Historical Chinese phonology

6801: 257:, on the other hand, had a significantly different structure. Most scholars have concluded that there were no tones, a lesser imbalance between possible initial and final consonants, and a significant number of initial and final clusters. There was a well-developed system of derivational and possibly inflectional morphology, formed using consonants added onto the beginning or end of a syllable. This system is similar to the system reconstructed for 24: 7451: 853:'s Portuguese–Chinese dictionary of 1583–1588. (Although these transcriptions, as well as the 'Phags-pa evidence, are significant in providing extensive documentation of earlier forms of Mandarin Chinese, their importance for reconstructing Middle Chinese pales in comparison with the much greater breadth provided by the pronunciation of Chinese variants and Sino-Xenic languages, despite their later attestation.) 4154:

back into alveolar stops instead of merging with retroflex sibilants. However, this argument cannot be made if there are distinctions in Min that do not appear in EMC (and which reflect ancient features going back to Old Chinese or – ultimately – even Proto-Sino-Tibetan, so that they cannot be explained as secondary developments), and this does indeed appear to be the case. In particular,

982:. The tightly bound pre-initials interact in complex ways with the initial to produce EMC initials, but the loosely bound pre-initials mostly just disappear. Their presence, however, is revealed by the use of a "phonetic complement" with the corresponding tightly bound pre-initial in their character, and sometimes by early borrowings into other languages, especially 281:, this has progressed to a farther extent than elsewhere, with only about 1,200 possible syllables. The result, in Mandarin especially, has been the proliferation of the number of two-syllable compound words, which have steadily replaced former monosyllabic words, to the extent that the majority of words in Standard Mandarin are now composed of two syllables. 241:, from about the 13th century AD (beginning of the Yuan dynasty, in which Early Mandarin was developed) to the present. Most modern varieties appear to have split off from a Late Middle Chinese koine of about 1000 AD (although some remnants of earlier periods are still present, ex. stops without release at the end of the syllable in Hakka and Yue). 377:, the first stage for which we have direct and detailed phonetic evidence. This evidence is not enough by itself to directly determine the sound system of the language, however, as it only subdivides characters into an initial consonant and non-initial portion, without further decomposing the latter into phonemes. 4153:

In the case of distinctions that appear to have never developed in Min, it could be argued that the ancestral language did in fact have these distinctions, but they later disappeared. For example, it could be argued that Min varieties descend from a Middle Chinese dialect where retroflex stops merged

250:

Middle Chinese had a structure much like many modern varieties, with largely monosyllabic words, little or no derivational morphology, four tone-classes (though three phonemic tones), and a syllable structure consisting of initial consonant, glide, main vowel and final consonant, with a large number

1935:

Exactly which changes occurred between EMC and LMC depends on whose system of EMC and/or LMC reconstruction is used. In the following, Baxter's EMC reconstruction is compared to Pulleyblank's LMC reconstruction. To the extent that these two systems reflect reality, they may be significantly farther

1738:

glide. This glide combined with a previous coronal consonant to produce new palatal consonants. It also sometimes turned a preceding velar or laryngeal into a palatal sibilant and/or raised a following main vowel. (Contrarily, type-A syllables often lowered a following main vowel, with a high vowel

993:

There was no MC-style tone, but there was a distinction of some sort between type-A and type-B syllables. Depending on the linguist, the distinction is variously thought to reflect either presence or absence of prefixes, an accentual or length distinction on the main vowel, or some sort of register

3771:

A tone split occurs as a result of the loss of the voicing distinction in initial consonants. The split tones then merge back together except for Middle Chinese tone 1; hence Middle Chinese tones 1,2,3 become Mandarin tones 1,2,3,4. (Some syllables with original Mandarin tone 3 move to tone 4; see

877:

represents (or proposes) a literate reading adopted by the literate class of the period throughout the country, not any live language that once existed. For example, in some cases a former three-way distinction A, B, C among initials or finals gave way to a situation where one dialect group of the

573:

and patterns of rhyming among poets of various eras, these scholars were able to work out the system of categories of rhymes in Old Chinese, and discover additional Middle Chinese categories that had previously been overlooked. However, progress in Chinese linguistics was seriously hampered by the

2099:

The tones do not change phonemically. However, allophonically they evidently split into a higher-pitched allophone in syllables with voiceless initials, and a lower-pitched allophone in syllables with voiced initials. All modern Chinese varieties reflect such a split, which produces a new set of

1940:

to be real, while many of them are clearly anachronisms that no longer applied to any living form of the language in 600 AD. Finally, some of the resulting "changes" may not be actual changes at all so much as conceptual differences in the way the systems have been reconstructed; these are noted

496:

was developed, which allowed the pronunciation of any syllable to be specified unambiguously by using one character to indicate the initial consonant and another to indicate the remainder. By the sixth century AD, systematic attempts were made to compile lists of all characters and specify their

276:

The main changes leading to the modern varieties have been a reduction in the number of consonants and vowels and a corresponding increase in the number of tones (typically through a pan-East-Asiatic tone split that doubled the number of tones while eliminating the distinction between voiced and

4101:

Early Middle Chinese (EMC) of c. 600 AD. Not only does it not reflect the development of labiodental fricatives or other LMC-specific changes, but a number of features already present in EMC appear never developed. An example is the series of retroflex stops in EMC, which developed from earlier

2123:

and the main vowel is a back vowel; other reconstructions word the rule differently. According to Baxter, however, labiodentalization might have occurred independently of each other in different areas. For example, some variants retain OC /m/ before the glide, while in other variants, it had

289:

The terms "Old Chinese" and "Middle Chinese" refer to long periods of time in and of themselves, during which significant changes occurred. Although there is no standard system for subdividing these periods, the following is an approximate chronology leading from the oldest writings in the

2729:, and the common outcome elsewhere of originally voiced consonants as unvoiced aspirates. Karlgren reconstructed breathy voicing for EMC as well, but this is no longer thought to be the case due to lack of any evidence for it in borrowings to or from EMC (especially involving Sanskrit and 3648:(and corresponding main vowels) are lost after retroflex consonants. The operation of this change is exactly as for the similar change that occurred after EMC retroflexes. The difference between EMC retroflex and palatal sibilants is sometimes reflected in Mandarin, for example between 1936:

apart than the 400 or so years normally given between EMC and LMC, since Baxter's EMC system was designed to harmonize with Old Chinese while Pulleyblank's LMC system was designed to harmonize with later Mandarin developments. Furthermore, Baxter considers all the distinctions of the

196:

of the language, reconstruction is in general quite difficult, and depends to a large extent on ancillary sources that more directly document the language's phonology. On the basis of these sources, historical Chinese is divided into the following basic periods:

2119:, possibly from earlier affricates) in certain circumstances involving a following glide. When this happens, the glide disappears. Using Baxter's reconstruction, the triggering circumstances can be expressed simply as whenever a labial is followed by a glide 3573:

In general, Mandarin preserves the LMC system of medials and main vowels fairly well (better than most other varieties) but drastically reduces the system of codas (final consonants). The systematic changes to medials and main vowels are loss of the

3605:

The exact changes involving finals are somewhat complex and not always predictable, in that in many circumstances there are multiple possible outcomes. The following is a basic summary; more information can be found in the table of EMC finals in

