Ramanuja" 13452:2023-06-06 12735:3 December 12387:2023-05-28 12208:2023-06-07 12122:2023-05-28 12042:2023-06-15 11977:2023-09-07 11627:2023-06-10 11562:2023-08-13 11464:2023-06-08 11399:0847688410 11289:2023-05-27 10904:2023-05-27 10766:2023-05-24 10734:2023-05-24 10497:2023-05-24 10399:2023-06-17 10373:Fine, Gail 10265:2023-06-07 10233:2023-06-07 10002:2023-05-30 9876:2023-06-21 9611:21 October 9554:2023-06-26 9522:2023-08-17 9490:2023-08-13 9243:2024-03-21 9189:2023-05-28 9124:2023-06-04 9059:2023-06-06 9027:2023-06-09 8984:21 October 8883:2023-06-19 8851:2023-06-15 8794:2023-06-25 8530:2023-06-16 8399:2023-05-25 8367:2023-05-25 8335:2023-05-25 8303:2023-06-29 8223:"al-Kindi" 8161:38, 48, 88 8150:, p. 8114:, p. 8105:, p. 8072:, p. 8058:Smart 2008 8030:, p. 8014:Stehn 2023 7970:Kurtz 2012 7952:Smart 2008 7937:Smart 2008 7845:Smart 2008 7793:, p. 7747:Smart 2008 7728:, p. 7686:, p. 7618:, p. 7595:Smart 2008 7562:Smart 2008 7544:Smart 2008 7502:, p. 7500:Zhang 2021 7478:Smart 2008 7453:, p. 7444:, p. 7423:, p. 7412:Baird 2017 7322:, p. 7295:, p. 7277:, p. 7209:Dalal 2021 7190:, p. 7181:, p. 7100:, p. 7091:, p. 7066:Ruzsa 2023 7032:, p. 7005:, p. 6969:, p. 6942:, p. 6933:, p. 6900:, p. 6865:Smart 2008 6835:Smart 2008 6810:, p. 6808:Gupta 2012 6789:, p. 6774:, p. 6742:Masud 2009 6712:Moris 2013 6705:, p. 6697:Rizvi 2021 6645:Booth 2017 6638:, p. 6618:Kenny 2005 6600:, p. 6573:, p. 6537:, p. 6528:, p. 6515:Gutas 2016 6472:, p. 6470:Iqbal 2009 6457:, Al-Kindi 6385:, p. 6376:, p. 6329:Hasse 2021 6322:, p. 6233:, p. 6224:, p. 6174:Corradetti 6119:, p. 6110:, p. 6101:, p. 6092:, p. 6071:, p. 6035:, p. 6026:, p. 6024:Nyiro 2019 5927:, p. 5877:Kenny 2007 5858:, p. 5850:Kenny 2007 5819:, p. 5787:Hurka 2021 5762:, p. 5756:, Feminism 5711:, p. 5709:Gavin 2012 5704:Atkin 2010 5625:, p. 5623:Gavin 2012 5550:, p. 5541:, p. 5532:, p. 5524:Kenny 2007 5505:, p. 5487:, p. 5479:Kenny 2007 5460:, p. 5452:Kenny 2007 5434:Kenny 2007 5430:, Idealism 5409:, p. 5391:, p. 5323:, p. 5315:Kenny 2006 5296:, p. 5287:, p. 5278:, p. 5270:Kenny 2006 5263:, p. 5232:Smart 2008 5184:Kenny 2006 5177:, p. 5157:Kenny 2006 5150:, p. 5129:, p. 5102:, p. 5076:Kenny 2006 5046:Kenny 2006 5027:, p. 5019:Kenny 2006 5000:, p. 4992:Kenny 2006 4971:Vesey 1976 4944:Kurki 2008 4938:Kenny 2006 4931:, p. 4911:Kenny 2006 4904:, p. 4883:, p. 4865:, p. 4856:, p. 4835:, p. 4826:, p. 4757:, p. 4674:Baker 2015 4638:, p. 4636:Komar 2003 4542:, p. 4540:Cross 1999 4450:, p. 4423:, p. 4396:, p. 4387:, p. 4330:, p. 4289:, p. 4271:, p. 4265:, Boethius 4196:, p. 4187:, p. 4118:, p. 4097:, p. 4088:, p. 4086:Camus 2007 4013:, p. 4007:, Stoicism 3938:, p. 3917:, p. 3915:Buren 2023 3869:, p. 3860:, p. 3839:, p. 3827:, 3. Plato 3761:, p. 3668:, p. 3600:Sisko 2018 3563:, p. 3554:, p. 3534:Smart 2008 3488:, p. 3465:Frede 2022 3447:Frede 2022 3417:, p. 3387:, p. 3385:Priel 2020 3351:, p. 3343:Frede 2022 3300:, p. 