746:
216:
858:. Although TĂşpac Amaru II insisted that his movement was reformist and did not seek to overthrow Spanish rule, his demands included an autonomous region for natives. The uprising quickly became a full-scale revolt. Approximately 60,000 Indians in the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes rallied to the cause. After scoring some initial victories, including defeating a Spanish army of 1,200 men, TĂşpac Amaru II was captured and killed in May 1781; nonetheless, the revolt continued, primarily in Upper Peru. There, a supporter of TĂşpac Amaru II, the Indian chief
44:
261:
415:
95:
300:
1101:
991:
821:
Indian reaction to colonial rule and conversion to
Christianity varied. Many Indians adapted to Spanish ways by breaking with their traditions and actively attempting to enter the market economy. They also used the courts to protect their interests, especially against new tribute assessments. Others
784:
disappeared rapidly, the
Indians continued their local worship under the protection of local Indian rulers. However, as Christianity influenced the Indians, a new folk-Catholicism developed, incorporating symbols of the indigenous religion. The church was tolerant of local Indian religions. In 1582,
499:
in Spain tried to reform the colonial economy in the mid-eighteenth century by reviving mining. The
Spanish crown provided the financial support necessary to develop deeper shafts, and in 1736, it agreed to lower the tax rate from 20 to 10 percent of the total output. The crown also helped create a
476:
with several million tons storage capacity provided a steady water supply for refineries. With the labor and technological problems resolved, silver mining flourished. By the middle of the 17th century, silver mining at PotosĂ had become so important that the city had the largest population in the
283:
over the succession. Although
Atahualpa defeated his brother, he had not yet consolidated his power when the Spaniards arrived in 1532, and he seriously misjudged their strength. Atahualpa did not attempt to defeat Pizarro when he arrived on the coast in 1532 because the Incan ruler was convinced
619:
The longevity of Spain's empire in South
America can be explained partly by the successful administration of the colonies. At first, it was primarily interested in controlling the independent-minded conquistadors. Still, the main goal soon became maintaining the flow of revenue to the crown and
508:
in PotosĂ indicated the crown's concern with technical improvements in silver production. However, the attempts to revive the mining sector in Upper Peru were only partially successful and could not halt the economic collapse of PotosĂ at the beginning of the 19th century. Nevertheless, mining
151:
in 1524. But even before the arrival of the
Europeans, the Inca Empire was floundering. Pizarro enjoyed stunning successes in his military campaign against the Incas, who were defeated despite some resistance. In 1538, the Spaniards defeated Inca forces near Lake Titicaca, allowing Spanish
830:
Local, primarily uncoordinated, rebellions occurred throughout colonial rule. More than 100 revolts occurred in the 18th century alone in
Bolivia and Peru. In contrast, early Indian rebellions were anti-Christian, and the revolts at the end of the sixteenth century were based in
801:
The conquest and colonial rule were traumatic experiences for the
Indians. Easily susceptible to European diseases, the native population decreased rapidly. The situation of the Indians worsened in the 18th century when Spain demanded higher tribute payments and increased
348:
had divided the Incan territory, with the north under the control of
Pizarro and the south under that of Almagro. Fighting broke out in 1537 when Almagro seized Cuzco after suppressing the Manco Inca rebellion. Pizarro defeated and executed Almagro in 1538, following the
870:
who took the names of the two rebel martyrs by calling himself TĂşpac Catari (also spelled Katari). He besieged La Paz for more than 100 days. Spain failed in putting down all of the revolts until 1783 and then proceeded to execute thousands of
Indians.
424:
Despite these conditions, silver production fluctuated dramatically during the colonial period. After an initial fifteen-year surge in production, output began to fall in 1560 as a result of a severe labor shortage caused by the Indian population's
712:
system, giving extensive powers to highly qualified officials directly responsible to the king. In 1784, Spain established four intendancy districts in Upper Peru, covering the present-day departments of La Paz, Cochabamba, PotosĂ, and Chuquisaca.
587:
and Indians. But by the late 18th century, an increase in the Indian population, the extension of tribute payments to all Indian males (including those who owned land), and a relative decline in income from the mines combined to make
950:, but they eventually rejected it as too violent. Although Upper Peru was fundamentally loyal to Spain, the ideas of the Enlightenment and independence from Spain continued to be discussed by scattered groups of radicals.
577:) became an increasingly important source of income for the crown despite Indian migration to avoid payment. An early effort to collect tribute from Indians by moving them into villages or indigenous communities (
730:
also imported goods and forced the Indians to buy them, a widely abused practice that proved to be an enormous source of wealth for these officials but caused much resentment among the Indian population.