1811:, and tone 1 ("level", reconstructed as having level pitch) from other syllables. As the suffixes were part of the derivational morphology of OC, this often produced MC tonal variation, either in a single word or in semantically related words. 4158:(the reconstructed ancestor of the Min varieties) appears to have had six series of stops corresponding to the three series (unvoiced, unvoiced aspirated, voiced) of Middle Chinese. The additional three series are voiced aspirated (or 578:— i.e. a basic unit of sound, including vowels and vowel-like segments as well as consonants. This made it impossible to go beyond determination of systems of rhyming categories to reconstruction of the actual sounds involved. 644:, he performed field work in China between 1910 and 1912, creating a list of 3,100 Chinese characters and collecting phonological data on the pronunciation of these characters in 19 Mandarin dialects as well as the dialects of 4229:

accounts for both voiced aspirates and softened stops. According to them, voiced aspirates reflect Old Chinese stops in words with particular consonant prefixes, while softened stops reflect Old Chinese stops in words with a

4165:

Evidence for the voiced aspirated stops comes from tonal distinctions among the stops. When voiced stops became unvoiced in most varieties and triggered a tone split, words with these stops moved into new lowered (so-called

222:, broadly from about the 5th century AD (Northern and Southern dynasties, Sui, Tang, Song) through to 12th century AD. More narrowly, reconstructed "Middle Chinese" is usually based on the detailed phonetic evidence of the 2758:

tone are unaspirated, developing from Old Chinese and Middle Chinese voiced initials. Some words have aspirated readings, however, which led some linguists to believe that there may be a voiced aspirated series in the

894:

The reconstruction of Old Chinese is more controversial than that of Middle Chinese since it has to be extrapolated from the Middle Chinese data. Phonological information concerning Old Chinese is chiefly gained from:

886:

specifies A, B, C as all distinct, even though no living dialect of the time period made such a three-way distinction, and any earlier dialect that did make this distinction would have differed in other ways from the

4106:, and which later merged with retroflex sibilants. In Min, the corresponding words still have alveolar stops. This difference can be seen in the words for "tea" borrowed into various other languages: For example, 3772:

below.) Syllables with a final stop consonant, originally toneless, get assigned to one of the four modern tones; for syllables with Middle Chinese unvoiced initials, this happens in a completely random fashion.

1088:

William H. Baxter pointed out that some of the words that were reconstructed with Middle Chinese palatal initials were perhaps words that had velar initials in Old Chinese. For example, Baxter indicated that

1217:

The loss of the reconstructed OC medial "r", or the r-infix in Sagart's reconstruction, had not only influenced vowel quality in Middle Chinese but had also caused the retroflexion of coronal consonants.

4220:

that vanished in Early Middle Chinese but remained in Proto-Min. Until recently, no reconstructions of Old Chinese specifically accounted for the Proto-Min distinctions, but the recent reconstruction of

1488:

in Type B syllables, which palatalised in Middle Chinese. Sagart pointed out, however, that these changes are not true if the lateral is preceded by a reconstructed prefix. This position, whereby OC

998:

of the initial consonant in type-A syllables). These different reconstructions may not be mutually exclusive (e.g. an earlier prefix distinction may have developed into a later register distinction).

1163:, this change is reflected when the Old Chinese plosive occurred in type A syllables. This is supported by Baxter's observation that modern Min dialects show a difference in pronunciation between 206:, broadly from about 1250 BC to 25 AD, when the Han dynasty came back to power after the Xin dynasty. More narrowly, reconstructed "Old Chinese" is based on the rhymes of early poetry such as the 406:, c. 1300 AD (sometimes specifically given as 1269–1455. The Yuan dynasty conquered the whole of China in 1279 and was overpowered by the Ming dynasty in 1368), was the language inferred in the 4213:

classes, suggesting that Proto-Min had both unvoiced and voiced "softened stops". Presumably "softened stops" were actually fricatives of some sort, but it is unclear exactly what they were.

720:

Karlgren was also instrumental in early reconstruction of Old Chinese. His early work on Middle Chinese made various suggestions about Old Chinese, and a detailed reconstruction appeared in

623:

Cultural attitudes that treated Koreans, Tibetans, Mongolians and most other foreigners as "barbarians" made it difficult for scientific knowledge from these cultures to diffuse into China.

428:, up through c. 1800 (sometimes specifically given as 1455–1795), documented in numerous Chinese, Korean and European sources. Among these are Chinese-Korean pedagogical texts such as 1226:

Both Baxter and Sagart have pointed out that Old Chinese had a series of voiceless sonorants, which typically do not occur in most modern varieties. These voiceless sonorants are

1754:

glide eventually disappeared, but before doing this it turned a previous coronal consonant into a retroflex consonant, and fronted (and often centralized) a following main vowel.

5679: 2194:

pairs end up in grades 3 and 4, respectively.) A change of this sort occurs in all modern reconstructions of EMC and LMC, and is responsible for the creation of Division IV.

6224: 4067:), a change that occurred after Early Middle Chinese (EMC) of c. 600 AD. In fact, some post-LMC changes are reflected in all modern varieties, such as the loss of the 581:

In some ways, the lack of native Chinese development of the concept of a unit of sound is surprising, as it had already been developed by Sanskrit grammarians such as

1864:

The main vowel developed in various complicated ways, depending on the surrounding sounds. For example, in type-A syllables, according to Baxter's reconstruction, OC

235:

describes a compromise between the northern and southern varieties and such rhyming dictionaries were essential to write and read aloud poetry with a rhyming pattern.

2180:

elsewhere. (Along with certain later changes, this means that, synchronically, an LMC speaker cannot distinguish original Division IV syllables from original III-4

6186: 6926: 5708: 589:

shows a close familiarity with the tradition of Sanskrit grammar. Furthermore, some non-Chinese writing systems within the Chinese cultural orbit, such as the

4234:

prefix, so that the stop occurred between vowels. The postulated development of the softened stops is very similar to the development of voiced fricatives in

2268:

do not contrast before velar finals, except possibly after EMC retroflex sibilants.) These contrasts would be reflected in some other way in a system without

2733:

languages, which had a distinction between normally voiced and breathy-voiced consonants). This may have occurred to differing extents in different places:

251:

of initial consonants and a fairly small number of final consonants. Not counting the glide, no clusters could occur at the beginning or end of a syllable.

6733: 6723: 4201:

In addition, in some Min varieties, some words with EMC stops are reflected with stops while others are reflected with "softened" consonants, typically

146: 6728: 6487: 6035: 4083:'s transcription). Other changes occurring in most modern varieties, such as the loss of initial voiced obstruents and corresponding tone split, are 2750:

reflect all EMC voiced consonants as unvoiced aspirates, but many others (e.g. Mandarin) only have such aspirated consonants in syllables within the

4055:

Most modern Chinese varieties can be viewed as descendants of Late Middle Chinese (LMC) of c. 1000 AD. For example, all modern varieties other than

6642: 510:

During the next few centuries, the increasing influence of Buddhism and Buddhist scholars brought Chinese linguists in touch with the tradition of

2736:

Among the two Chinese varieties that have not merged voiced and unvoiced consonants, Wu reflects the EMC voiced consonants as breathy voiced, but

597:, were developed under the close influence of Indian writing systems and have the concept of phoneme directly embedded in them. (Furthermore, the 1803:

developed from the former suffixes (post-final consonants), with MC tone 3 ("departing", reconstructed as having falling pitch) developing from

974:. There were also various pre-initial consonants. (In recent systems, Baxter also constructs a distinction between "tightly bound" pre-initials 4624: 693:

of 601 AD). In 1915, he published his reconstruction of Middle Chinese, which underlies in one form or another all subsequent reconstructions.