3292:Smart 2008 3216:Zera Yacob 3167:References 3054:, and the 3013:Kantianism 2908:Mao Zedong 2900:capitalism 2550:Madhyamaka 2520:meditation 2405:liberation 2397:Upanishads 2237:Al-Ghazali 2227:contingent 2219:substances 2049:inequality 1971:experience 1938:John Rawls 1885:naturalism 1819:arithmetic 1748:, and the 1734:Pragmatism 1644:pragmatism 1392:monadology 1320:David Hume 1290:John Locke 1272:Empiricism 1057:revelation 876:well-being 826:Skepticism 806:inferences 798:eudaimonia 736:psychology 651:Protagoras 649:, such as 645:, and the 639:Anaxagoras 635:Empedocles 631:Xenophanes 627:Pythagoras 623:Anaximenes 619:Democritus 600:Parmenides 592:Heraclitus 578:perception 390:worldviews 368:See also: 290:Madhyamaka 202:positivism 198:pragmatism 17047:Pakistani 17009:Taiwanese 16956:Ethiopian 16929:By region 16915:By region 16730:Scientism 16725:Systemics 16585:Spinozism 16512:Socialism 16447:Modernism 16410:Objective 16318:Anarchism 16252:Averroism 16141:Christian 16093:Neotaoism 16064:Zurvanism 16054:Mithraism 16049:Mazdakism 15820:Cyrenaics 15747:Logicians 15380:Free will 15342:Solipsism 15289:Formalism 14264:0012-9976 14092:"Sankhya" 13906:. BRILL. 12859:23 August 12768:13 August 11778:. BRILL. 10800:0026-1068 9858:. BRILL. 9845:117002868 9754:"Śaṅkara" 8865:. BRILL. 8088:Imbo 1998 8070:Janz 2009 7693:Chai 2020 7179:Fang 2018 6751:Safi 2005 6535:Belo 2007 6437:Nasr 2006 6231:Nord 2010 5054:, Leibniz 4627:Robb 2021 4444:, Aquinas 4417:, Abelard 4319:, Abelard 4194:Kaye 2012 4038:Vogt 2022 3936:Long 1986 3837:Fine 2019 3530:, preface 3486:Park 2013 3226:Citations 3145:négritude 2924:peasantry 2896:communism 2892:socialism 2738:Confucius 2558:Nagarjuna 2345:Vaiśeṣika 2280:pluralism 2223:accidents 2199:Al-Farabi 2022:absurdist 1798:intuition 1746:education 1592:economics 1580:Karl Marx 1470:democracy 1452:Leviathan 1416:authority 1412:dogmatism 1141:Platonism 1097:haecceity 1082:Five Ways 1066:existence 972:free will 903:Intellect 892:knowledge 872:judgments 849:happiness 770:Aristotle 695:ignorance 643:Leucippus 487:Australia 418:biography 385:religious 258:spiritual 248:modernity 115:Confucius 17233:Category 17188:Yugoslav 17178:Romanian 17085:Scottish 17070:American 16999:Japanese 16979:Buddhist 16961:Africana 16951:Egyptian 16793:Feminist 16715:Rawlsian 16710:Quietism 16608:Analytic 16560:Krausism 16467:Nihilism 16432:Kokugaku 16395:Absolute 16390:Idealism 16378:Humanism 16166:Occamism 16133:European 16078:Medieval 16024:Yogacara 15984:Buddhist 15977:Syādvāda 15860:Stoicism 15825:Cynicism 15813:Sophists 15808:Atomists 15803:Eleatics 15742:Legalism 15683:Medieval 15607:Idealism 15561:Ontology 15541:Nihilism 15445:Idealism 15203:Branches 15192:Branches 15133:Archived 15100:Archived 15075:Archived 15042:Archived 15009:Archived 14976:Archived 14951:Archived 14918:Archived 14866:Archived 14841:Archived 14808:Archived 14775:Archived 14743:Archived 