850:. Born José Gabriel Condorcanqui, this educated, Spanish-speaking Indian took the name of his ancestor, Túpac Amaru. During the 1770s, he became embittered over the harsh treatment of the Indians by the
817:
also increased, and, according to one chronicler, at the end of the 16th century, "in PotosĂ alone, the trade in coca amounts to over half a million pesos a year, for 95,000 baskets of it are consumed."
774:
429:. Around the same time, PotosĂ's rich surface deposits became depleted, which meant that even more labor would be required to extract silver. The labor shortage was addressed by
325:
in the public square of Cuzco in 1572. Later revolts in the Bolivian highlands were usually organized by the elders of the community and remained local, the exception being the
426:
207:. Spain put down the revolt in 1783 and executed thousands of natives as punishment, but the revolt illustrated the precarious nature of Spanish colonial rule in the Andes.
195:
In the early 18th century, the mining industry entered a prolonged period of decline, as evidenced by the eclipsing of PotosĂ by La Paz. After 1700, only small amounts of
321:
against the new rulers and restored a "neo-Inca" state. This state continued to challenge Spanish authority even after the Spanish suppressed the revolt and beheaded
692:. This situation led to a competitive attitude and the reputation of Upper Peru for assertiveness, a condition reinforced by the economic importance of the region.
862:, had led an uprising in PotosĂ during the early months of 1780. Catari was killed by the Spaniards a month before TĂşpac Amaru II. Another major revolt was led by
361:. Only with the execution of Gonzalo Pizarro in 1548 did Spain succeed in reasserting its authority; later that year, colonial authorities established the city of
509:
remained critical to the economy of Upper Peru because food supplies sent from the valleys to mining centers on the Altiplano influenced agricultural production.
284:
that those who commanded the mountains also controlled the coast. When Pizarro formed alliances with Indians who resented Inca rule, Atahualpa did not modify the
579:
722:
664:(present-day Sucre) in 1558. Chuquisaca had become particularly important as PotosĂ's administrative and agricultural supply center. The jurisdiction of the
501:
406:. The area was heavily populated and could supply workers for the silver mines. In addition, Upper Peru could provide food for the miners on the Altiplano.
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began to assume active roles in the economy, especially in mining and agricultural production, and thus resented the trade barriers established by the
750:
175:. At its height in the 16th century, PotosĂ supported a population of more than 150,000, making it the world's largest urban center. In the 1570s,
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and on a labor system in which relatively free men worked alongside those who were coerced. Toledo also regulated the mining laws, established a
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were shipped from Upper Peru to Spain. In the mid-18th century, Spanish control over South America began to weaken. In 1780 the Inca descendant,
688:
had judicial authority and administrative and executive powers in the region, but only in routine matters; more critical decisions were made in
292:
and later executed him, even after payment of a ransom equivalent to half a century of European production of gold and silver. One year later,
708:
In the late 18th century, Spain undertook an administrative reform to increase the crown's revenues and eliminate many abuses. It created an
380:, the colonial name for the arid Chaco region, remained a violent frontier throughout the colonial period. In the Chaco, the Indians, mostly
545:
were difficult to control and abused their laborers, the crown tried repeatedly to bring Indians under its direct jurisdiction and control.
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620:
collecting the tribute of goods and labor from the Indian population. To this end, Spain soon created an elaborate bureaucracy in the
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The Spanish crown initially controlled the local governments indirectly but centralized procedures as time passed. At first, Viceroy
720:
confirmed the rights of local nobles and guaranteed them local autonomy. But the crown eventually came to employ Spanish officials,
288:, which included launching attacks by the light of the full moon. On November 16, 1532, Pizarro imprisoned Atahualpa during their
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Despite Pizarro's quick victory, Indian rebellions soon began and continued periodically throughout the colonial period. In 1537
701:, who represented the king in the municipal governments that their citizens elected. By the early 17th century there were four
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required deeper and more expensive shafts. The rapid decrease of the Indian population due to disease and exploitation by the
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445:. Adult males could be required to spend every sixth year working in the mines. Henceforth, PotosĂ mining depended on the
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Spain immediately recognized the enormous economic potential of Upper Peru. The highlands were rich in minerals, and
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384:, carried out unrelenting attacks against colonial settlements and remained independent of direct Spanish control.
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in which various institutions served as watchdogs over each other, and local officials had considerable autonomy.
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made no concessions to human misfortune, such as natural disasters. The Indian tribute was increased by 1 million
813:. Before the Spanish arrived, the Incas had consumed alcohol only during religious ceremonies. Indian use of the
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Spain exercised its control of smaller administrative units in the colonies through royal officials, such as the
523:. The crown granted a small number of conquistadors the right to the labor and produce of Indians living in the
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Because the rapidly expanding Inca Empire was internally weak, the conquest was remarkably easy. After the Inca
910:, emphasizing reason, questioning authority and tradition, and individualistic tendencies, also contributed to
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457:. Adopting the amalgam process was particularly important because it eliminated Indian control over refining.