613:

and always treated the rhyming part of a syllable as a single unit, made it difficult to independently develop the concept of a unit of sound.

41: 4182:

classes have only one of the two, depending on how the formerly voiced stops developed. Min varieties, however, have both kinds of words in

1124: 913: 1688:

According to Sagart, this fortition was impeded if the lateral was preceded by an unspecified consonant or minor syllable. He reconstructs

1205:. The second character is pronounced by these dialects with a null initial, possibly reflecting a voiced laryngeal in Old Chinese. The OC * 486:

period. Chinese linguists had long compiled dictionaries and attempted to identify the pronunciation of difficult characters by specifying

317:

to refer to the same period ("10th to 9th century BC"), although Schuessler suggests that the term should refer to a slightly later period.

88: 632:

As a result, the first reconstructions of the actual sound systems of Old and Middle Chinese were only done in the early 20th century, by

6809: 6047: 60: 4593: 2847:

The following table illustrates the evolution of initials from Early Middle Chinese, through Late Middle Chinese, to Standard Mandarin.

5436: 4587: 5290: 4891: 4567: 1948:

The class of EMC palatals is lost, with palatal sibilants becoming retroflex sibilants and the palatal nasal becoming a new phoneme

67: 7478: 6011: 5999: 2041:. However, this is best analyzed as a system with a four-way main vowel distinction between no vowel and the three phonemic vowels 1928:; in other words, attempting to reconstruct the parent language of all varieties excluding Min leads no farther back than LMC. See 1908:

Note that OC type-B syllables correspond closely to division-III, and (in Baxter's reconstruction at least) to EMC syllables with

701:

also made great contributions in the field during the early days of its development. Karlgren himself had no direct access to the

6023: 5515: 820: 1924:

To a large degree, Late Middle Chinese (LMC) of c. 1000 AD can be viewed as the direct ancestor of all Chinese varieties except

7473: 7107: 74: 6346: 4896: 4859: 4528: 7157: 2291:, not otherwise occurring in Baxter's system). According to Abraham Y.S. Chan, the former change was characteristic of the 6999: 2224:(often viewed as palatalized final consonants). This may not be a real change; Pulleyblank's EMC system already includes 56: 181:

linguistics; reconstruction is more difficult because, unlike Indo-European languages, no phonetic spellings were used.

4617: 4050: 7488: 4550: 1201:). This pronunciation is consistent with an earlier pronunciation with a velar plosive, most likely the Old Chinese * 107: 4726: 210:

and the phonological components of Chinese characters, and is assumed to represent the language of c. 1000-700 BC.

2013:

The eight-way EMC distinction in main vowels is significantly modified, developing into a system with high vowels

7079: 5127: 5114: 4653: 444:; a dictionary by a friar, Basilio Brollo (1692-1694), also known as Basile da Glemona, a grammar of Mandarin by 128: 4573: 2725:. This is a non-phonemic change; it is postulated to account for the breathy-voiced consonants still present in 177:, the methods employed in Historical Chinese phonology differ considerably from those employed in, for example, 5786: 5429: 5325: 4678: 45: 7395: 6849: 5285: 5250: 4881: 4668: 4610: 2806: 2805:

Before high front vowel or glide, velars ("back-tooth" stops and "throat" fricatives) and alveolar sibilants

7454: 7365: 4871: 4663: 2299:

dialect. The distinction between the two surfaces in Standard Mandarin as a respective distinction between

2232:, whereas they are not present in any modern dialect. The most direct evidence for these sounds comes from 812:

Other early cases of Chinese words borrowed into foreign languages or transcribed in foreign sources, e.g.

4103: 4076: 4072: 4064: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3721: 3717: 3698: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3645: 3641: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3554: 3549: 3542: 3537: 3530: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3512: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3494: 3490: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3470: 3463: 3458: 3453: 3449: 3444: 3440: 3433: 3429: 3424: 3420: 3413: 3408: 3403: 3399: 3394: 3390: 3383: 3379: 3374: 3370: 3363: 3359: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3341: 3337: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3291: 3287: 3280: 3276: 3271: 3267: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3178: 3174: 3169: 3165: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3132: 3128: 3123: 3119: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3086: 3081: 3075: 3070: 3066: 3059: 3055: 3050: 3046: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3013: 3008: 3003: 2998: 2991: 2985: 2979: 2974: 2966: 2961: 2956: 2951: 2944: 2939: 2932: 2927: 2922: 2917: 2910: 2905: 2899: 2894: 2887: 2882: 2877: 2872: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2817: 2813: 2795: 2791: 2715: 2711: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2676: 2672: 2665: 2661: 2654: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2628: 2624: 2609: 2605: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2397: 2388: 2384: 2373: 2369: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1956: 1949: 1913: 1909: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1808: 1804: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1751: 1744: 1740: 1735: 1277: 1268: 1259: 1250: 1241: 1232: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1182: 1156: 1152: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1014: 1010: 1006: 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 142: 138: 81: 7370: 7242: 7167: 6824: 3867: 1800: 849:(15th century) and works by various Christian missionaries and other Westerners, the oldest of which is 7412: 7385: 7262: 7174: 6921: 6901: 5263: 4799: 4749: 4683: 4658: 4260: 2233: 1002: 798: 673: 412: 6964: 5662: 5422: 4972: 4901: 4759: 4739: 4265: 1143:

respectively in Old Chinese. Baxter posited that the medial -rj- cluster had blocked palatalisation.

694: 601:, an alphabetic script of Tibetan origin, had been used to write Chinese itself during the Mongolian 7338: 7323: 7313: 7027: 5295: 4977: 4911: 4876: 2710:

EMC palatals become retroflex, with palatal sibilants merging with retroflex sibilants and palatal

983: 802: 669: 7350: 5589: 5139: 5022: 4992: 4957: 4744: 4688: 4673: 4582: 726: 277:

unvoiced consonants). This has led to a gradual decrease in the number of possible syllables. In

266: 178: 34: 7343: 7192: 4602: 7284: 7127: 5725: 5393: 5180: 4987: 4886: 2057:

is phonemically a syllable containing only a bare consonant, with no medial and no main vowel).

1135:

varieties nonetheless retain velar initials in both. The two are reconstructed by Baxter to be

920: 806: 797:, especially during the period of 500–1000 AD. This large-scale borrowing led to the so-called 733:

The reconstruction of Middle Chinese draws its data (in approximate order of importance) from:

676:

pronunciations as well as previously published material on nine other dialects, along with the

641: 124: 422:"Sounds and Rhymes of the Central Plains", an opera manual of 1324 AD written by Zhou Deqing). 7279: 7202: 6916: 6894: 5649: 5482: 5037: 5004: 4997: 4906: 4819: 4814: 4255: 4134: 4060: 3787: 942:(OC) syllable looked like. The following is an approximate consensus, based on the system of 933: 527: 3594:. All final stop consonants are lost, and final nasals are reduced to a distinction between 1209:

remained intact in Type B syllables, which correspond to Division III Middle Chinese words.