14689:Archived 14657:Archived 14605:Archived 14553:Archived 14520:Archived 14487:Archived 14454:Archived 14429:Archived 14385:Archived 14352:Archived 14319:Archived 14311:"Ethics" 14276:Archived 14231:Archived 14198:Archived 14165:Archived 14133:Archived 14100:Archived 14075:Archived 14042:Archived 14009:Archived 13976:Archived 13951:Archived 13918:Archived 13885:Archived 13853:Archived 13820:Archived 13795:Archived 13762:Archived 13729:Archived 13696:Archived 13663:Archived 13630:Archived 13574:Archived 13478:Archived 13446:Archived 13413:Archived 13388:Archived 13336:Archived 13311:Archived 13278:Archived 13245:Archived 13212:Archived 13179:Archived 13146:Archived 13113:Archived 13080:Archived 13047:Archived 13014:Archived 12989:Archived 12922:Archived 12886:Archived 12853:Archived 12820:Archived 12787:Archived 12762:Archived 12729:Archived 12704:Archived 12671:Archived 12638:Archived 12605:Archived 12572:Archived 12539:Archived 12495:Archived 12446:Archived 12413:Archived 12381:Archived 12358:Archived 12325:Archived 12292:Archived 12259:Archived 12226:Archived 12202:Archived 12169:Archived 12148:Archived 12116:Archived 12036:Archived 12003:Archived 11971:Archived 11938:Archived 11905:Archived 11872:Archived 11790:Archived 11757:Archived 11724:Archived 11645:Archived 11621:Archived 11609:. 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OUP. 8464:10 June 8181:Sources 7913:Yu 2023 7889:Yu 2023 7880:Qi 2014 7828:165–166 7629:100–101 7416:244–245 7368:151–154 7156:165–166 7043:101–109 6998:609–610 6746:237–238 6716:154–155 6649:143–169 6566:114–115 6414:648–649 6001:299–302 5992:114–118 5936:, Quine 5795:, Moore 5722:102–103 5636:102–103 5600:96, 152 5573:25, 132 5498:258–259 5332:, Hegel 4975:154–158 4876:145–146 4819:236–237 4786:157–159 4282:179–181 3724:112–115 3697:106–108 3508:154–156 3475:487–488 3410:109–111 3380:158–159 3329:115–118 3245:487–488 3153:Marxism 3117:Western 3070:African 2985:animism 2818:Pei Wei 2814:Wang Bi 2786:jian ai 2728:Pre-Qin 2670:Chinese 2649:in his 2534:Vedānta 2484:Purusha 2430:law of 2426:rebirth 2409:ascetic 2385:Rigveda 2375:Ancient 2369:Jainism 2361:Vedānta 2357:Mīmāṃsā 2349:Sāṃkhya 2337:Brahman 2192:the One 2170:falsafa 2010:anxiety 1633:utility 1262:freedom 1176:science 1134:clerics 1062:essence 1002:trinity 888:beliefs 687:courage 683:justice 655:Gorgias 615:atomism 586:apeiron 584:as the 493:Ancient 451:Western 333:Marxism 325:Xuanxue 313:virtues 278:Jainism 154:reality 17142:Polish 17122:German 17117:French 17102:Danish 17092:Canada 17042:Jewish 17004:Korean 16989:Indian 16531:People 16452:Monism 16405:German 16373:Holism 16306:Modern 16284:Jewish 16207:Dvaita 16180:Indian 16103:Huayan 15955:Ajñana 15912:Indian 15777:Greco- 15762:Taoism 15752:Mohism 15698:Modern 15665:By era 15654:By era 15569:Action 15450:Monism 15370:Virtue 15352:Ethics 15125: 15067: 15034: 15015:3 June 15001: 14982:6 June 