437:(the king's representative) of Peru, during a visit to Upper Peru in the 1570s. Toledo used the pre-Columbian
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809:
These profound economic and social changes and the breakup of native culture contributed to the increasing
480:
A major decline followed the end of the 17th boom in the mining industry. The exhaustion of the first rich
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to extract forced labor for the PotosĂ mines from some sixteen highlands districts designated as supplying
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Although native resistance continued for some years, Spanish conquerors pushed forward, founding cities of
188:, which required native males from highland districts to spend every sixth year working in the mines. The
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Indian resistance delayed the conquest and settlement of the Bolivian lowlands. The Spanish established
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Contemporary engraving of the Battle of Cajamarca, showing Emperor Atahualpa surrounded on his palanquin
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in the jurisdiction and, in the absence of the viceroy, also had administrative and executive powers.
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During the first two decades of Spanish rule, the settlement of the Bolivian highlands — now known as
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the second largest source of income in Upper Peru. Tribute payments also increased because Spanish
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160:
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With the first Spanish settlers of Upper Peru came the secular and regular clergy to begin the
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854:. In November 1780, TĂşpac Amaru II and his followers seized and executed a particularly cruel
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tended to monopolize agricultural production, control the cheap Indian labor, and collect the
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for example, the bishop of La Plata permitted the Indians to build a sanctuary for the dark
680:) around Chuquisaca, but it soon included Santa Cruz and territory belonging to present-day
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504:, in 1751 and subsidized the mercury price to local mines. The foundation of an academy of
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In the late 18th century, a growing discontent with the Spanish rule developed among the
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344:— was delayed by a civil war between the forces of Pizarro and those of Almagro. The two
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clung to their customs as much as possible, and some rebelled against the white rulers.
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led nearly 60,000 natives in a battle against the Spaniards near the Peruvian city of
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In the second half of the sixteenth century, agricultural production shifted from
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were incensed that Spain reserved all upper-level administrative positions for
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167:, the Spaniards found the mineral treasure chest they had been searching for -
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Royal and Pontifical Higher University of San Francisco Xavier of Chuquisaca
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and technological advances in refining caused mining at PotosĂ to flourish.
1074:
Maria Luise Wagner. "State, church, and society". In Hudson & Hanratty.
942:, especially those educated at the university in Chuquisaca. At first, the
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Maria Luise Wagner. "The economy of Upper Peru". In Hudson & Hanratty.
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and, until 1568, also the entire district of Cuzco. The president of the
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Maria Luise Wagner. "Conquest and settlement". In Hudson & Hanratty.
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769:; in 1605, La Paz and Santa Cruz also became bishoprics. In 1623 the
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In addition to mining and agricultural production, Indian tribute (
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took on increased importance because of the construction of large
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
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to large estates, where Indians worked in exchange for land use.
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The second problem, the exhaustion of the high-content surface
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249:. They first sailed south in 1524 along the Pacific coast from
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also reduced silver output. After 1700, only small amounts of
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assumed control of Upper Peru but soon became embroiled in a
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Increasing Indian discontent with colonial rule sparked the
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has been a traditional Aymara religious center ever since).
639:) when it was created in 1776. The viceroy was aided by the
253:
to confirm the legendary existence of a land of gold called
689:
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978:
885:(persons of pure Spanish descent born in the New World).
210:
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Western Hemisphere, approximately 160,000 inhabitants.
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583:) was unsuccessful because of resistance from both
903:(Spanish-born persons residing in the New World).
796:
541:that the Indians had to pay to the crown. Because
726:, to collect tribute and taxes from the Indians.
652:The wealth of Upper Peru and its remoteness from
402:had the Western world's largest concentration of
171:had the Western world's largest concentration of
1113:
751:University of San Francisco Xavier of Chuquisaca
645:(council), which was simultaneously the highest
365:, which soon became an important commercial and
656:convinced the authorities in Lima to create an
527:, and by the 1650s, there were some eighty-two
152:penetration into central and southern Bolivia.
117:
893:policies of the Spanish crown. In addition,
568:in increasing amounts during colonial rule.
806:obligations to increase the mining output.
874:
225:
124:
110:
759:conversion of the Indians to Christianity
182:introduced a coercive form of labor, the
744:
517:Farming at first took place on colonial
413:
313:, whom the Spanish had established as a
298:
259:
214:
492:from Upper Peru were shipped to Spain.
1114:
1087:Rex A. Hudson and Dennis M. Hanratty.