620:

by most Chinese scholars precluded direct reading of the original works on Sanskrit grammar.

609:

The strong influence and long tradition of Chinese writing, which included no concept of an

358:

that is immediately ancestral to a set of northwestern dialects documented by various early

7047: 7015: 6844: 5969: 5464: 5383: 5245: 5155: 5134: 5044: 5032: 5027: 4771: 4754: 2053:; high vowels are then analyzed as phonemically consisting of a medial and no main vowel ( 990:.) Pre-initial and post-final consonants were frequently used in morphological derivation. 966:), a main vowel, an optional final (coda) consonant, and an optional post-final consonant 8: 7483: 7291: 7257: 7092: 7059: 6906: 6834: 6751: 6592: 6587: 6341: 6151: 5657: 5373: 5280: 5258: 5215: 5200: 5165: 5109: 5054: 5049: 4918: 4804: 4781: 4721: 4235: 4216:

Scholars generally assume that these additional Proto-Min sounds reflect distinctions in

4123: 1073: 835: 786: 598: 523: 407: 347: 332: 4190:

classes. This has caused scholars to reconstruct voiced aspirates (probably realized as

2754:

tone, the light-level tone. Similarly, many words in Hokkien Min that are read with the

2236:, which was borrowed from LMC and does reflect the sounds. In Pulleyblank's LMC system, 7407: 7274: 7237: 7122: 7020: 6954: 6949: 6839: 6829: 6455: 6433: 6326: 6134: 6129: 6052: 6040: 6028: 6016: 6004: 5528: 5270: 5079: 5014: 5009: 4964: 4923: 4711: 4637: 4014: 2760: 397: 324:

to refer to the "4th to 3rd century BC"; that is, the period near the beginning of the

291: 258: 162: 5170: 2068:

are lost after EMC retroflex sibilants, prior to merging with palatals; contrarily, a

1726:

The following are the main developments that produced Early Middle Chinese (EMC) from

7318: 7308: 7187: 7152: 7007: 6959: 6911: 6678: 6531: 6465: 6321: 6306: 5977: 5954: 5908: 5833: 5759: 5639: 5607: 5561: 5500: 5490: 5455: 5398: 5363: 5348: 5332: 5320: 5305: 5275: 5235: 5205: 5185: 5175: 5119: 5099: 5089: 5074: 5059: 4944: 4939: 4866: 4836: 4831: 4809: 4791: 4786: 4776: 4766: 4577: 4546: 4524: 4516: 4297: 4222: 4147: 4080: 995: 943: 828: 790: 724:(1940), a dictionary of Middle and Old Chinese reconstructions. An expanded version, 637: 466: 295: 278: 262: 1685:, of which the developments have been consistent with their fortition and reflexes. 436:(1517); the Portuguese-Chinese dictionary (1583–1588) of the Christian missionaries 7424: 6944: 6819: 6683: 6673: 6658: 6604: 6526: 6477: 6438: 6387: 6301: 6253: 6237: 6117: 6077: 6072: 5959: 5913: 5859: 5854: 5844: 5838: 5667: 5612: 5597: 5473: 5445: 5378: 5310: 5300: 5240: 5230: 5225: 5210: 5195: 5190: 5104: 5094: 4952: 4846: 4734: 4716: 4706: 4597: 4202: 4130: 4114: 4107: 2608:

appears between a guttural consonant (velar or laryngeal) and a directly following

1457:

corresponds to developments from a Type B syllable. The MC palatal sibilant reflex

768: 605:, c. 1270–1360, although it later fell out of use.) It seems likely, however, that 511: 457: 441: 158: 2763:, which had branched off from Old Chinese before it developed into Middle Chinese. 7375: 7355: 7252: 7212: 7197: 6936: 6786: 6776: 6756: 6713: 6708: 6574: 6538: 6521: 6511: 6450: 6268: 6204: 6146: 6094: 6089: 5991: 5887: 5882: 5791: 5738: 5733: 5713: 5698: 5693: 5634: 5629: 5619: 5602: 5574: 5546: 5523: 5388: 5368: 5353: 5315: 5220: 5160: 5084: 5069: 5064: 4854: 4841: 2634:

After an EMC retroflex sibilant, a directly following high-front vowel or glide (

1494:

underwent fortition to become a plosive, is upheld by Baxter. Baxter pointed out

1194: 1001:

Compared with EMC, there were no palatal or retroflex consonants, but there were

882:

period merged AB vs. C, while another group merged A vs. BC. In these cases, the

838:, a brief period (c. 1270–1360) when Chinese was written in an alphabetic script. 794: 737: 686: 570: 498: 374: 228: 2784:; the stops became aspirated in syllables with tone 1 and unaspirated otherwise. 1051:

The system of final (coda) consonants was similar to EMC; however, there was no

490:

characters. During the early centuries AD, however, the more advanced method of

410:, the first alphabetic writing system for Chinese. It is also documented in the 265:; it is also largely similar to the system that occurs in the more conservative 7429: 7419: 7390: 7380: 7097: 7069: 6781: 6766: 6668: 6619: 6614: 6599: 6543: 6482: 6364: 6336: 6316: 6263: 6232: 6209: 6199: 6194: 6156: 6139: 6084: 5949: 5931: 5849: 5823: 5764: 5684: 5672: 5624: 5579: 5569: 5495: 5403: 5358: 4538: 4246:

varieties and are reconstructed as developing from words with minor syllables.

4231: 4226: 3862: 3776: 3705: 3607: 1186: 1160: 594: 558: 483: 445: 270: 218: 6800: 4594:

Reconstruction of Middle Chinese and Old Chinese as well as intermediate forms

4170:) tone classes, while words with unvoiced stops appeared in raised (so-called 2287:. In some dialects, however, it instead remains separate (perhaps in the form 7467: 7230: 7042: 7037: 6609: 6553: 6548: 6516: 6503: 6379: 6331: 6258: 6214: 6104: 5941: 5864: 5703: 5551: 5538: 4301: 4191: 4159: 2747: 2737: 2722: 2612:. This sets the stage for palatalized syllables in Standard Mandarin such as 1132: 987: 764: 714: 713:

Caves in the 1930s, and a nearly complete copy was discovered in 1947 in the

698: 590: 2100:

phonemic tones in most varieties due to later loss of voicing distinctions.