14943: 14910: 14889: 14872:26 May 14847:2 June 14833: 14814:25 May 14800: 14767: 14735: 14714: 14695:3 June 14681: 14649: 14628: 14597: 14576: 14545: 14512: 14493:1 June 14479: 14435:29 May 14408: 14377: 14358:28 May 14344: 14325:25 May 14298: 14270: 14262: 14237:8 June 14223: 14204:3 June 14190: 14171:25 May 14157: 14125: 14106:9 June 14067: 14034: 14015:31 May 14001: 13982:8 June 13943: 13924:8 June 13910: 13877: 13845: 13801:3 June 13787: 13754: 13721: 13688: 13655: 13622: 13601: 13566: 13545: 13524: 13503: 13484:9 June 13470: 13438: 13394:30 May 13380: 13359: 13342:5 June 13317:25 May 13303: 13270: 13237: 13218:4 June 13204: 13171: 13152:7 June 13138: 13119:7 June 13105: 13086:7 June 13072: 13053:7 June 13039: 13020:29 May 12995:27 May 12968: 12949: 12928:9 June 12914: 12878: 12845: 12812: 12754: 12696: 12663: 12644:4 June 12630: 12611:30 May 12597: 12578:8 June 12564: 12545:27 May 12518: 12474: 12438: 12419:30 May 12405: 12364:6 June 12350: 12331:9 June 12317: 12298:28 May 12284: 12251: 12194: 12175:6 June 12154:31 May 12140: 12108: 12089: 12058: 12028: 12009:2 June 11995: 11963: 11930: 11897: 11851: 11832: 11813: 11796:28 May 11782: 11749: 11703: 11676: 11613: 11580: 11548: 11529:3 June 11515: 11482: 11450: 11417: 11396: 11365: 11332: 11313:3 June 11275: 11233: 11212: 11178: 11120: 11087: 11066: 11046:7 June 11021:9 June 11007: 10988:9 June 10974: 10928: 10890: 10871:24 May 10857: 10838:25 May 10806: 10798: 10752: 10720: 10676: 10633: 10614:31 May 10600: 10581:4 June 10567: 10534: 10513: 10483: 10450: 10431:6 June 10417: 10385: 10363:6 June 10349: 10316: 10297:30 May 10283: 10251: 10158:7 June 10144: 10125:6 June 10111: 10092:28 May 10078: 10059:28 May 10045: 10026:7 June 9988: 9967: 9950:2 June 9936: 9908:28 May 9894: 9862: 9843: 9787: 9729: 9710:7 June 9696: 9677:30 May 9663: 9644:3 June 9630: 9586:25 May 9572: 9540: 9508: 9476: 9457:25 May 9443: 9385: 9366:1 June 9352: 9333:30 May 9308:9 June 9294: 9261: 9234: 9205: 9175: 9142: 9110: 9077: 9045: 9013: 8959:28 May 8945: 8924: 8907:7 June 8869: 8837: 8780: 8761:25 May 8747: 8714: 8693: 8674:8 June 8660: 8641:31 May 8627: 8594: 8573: 8554:6 June 8516: 8497:2 June 8483: 8450: 8431:7 June 8417: 8385: 8353: 8321: 8289: 8270:25 May 8256: 8237:7 June 8212:7 June 8198: 7884:99–100 6217:48, 68 5096:, Kant 4323:Penner 3129:Ubuntu 3086:, and 3050:, the 3048:Aztecs 3017:basho, 2981:Shinto 2945:Others 2894:, and 2810:He Yan 2764:wu wei 2714:Mohism 2708:, and 2706:Daoism 2662:, and 2607:Modern 2590:Bhakti 2552:, and 2496:Sattva 2477:sūtras 2414:dharma 2359:, and 2310:Indian 2276:monism 1703:, and 1490:German 1264:, and 994:matter 966:, and 934:Church 824:, and 756:ethics 752:desire 750:, and 748:spirit 744:reason 720:beauty 691:wisdom 689:, and 556:Thales 546:Uranus 534:cosmos 485:, and 443:, and 343:, and 317:Daoism 216:, and 176:. The 168:. 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