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1068:
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464:, required technological innovations.
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946:of Upper Peru were influenced by the
672:, initially covered a radius of 100 "
427:inability to resist European diseases
211:Conquest and colonial rule, 1532-1809
163:in 1561. In the region then known as
970:
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825:
627:Upper Peru, at first a part of the
604:Colonial state, church, and society
359:rebellion against the Spanish crown
286:Inca ceremonial approach to warfare
13:
1043:
1019:
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753:was Upper Peru's first university.
388:The economy of colonial Upper Peru
14:
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777:, Upper Peru's first university.
765:in Upper Peru was established in
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789:on the shores of Lake Titicaca (
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797:Situation of the Native peoples
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633:Viceroyalty of RĂo de la Plata
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500:minerals purchasing bank, the
453:at PotosĂ, and introduced the
1:
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918:had not kept the writings of
835:Christian symbolism that was
1122:History of Bolivia by period
7:
734:
564:, and the valleys produced
556:became a major producer of
333:in the eighteenth century.
247:conquest of the Inca Empire
10:
1138:
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631:, was included in the new
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1096:Federal Research Division
986:Federal Research Division
143:from the rapidly growing
1089:Bolivia: a country study
975:Country Profile: Bolivia
958:
875:Growing Criollo dissent
472:. By 1621, a system of
455:mercury amalgam process
374:Santa Cruz de la Sierra
272:died in 1527, his sons
226:Conquest and settlement
161:Santa Cruz de la Sierra
852:corregidores de indios
780:Although the official
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932:Jean-Jacques Rousseau
761:. In 1552, the first
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580:comunidades indĂgenas
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351:Battle of Las Salinas
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147:first arrived in the
59:Pre-Columbian Bolivia
856:corregidor de indios
787:Virgen de Copacabana
670:Audiencia of Charcas
1093:Library of Congress
983:Library of Congress
920:Niccolò Machiavelli
741:Religion in Bolivia
718:Francisco de Toledo
635:(whose capital was
629:Viceroyalty of Peru
610:Viceroyalty of Peru
502:Banco de San Carlos
431:Francisco de Toledo
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180:Francisco de Toledo
839:and anti-Spanish.
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281:fought a civil war
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100:Bolivia portal
1098:(December 1989).
988:(January 2006).
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924:Benjamin Franklin
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394:Basque-Vicuña war
376:in 1561, but the
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459:
446:
442:
438:
423:
397:
371:
335:
308:
270:Huayna Capac
267:
229:
194:
189:
183:
159:in 1549 and
154:
135:
84:1982–present
63:
15:
1082:Works cited
916:Inquisition
676:" (179,600
668:, known as
566:coca leaves
550:encomiendas
529:encomiendas
520:encomiendas
513:Agriculture
323:TĂşpac Amaru
304:Tupac Amaru
33:History of
954:References
936:John Locke
811:alcoholism
791:Copacabana
739:See also:
710:intendancy
698:corregidor
662:Chuquisaca
608:See also:
600:annually.
594:absolutism
554:Cochabamba
525:encomienda
506:metallurgy
392:See also:
382:Chiriguano
378:Gran Chaco
311:Manco Inca
165:Upper Peru
833:messianic
815:coca leaf
763:bishopric
686:audiencia
666:audiencia
658:audiencia
642:audiencia
622:New World
278:Atahualpa
149:New World
79:1964–1982
74:1920–1964
69:1809–1920
64:1532–1809
1116:Category
944:criollos
940:criollos
895:criollos
887:Criollos
882:criollos
767:La Plata
735:Religion
682:Paraguay
678:hectares
590:alcabala
574:alcabala
369:center.
319:rebelled
241:led the
54:Overview
24:a series
22:Part of
912:criollo
771:Jesuits
674:leagues
539:tribute
490:bullion
435:viceroy
355:Gonzalo
342:Charcas
274:Huascar
197:bullion
177:Viceroy
35:Bolivia
868:sexton
404:silver
400:PotosĂ
363:La Paz
296:fell.
251:Panama
237:, and
173:silver
169:PotosĂ
157:La Paz
26:on the
959:Notes
562:wheat
482:veins
294:Cuzco
205:Cuzco
906:The
866:, a
804:mita
749:The
690:Lima
654:Lima
560:and
558:corn
486:mita
462:ores
451:mint
447:mita
443:mita
439:mita
276:and
255:Biru
245:and
190:mita
185:mita
981:).
979:PDF
846:of
340:or
329:of
1118::
1091:.
1045:^
1021:^
1003:^
967:^
934:,
930:,
926:,
922:,
317:,
257:.
233:,
1108:.
998:.
977:(
125:e
118:t
111:v
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