582: 465:

that is little changed from the 19th century. It was promulgated during the

7102: 7052: 6428: 6311: 6284: 5828: 5818: 4143: 4139: 4084: 2862: 2730: 1190: 1159:) during this development from Old Chinese to Middle Chinese. According to 947: 866: 850: 602: 550: 437: 359: 307: 3586:(which occur in all modern varieties) and loss of the distinction between 1807:, tone 2 ("rising", reconstructed as having rising pitch) developing from 585:

by the 4th century BC at the latest, and the phonological analysis of the

306:

to refer to the language from the earliest records down to the end of the

7247: 7221: 7117: 7087: 7064: 7032: 6771: 6761: 6565: 6460: 6445: 6408: 6356: 6177: 6168: 6064: 5903: 5778: 5505: 4217: 4094: 4056: 2743: 2084:(which might or might not be reckoned as a final consonant) in the rhyme 1925: 1727: 1285:

Old Chinese voiceless sonorants and corresponding Middle Chinese reflexes

1128: 939: 900: 873:, this notion has been replaced by the view that the sound system in the 862: 772: 760: 741: 657: 562: 393: 337: 325: 254: 202: 185: 4285: 4178:

classes have words with both aspirated and unaspirated stops, while the

188:

writings dated to c. 1250 BC. However, since the writing is mostly with

6663: 6637: 6403: 6369: 5874: 5801: 2726: 954:

A syllable consisted of an initial consonant, an optional medial glide

916:

had very similar pronunciations when the characters were first created.

846: 782: 776: 649: 566: 554: 535: 389: 7112: 6863: 6854: 6582: 6472: 6124: 6112: 5923: 5754: 4633: 4155: 3837: 3790: 3784: 2076:

Few changes to final consonants occur; the main ones are the loss of

665: 661: 531: 519: 515: 487: 211: 193: 174: 184:

Chinese is documented over a long period of time, with the earliest

23: 7402: 6988: 6629: 5810: 5414: 4194:

consonants) in Proto-Min, which develop into unvoiced aspirates in

3841: 3819: 2816:

was dropped; before a high front glide, the voiced velar fricative

2781: 2182: 1919: 1682: 905: 824: 813: 710: 683: 645: 617: 610: 189: 170: 166: 134: 7434: 1955:

A new class of labiodentals emerges, from EMC labials followed by

542:(c. 1150 AD), a sophisticated analysis of the sound system of the 7301: 6981: 6868: 6697: 6293: 4632: 4545:, Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2296: 2292: 1707: 1701: 1527: 1499: 1483: 1477: 1458: 1452: 1434: 1428: 1422: 1406: 1400: 1394: 1378: 1362: 1346: 1340: 1334: 1318: 1312: 752: 586: 575: 539: 462: 385: 355: 207: 2769: 2682:

If high front-rounded vocalics are reconstructed, they unround (

383:(LMC), c. 1000 AD, is the native language of the authors of the 7360: 7162: 842: 746: 678: 653: 633: 503: 492: 392:

and the oldest stage that can be reconstructed from modern non-

370: 224: 785:

data — Chinese loanwords borrowed in large numbers into

730:, was published in 1957 and is still a commonly cited source. 6873: 857:

Karlgren suggested that the Middle Chinese documented in the

351: 2600:

f. Medial and similar changes triggered by specific initials

4087:

that spread across existing dialects; possibly the loss of

1944:

Changes mostly involve initials, medials, and main vowels.

1067: 1929: 1845:

Labiovelar initials were reanalyzed as a velar followed a

4464: 4416: 4118: 2396:

c. Changes involving high back vowels, mostly generating

1713: 1695: 1666: 1625: 1584: 1578: 1537: 1489: 1471: 1415: 1387: 1371: 1355: 1327: 1305: 1280:. Their reflexes in Middle Chinese are postulated to be: 1272: 1263: 1254: 1245: 1236: 1227: 482:

A native tradition of Chinese phonology developed in the

477: 470: 350:

of the language of the northwestern Chinese provinces of

4392: 4315: 4044: 2839:. (LMC labiodentals resulted from EMC labials preceding 2809:

and merged as a new series of alveolo-palatal sibilants.

1888:

after labial initials. In type-B syllables, however, OC

841:

Transcriptions of Chinese by foreigners, especially the

4452: 4404: 4356: 2790:

Sonorants: retroflex nasal merged into alveolar nasal;

1970:, producing a six-way medial distinction between none, 4495: 4493: 4491: 4334: 4332: 4330: 4051:

Old Chinese phonology § Evidence from Min Chinese

3689:

Various other changes occur after particular initials.

1009:). Baxter also reconstructs voiceless resonants, e.g. 4428: 4205:

or approximants. Such "softened stops" occur in both

3850: 3828: 3810: 3799: 2704: 1656: 1646: 1615: 1605: 1568: 1558: 1517: 4476: 4440: 4368: 4344: 2851:

