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resiliency of the raised fields to efficiently produce food crops, but in the end even the intelligent design of the fields was no match for the changing climate. The
Tiwanaku empire is believed to have dissolved around year 1000 AD when substantial food production ceased, and with it, the main source of power for the ruling elites dried up. The land was not inhabited again for many years after that.
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these conditions were able to retain their culture, local religious practices, and their language. The regional nobility, although forced to send their children to Cuzco for education, also continued to hold private property. Moreover, the Aymara practice of developing new colonies in the eastern valleys and along the coast was tolerated under Incan rule.
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Despite their renewed dominance, the Incas failed however to conquer the nomadic tribes in the eastern
Bolivian lowlands. The remains of Incan fortresses here reveal evidence of this failure and suggest that Incas could subdue only those cultures based on agricultural activities. As a result of their
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burial and ceremonial towers still remain. Although the
Aymaras were based, and prospered in, the harsh altiplano conditions they also controlled lands on eastern slopes of the Andes that were more suited for food production – colonies were also established in lowland temperate and semitropical areas
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with less access to water sources began to produce less crops, and diminishing surplus food stock to provide to the elites as a result. The immediate area surrounding the capital city and the lake eventually became the last source of substantial agricultural food production for the empire, due to the
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The
Tiwanaku empire is believed to have absorbed cultures rather than eradicating them. Archaeologists have also seen a dramatic adoption of Tiwanaku ceramics amongst the cultures who became part of the empire. Tiwanaku strengthened its power over its domain through the trade implemented between all
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Despite their policy of extreme centralization, the Incas did not fundamentally change the organization of the Aymara kingdoms, and these kingdoms remained relatively autonomous. Many local chiefs kept much of their power, and in general their rule was supported by Incan authority. The Aymara under
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In 1470 AD several Aymara kingdoms began to rebelling against the Incas. The Incas however completely defeated two Aymara states and pacified the region overall by sending mitimas, Quechua-speaking colonists, to Aymara territories particularly to the southern valleys and to the more central valley
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people, who had lived in the Andean region before the
Aymaras, and by the 12th century they were reduced to the status of oppressed, landless workers subservient to the Aymaras. Aymara dominance in the region was however eventually challenged by the growing state of the
223:, where they coped with low oxygen levels, poor soils and extreme weather patterns. The more temperate and fertile lowlands were sparsely inhabited by hunter-gatherer societies. Much of the pre-Columbian population was concentrated in the altiplano valleys of
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was first investigated by modern researchers in 1994. A necklace consisting of nine gold beads was found in an excavated grave located next to a
Terminal Archaic pit house. Charcoal recovered from the burial dates the gold beads to 2155-1936 cal BC
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of the cities within the empire. The elites thereby gained status by collecting surplus food stocks from all the regions under their influence, and then redistributing it back to the people where needed. This made maintaining large
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The highest official of
Qullasuyu ruled on behalf of the "Inca" (the emperor) and supervised a group of provincial governors, who in turn controlled the members of the Aymara nobility. Under a draft system called the
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resistance, the nomadic tribes in the eastern lowlands occupying two-thirds of
Bolivia preserved their way of life to a great extent, even after the Spanish conquest. The independence and success of the
361:. Tiwanako then underwent a dramatic transformation between 600 and 700 AD that established new monumental standards in civic architecture for the region and greatly increased the resident population.
490:, the Incas forced the peoples under their domination to work in mines, on construction projects, or to serve in the armies. Surprisingly these draftees were compensated fully for their labor.
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In about 950 AD a dramatic shift in the regions' climate occurred. A significant drop in annual precipitation in the
Titicaca Basin followed as a result, and many cities further away from
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Aldenderfer, Mark; Craig, Nathan M.; Speakman, Robert J.; Popelka-Filcoff, Rachel (2008), "Four-thousand-year-old gold artifacts from the Lake
Titicaca basin, southern Peru",
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has been dated to as early as 1200 BC, where it originated as a small agricultural village. In around 400 AD the Tiwanaku empire began its expansion, appropriating the
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Fagan, Brian M. 'The Seventy Great Mysteries of the Ancient World: Unlocking the Secrets of Past Civilizations'. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2001.
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covers the historical period between 10,000 BCE, when the Upper Andes region was first populated and 1532, when Spanish conquistadors invaded
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for instance was shown by their construction of elevated causeways to manage the regular floods in the region and to serve their population.
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regions where Cochabamba and Sucre were later founded. By the beginning of the 16th century the Incas had fully reestablished their rule.
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and establishing contacts with other cultures in Peru, Bolivia and Chile. By 600 AD it became an important regional power in the southern
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whose reign lasted from 1471 to 1493 AD. Western Bolivia became one of the four Incan territories within its empire known as
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in order to grow adequate food stocks to sustain their populations. This type of society organization has been called the
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Isbell, William H. 'Wari and Tiwanaku: International Identities in the Central Andean Middle Horizon'. 731–751.
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Kolata, Alan L. 'The Tiwankau: Portrait of an Andean Civilization'. Blackwell Publishers, Cambridge, 1993.
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and Cana kingdoms were the largest. These were located farther inland in fortified towns (pucara), and
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herds essential, for carrying goods back and forth between the center of the empire and the periphery.
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emerged as the most powerful of the ethnic groups living in the densely populated region surrounding
273:. The oldest Wankarani sites are dated from 1800 BC onwards. Wankarani culture arose in the area of
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McAndrews, Timothy L. et al. "Regional Settlement Patterns in the Tiwanaku Valley of Bolivia".
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474:, whose reign lasted from 1438 to 1471 AD. Pachacuti Yupanqui was then succeeded by his son
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Time and Process in an Early Village Settlement System on the Bolivian Southern Altiplano.
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developed a number of kingdoms in the region surrounding lake Titicaca, of which the
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The Incas conquered much of what is now western Bolivia under their ninth emperor
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716:(Third ed.). Library of Congress Federal Research Division. pp. 6–7.
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Situated in Western Bolivia, the Tiwanaku empires' capital city also named
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incorporated upper Bolivia into their growing empire. Based in present-day
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Hudson, Rex A.; Hanratty, Dennis Michael (1991). "Historical Setting".
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some 3000–4000 years ago, and production of copper began in 2000 BC.
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
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civilization until about 1200, when the regional kingdoms of the
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327:Uru people
279:Lake Poopo
269:, and the
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180:region of
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221:altiplano
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351:Tiwanaku
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54:Overview
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