Mapping of EMC, LMC, and Standard Mandarin initials

705:, which was thought lost; however, fragments of the 514:, which included a highly advanced understanding of 133:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see 4488: 4380: 4327: 4286:"Palatalization of Old Chinese Velars / 上古汉语舌根音的腭化" 4097:, on the other hand, is known to have branched off 1681:Note that these reconstructions included voiceless 1083: 627: 48:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1498:contacts between plosive series, sibilants and MC 1482:in Type A syllables. Meanwhile, it developed into 469:in 1932. Today, it is the standard variety in the 2787:Retroflex stops merged into retroflex affricates. 2368:equivalents of the above (with additional medial 2115:) become Late Middle Chinese (LMC) labiodentals ( 1103:in Old Chinese. He noted the distinction between 336:(LHC) is c. 200 AD. This is around the time that 7465: 3762:, but often with effects on the preceding vowel. 2103:The following changes are in approximate order. 2096:(which are suspect in various ways; see below). 1920:From Early Middle Chinese to Late Middle Chinese 1476:is shown to have fortified to a coronal plosive 147:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters 4162:), unvoiced "softened", and voiced "softened". 2718:(still reflected as such in Standard Mandarin). 2186:syllables; likewise for Division III vs. III-3 497:pronunciation by way of fanqie, culminating in 261:and still visible, for example, in the written 4277: 2650:, if reconstructed) is removed, specifically: 938:There are disagreements over exactly what the 914:characters sharing the same phonetic component 231:(601 AD), later expanded into "Guangyun". The 5430: 4618: 3993: 3982: 3971: 3960: 3900: 3891: 3882: 3873: 3845: 3823: 3805: 3794: 2770:From Late Middle Chinese to Standard Mandarin 2721:Voiced consonants are thought to have become 2627:directly following a dental sibilant becomes 2140: 2131: 2125: 1689: 1639: 1598: 1551: 1510: 1197:, show pronunciations with a velar plosive (* 1176: 1175:, both of which belong to the Middle Chinese 1170: 1164: 1114: 1104: 1099:in Middle Chinese, was perhaps pronounced as 1090: 448:(1703) and Chinese rhyme manuals such as the 417: 7229: 4574:Introduction to Chinese Historical Phonology 4091:distinctions can be viewed in the same way. 2176:after labial, velar and glottal consonants, 2151: 2072:sometimes appears after guttural consonants. 1020:There were on the order of six main vowels: 522:, including a system of analyzing sounds by 909:, the earliest anthology of Chinese poetry. 284: 7450: 7220: 5437: 5423: 4625: 4611: 4283: 2006:, but semivocalic and before long vowel 1504:, and made the following reconstructions: 346:(ONWC), c. 400 AD, is a reconstruction by 2080:after a high vowel, the disappearance of 869:period. Today, with direct access to the 759:Modern Chinese speaking variants such as 368:(EMC), c. 600 AD, is the language of the 108:Learn how and when to remove this message 2794:, formerly palatal nasal in EMC, became 2383:equivalents of both of the above become 2295:dialect, while the latter reflected the 1822:, when followed by a coronal consonant ( 1068:From Old Chinese to Early Middle Chinese 927: 461:, a standardized form of the dialect of 157:deals with reconstructing the sounds of 7145: 4174:) tone classes. The result is that the 1470:Additionally, the OC lateral consonant 1113:), which had a MC palatal initial, and 744:of the Middle Chinese era, such as the 557:diligently studied the sound system of 7466: 4537: 4515: 4499: 4482: 4470: 4458: 4446: 4434: 4422: 4410: 4398: 4386: 4374: 4362: 4350: 4338: 4321: 2124:developed into a labiodental initial ( 2088:, and (potentially) the appearance of 1998:are vocalic and before short vowels 1446: 1297: 1155:, was lenited to a voiced fricative (* 640:. Armed with his knowledge of Western 478:Chinese native phonological traditions 5418: 4606: 4045:Branching off of the modern varieties 2106: 1721: 1221: 1212: 1146: 1078: 919:Comparison of Old Chinese with other 5444: 2482:d. Changes involving non-high vowels 2111:Early Middle Chinese (EMC) labials ( 1712:was said to have derived from an OC 899:The rhymed texts written before the 192:, which do not directly specify the 137:. For the distinction between , 46:adding citations to reliable sources 17: 4521:A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology 3704:Various other complex changes; see 1291: 1119:, which had a velar initial in MC ( 340:varieties diverged from the others. 13: 4588:Periodization of Chinese Phonology 3775:The specific relationship between 3754:become simple codas; likewise for 2705:Late changes to initial consonants 2567:merge into a single phoneme, with 1463:is only found in Type B syllables. 845:transcriptions of Koreans such as 14: 7500: 4561: 2740:reflects them as normally voiced. 1055:. Baxter also reconstructs final 978:and "loosely bound" pre-initials 565:. Through careful examination of 313:W. A. C. H. Dobson uses the term 7449: 6927:Literary and colloquial readings 6799: 2780:Voiced stops and sibilants were 1506: 1282: 1185:). For the first character, the 1084:Palatalisation of velar initials 821:transliteration of foreign words 809:vocabularies of these languages. 628:Modern methods of reconstruction 473:, founded by Mao Zedong in 1949. 22: 7479:History of the Chinese language 4238:, which likewise occur in both 2420:. (Possibly not a real change.) 2320:b. Mergers of high-front finals 2060:High front medials/main vowels 1074:Middle Chinese § Phonology 129:International Phonetic Alphabet 33:needs additional citations for 4508: 4290:Journal of Chinese Linguistics 2204:after a non-high front vowel ( 553:(1644–1912), scholars such as 302:Axel Schuessler uses the term 57:"Historical Chinese phonology" 1: 7474:Traditional Chinese phonology 4583:Traditional Chinese phonology 4523:, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 4271: 1757:Changes to final consonants: 1734:Type-B syllables developed a 1123:, III), despite their common 823:from other languages such as 668:). He combined this with the 7455:List of varieties of Chinese 4568:Chinese Phonological History 2531:e. Changes involving medials 1793:(which remained, even after 1714: 1708: 1702: 1696: 1667: 1626: 1585: 1579: 1538: 1528: 1500: 1490: 1484: 1478: 1472: 1459: 1453: 1435: 1429: 1423: 1416: 1407: 1401: 1395: 1388: 1379: 1372: 1363: 1356: 1347: 1341: 1335: 1328: 1319: 1313: 1306: 1273: 1264: 1255: 1246: 1237: 1228: 155:Historical Chinese phonology 7: 4860:Orsmaal-Gussenhoven dialect 4249: 4102:alveolar stops followed by 3851: 3829: 3811: 3800: 3663:is lost after labials, and 2774: 2642:, along with front-rounded 1657: 1647: 1616: 1606: 1569: 1559: 1518: 1181:initial (reconstructed as * 1151:The voiced velar plosive, * 861:was a live language of the 310:period (c. 1250 to 771 BC). 245: 214:developed from Old Chinese. 10: 7505: 7413:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols 4261:Standard Chinese phonology 4071:distinction (between e.g. 4048: 2802:; velar nasal was dropped. 2798:or sometimes the syllable 2446:, except in the sequences 2240:only occurs in the rhymes 2234:Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary 2190:. This explains why these 1884:after velar initials, and 1071: 931: 7447: 7331: 7300: 7211: 7136: 7078: 6998: 6973: 6935: 6882: 6808: 6797: 6744: 6696: 6651: 6628: 6573: 6564: 6502: 6421: 6396: 6378: 6355: 6292: 6283: 6246: 6223: 6185: 6176: 6167: 6103: 6063: 5990: 5968: 5940: 5922: 5896: 5873: 5809: 5800: 5777: 5747: 5724: 5648: 5588: 5560: 5537: 5514: 5481: 5472: 5463: 5452: 5341: 5148: 4932: 4699: 4644: 4284:Schuessler, Axel (1996). 4266:Sino-Xenic pronunciations 4028: 4025: 4022: 4000: 3994: 3989: 3983: 3978: 3972: 3967: 3961: 3950: 3901: 3898: 3892: 3889: 3883: 3880: 3874: 3871: 3861: 3846: 3824: 3806: 3795: 3568: 3498: 3489: 3457: 3448: 3439: 3412: 3407: 3323: 3310: 3266: 3253: 3240: 3173: 3164: 3019: 2931: 2926: 2871: 2867:Modern Standard Mandarin 2587:and high vowels). Medial 2152:Vowel changes and mergers 2141: 2132: 2126: 1849:glide, which merged with 1690: 1640: 1599: 1552: 1511: 1177: 1171: 1165: 1115: 1105: 1091: 574:lack of any concept of a 418: 7489:Sino-Tibetan phonologies 4543:The Roots of Old Chinese 3766: 3693:Changes to main vowels: 3678:is sometimes lost after 2827:, devoiced, merged into 2487:When there is no medial 1900:or coronal initial, but 1880:after coronal initials, 689:(a later version of the 285:Periodization of Chinese 4892:Regional North American 3840:initial consonant (not 3078:followed by back vowel 2902:followed by back vowel 2714:becoming a new phoneme 2679:(presumably ) if final. 834:Chinese written in the 727:Grammata Serica Recensa 709:were discovered in the 125:phonetic transcriptions 5326:Dialects and varieties 4887:Received Pronunciation 4727:American Sign Language 4061:labiodental fricatives 2595:merge in the same way. 2248:, which contrast with 2156:In approximate order: 2029:, and non-high vowels 1990:. The phonemic glides 1959:and an EMC back vowel. 1932:for more information. 642:historical linguistics 430:Hongmu Chôngyun Yôkhun 190:logographic characters 167:logographic characters 122:This article contains 4256:Old Chinese phonology 2349:(which occurs before 2160:a. Some early changes 2130:): compare Cantonese 1739:diphthongizing, e.g. 1003:labiovelar consonants 934:Old Chinese phonology 928:Old Chinese phonology 616:Lack of knowledge of 528:place of articulation 344:Old Northwest Chinese 320:Dobson uses the term 315:Early Archaic Chinese 3652:(EMC retroflex) and 3613:Changes to medials: 2550:/-jw-,wj-,-wi-,-ju-/ 984:Hmong–Mien languages 524:distinctive features 366:Early Middle Chinese 322:Late Archaic Chinese 42:improve this article 5251:Proto-Indo-European 4897:White South African 4590:, Marjorie K.M Chan 4473:, pp. 199–201. 4425:, pp. 196–199. 4401:, pp. 201–202. 4324:, pp. 569–570. 4186:classes as well as 3822:initial consonant ( 3735:sometimes becoming 3617:LMC medial classes 2852: 1962:EMC complex medial 1842:plus a front vowel. 1634:'speak', 'explain' 1546:'take off clothes' 1287: 1095:, reconstructed as 593:and especially the 381:Late Middle Chinese 348:Weldon South Coblin 267:Mon–Khmer languages 7408:Cantonese Bopomofo 7275:Chinese characters 7203:Written Sichuanese 5787:Zhangjiakou–Hohhot 4517:Baxter, William H. 4365:, pp. 28, 42. 3779:and modern tones: 3746:LMC complex codas 3731:are dropped, with 3712:Changes to codas: 3640:LMC front medials 3625:merge, losing the 3506:or dropped before 2850: 2761:Proto-Min language 2583:elsewhere (before 2107:Labiodentalization 1722:Medials and finals 1706:. Furthermore, MC 1675:'pleased', 'glad' 1283: 1222:Sonorant fortition 1213:Retroflex initials 1147:Lenition of OC /ɡ/ 1125:phonetic component 1079:Initial consonants 994:distinction (e.g. 398:comparative method 304:Early Zhou Chinese 294:up through modern 292:oracle bone script 259:Proto-Sino-Tibetan 161:from the past. As 7461: 7460: 7443: 7442: 7270: 7269: 7188:Written Cantonese 7183: 7182: 6965:Classical grammar 6960:Cantonese grammar 6795: 6794: 6692: 6691: 6498: 6497: 6417: 6416: 6279: 6278: 5986: 5985: 5773: 5772: 5663:Chengdu–Chongqing 5456:Sinitic languages 5412: 5411: 4902:Standard Canadian 4638:world's languages 4578:Guillaume Jacques 4570:, Dylan W.H. Sung 4530:978-3-11-012324-1 4461:, pp. 40–42. 4413:, pp. 30–32. 4203:voiced fricatives 4148:Standard Mandarin 4138:, reflecting the 4081:Edwin Pulleyblank 4039: 4038: 3951:Standard Chinese 3566: 3565: 2812:The glottal stop 2571:occurring before 2423:The EMC sequence 2025:and (marginally) 1853:from breaking of 1679: 1678: 1442: 1441: 1059:, later becoming 996:pharyngealization 738:Rime dictionaries 638:Bernhard Karlgren 571:rime dictionaries 499:rime dictionaries 467:Republic of China 396:varieties by the 296:Standard Mandarin 279:Standard Mandarin 269:, such as modern 118: 117: 110: 92: 7496: 7453: 7452: 7425:Taiwanese Hangul 7314:Mainland Chinese 7227: 7226: 7218: 7217: 7143: 7142: 6820:Standard Chinese 6803: 6571: 6570: 6290: 6289: 6183: 6182: 6174: 6173: 6056: 6044: 6032: 6020: 6008: 5807: 5806: 5479: 5478: 5470: 5469: 5446:Chinese language 5439: 5432: 5425: 5416: 5415: 5264:Kerkrade dialect 4877:General American 4627: 4620: 4613: 4604: 4603: 4598:Sergei Starostin 4556: 4534: 4503: 4497: 4486: 4480: 4474: 4468: 4462: 4456: 4450: 4444: 4438: 4432: 4426: 4420: 4414: 4408: 4402: 4396: 4390: 4384: 4378: 4372: 4366: 4360: 4354: 4348: 4342: 4336: 4325: 4319: 4313: 4312: 4310: 4308: 4281: 4105: 4078: 4074: 4066: 4003:with no pattern 3997: 3996: 3986: 3985: 3975: 3974: 3964: 3963: 3904: 3903: 3895: 3894: 3886: 3885: 3877: 3876: 3859: 3858: 3854: 3849: 3848: 3832: 3827: 3826: 3814: 3809: 3808: 3803: 3798: 3797: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3723: 3719: 3700: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3647: 3643: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3556: 3551: 3544: 3539: 3532: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3514: 3509: 3505: 3501: 3496: 3492: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3472: 3465: 3460: 3455: 3451: 3446: 3442: 3435: 3431: 3426: 3422: 3415: 3410: 3405: 3401: 3396: 3392: 3385: 3381: 3376: 3372: 3365: 3361: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3343: 3339: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3293: 3289: 3282: 3278: 3273: 3269: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3180: 3176: 3171: 3167: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3134: 3130: 3125: 3121: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3088: 3083: 3077: 3072: 3068: 3061: 3057: 3052: 3048: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3015: 3010: 3005: 3000: 2993: 2987: 2981: 2976: 2968: 2963: 2958: 2953: 2946: 2941: 2934: 2929: 2924: 2919: 2912: 2907: 2901: 2896: 2889: 2884: 2879: 2874: 2853: 2849: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2819: 2815: 2797: 2793: 2717: 2713: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2678: 2674: 2667: 2663: 2656: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2630: 2626: 2611: 2607: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2399: 2390: 2386: 2375: 2371: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2168:(without medial 2167: 2144: 2143: 2135: 2134: 2129: 2128: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1958: 1951: 1915: 1911: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1810: 1806: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1753: 1746: 1742: 1737: 1717: 1711: 1705: 1699: 1693: 1692: 1670: 1660: 1650: 1643: 1642: 1629: 1619: 1609: 1602: 1601: 1588: 1582: 1572: 1562: 1555: 1554: 1541: 1531: 1521: 1514: 1513: 1507: 1503: 1493: 1487: 1481: 1475: 1464: 1462: 1456: 1450: 1438: 1432: 1426: 1419: 1410: 1404: 1398: 1391: 1382: 1375: 1366: 1359: 1350: 1344: 1338: 1331: 1322: 1316: 1309: 1299: 1293: 1288: 1279: 1276: 1270: 1267: 1261: 1258: 1252: 1249: 1243: 1240: 1234: 1231: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1184: 1180: 1179: 1174: 1173: 1168: 1167: 1158: 1154: 1118: 1117: 1108: 1107: 1094: 1093: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1016: 1012: 1008: 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 961: 957: 836:'Phags-pa script 682:analysis of the 599:'Phags-pa script 512:Sanskrit grammar 458:Standard Chinese 442:Michele Ruggieri 421: 420: 413:Zhōngyuán Yīnyùn 408:'Phags-pa script 333:Late Han Chinese 263:Tibetan language 239:Modern varieties 165:is written with 144: 140: 113: 106: 102: 99: 93: 91: 50: 26: 18: 7504: 7503: 7499: 7498: 7497: 7495: 7494: 7493: 7464: 7463: 7462: 7457: 7439: 7376:Tongyong Pinyin 7356:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 7344:Dungan Cyrillic 7327: 7296: 7266: 7207: 7198:Written Hokkien 7179: 7138: 7132: 7108:Middle Mandarin 7074: 6994: 6969: 6931: 6878: 6811: 6804: 6791: 6740: 6688: 6647: 6624: 6560: 6494: 6413: 6392: 6374: 6351: 6275: 6242: 6219: 6163: 6099: 6059: 6050: 6038: 6026: 6014: 6002: 5982: 5964: 5936: 5918: 5892: 5869: 5796: 5769: 5743: 5720: 5644: 5584: 5556: 5533: 5510: 5459: 5448: 5443: 5413: 5408: 5337: 5291:Scottish Gaelic 5144: 4988:Standard Modern 4928: 4735:Modern Standard 4695: 4640: 4631: 4564: 4559: 4553: 4539:Sagart, Laurent 4531: 4511: 4506: 4498: 4489: 4481: 4477: 4469: 4465: 4457: 4453: 4445: 4441: 4433: 4429: 4421: 4417: 4409: 4405: 4397: 4393: 4385: 4381: 4373: 4369: 4361: 4357: 4349: 4345: 4337: 4328: 4320: 4316: 4306: 4304: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4252: 4053: 4047: 4041: 4002: 3991: 3980: 3969: 3958: 3769: 3727:LMC stop codas 3629:; likewise for 3571: 3515: 3473: 3344: 3294: 3073: 2897: 2777: 2772: 2707: 2391:, respectively. 2256:; likewise for 2154: 2109: 1922: 1777:dropped before 1724: 1468: 1467: 1451: 1447: 1271:, and possibly 1224: 1215: 1195:Teochew dialect 1149: 1086: 1081: 1076: 1070: 936: 930: 819:Early cases of 816:works in India. 799:Sino-Vietnamese 722:Grammata Serica 687:rime dictionary 674:Sino-Vietnamese 630: 480: 434:Sasông T’onghae 426:Middle Mandarin 375:rime dictionary 287: 248: 229:rime dictionary 152: 151: 150: 114: 103: 97: 94: 51: 49: 39: 27: 12: 11: 5: 7502: 7492: 7491: 7486: 7481: 7476: 7459: 7458: 7448: 7445: 7444: 7441: 7440: 7438: 7437: 7432: 7427: 7422: 7420:Taiwanese kana 7417: 7416: 7415: 7410: 7400: 7399: 7398: 7393: 7391:Lessing-Othmer 7388: 7383: 7378: 7373: 7368: 7363: 7358: 7348: 7347: 7346: 7335: 7333: 7329: 7328: 7326: 7321: 7316: 7311: 7306: 7304: 7298: 7297: 7295: 7294: 7289: 7288: 7287: 7282: 7271: 7268: 7267: 7265: 7260: 7255: 7250: 7245: 7240: 7235: 7233: 7224: 7215: 7209: 7208: 7206: 7205: 7200: 7195: 7193:Written Dungan 7190: 7184: 7181: 7180: 7178: 7177: 7172: 7171: 7170: 7165: 7160: 7149: 7147: 7140: 7134: 7133: 7131: 7130: 7125: 7120: 7115: 7110: 7105: 7100: 7098:Middle Chinese 7095: 7090: 7084: 7082: 7076: 7075: 7073: 7072: 7067: 7065:Wubi (Wang Ma) 7062: 7057: 7056: 7055: 7050: 7045: 7035: 7030: 7025: 7024: 7023: 7013: 7010: 7004: 7002: 6996: 6995: 6993: 6992: 6985: 6977: 6975: 6971: 6970: 6968: 6967: 6962: 6957: 6952: 6947: 6941: 6939: 6933: 6932: 6930: 6929: 6924: 6919: 6914: 6909: 6904: 6899: 6898: 6897: 6886: 6884: 6880: 6879: 6877: 6876: 6871: 6866: 6861: 6860: 6859: 6858: 6857: 6852: 6842: 6837: 6832: 6827: 6816: 6814: 6806: 6805: 6798: 6796: 6793: 6792: 6790: 6789: 6784: 6782:Xiangnan Tuhua 6779: 6774: 6769: 6767:Shaozhou Tuhua 6764: 6759: 6754: 6748: 6746: 6742: 6741: 6739: 6738: 6737: 6736: 6731: 6726: 6718: 6717: 6716: 6711: 6702: 6700: 6694: 6693: 6690: 6689: 6687: 6686: 6681: 6676: 6671: 6666: 6661: 6655: 6653: 6649: 6648: 6646: 6645: 6640: 6634: 6632: 6626: 6625: 6623: 6622: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6596: 6595: 6590: 6579: 6577: 6568: 6562: 6561: 6559: 6558: 6557: 6556: 6551: 6546: 6536: 6535: 6534: 6524: 6519: 6514: 6508: 6506: 6500: 6499: 6496: 6495: 6493: 6492: 6491: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6470: 6469: 6468: 6458: 6453: 6448: 6443: 6442: 6441: 6436: 6425: 6423: 6419: 6418: 6415: 6414: 6412: 6411: 6406: 6400: 6398: 6394: 6393: 6391: 6390: 6384: 6382: 6376: 6375: 6373: 6372: 6367: 6361: 6359: 6353: 6352: 6350: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6324: 6319: 6314: 6309: 6304: 6298: 6296: 6287: 6281: 6280: 6277: 6276: 6274: 6273: 6272: 6271: 6266: 6256: 6250: 6248: 6244: 6243: 6241: 6240: 6235: 6229: 6227: 6221: 6220: 6218: 6217: 6212: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6191: 6189: 6180: 6171: 6165: 6164: 6162: 6161: 6160: 6159: 6149: 6144: 6143: 6142: 6137: 6132: 6122: 6121: 6120: 6109: 6107: 6101: 6100: 6098: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6081: 6080: 6069: 6067: 6061: 6060: 6058: 6057: 6045: 6033: 6021: 6009: 5996: 5994: 5988: 5987: 5984: 5983: 5981: 5980: 5974: 5972: 5966: 5965: 5963: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5946: 5944: 5938: 5937: 5935: 5934: 5928: 5926: 5920: 5919: 5917: 5916: 5911: 5906: 5900: 5898: 5894: 5893: 5891: 5890: 5885: 5879: 5877: 5871: 5870: 5868: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5836: 5831: 5826: 5821: 5815: 5813: 5804: 5798: 5797: 5795: 5794: 5789: 5783: 5781: 5775: 5774: 5771: 5770: 5768: 5767: 5762: 5757: 5751: 5749: 5745: 5744: 5742: 5741: 5736: 5730: 5728: 5722: 5721: 5719: 5718: 5717: 5716: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5691: 5690: 5689: 5688: 5687: 5680:Renshou–Fushun 5677: 5676: 5675: 5665: 5654: 5652: 5646: 5645: 5643: 5642: 5637: 5632: 5627: 5622: 5617: 5616: 5615: 5605: 5600: 5594: 5592: 5590:Central Plains 5586: 5585: 5583: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5566: 5564: 5558: 5557: 5555: 5554: 5549: 5543: 5541: 5535: 5534: 5532: 5531: 5526: 5520: 5518: 5512: 5511: 5509: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5487: 5485: 5476: 5467: 5461: 5460: 5453: 5450: 5449: 5442: 5441: 5434: 5427: 5419: 5410: 5409: 5407: 5406: 5401: 5396: 5391: 5386: 5381: 5376: 5371: 5366: 5361: 5356: 5351: 5345: 5343: 5339: 5338: 5336: 5335: 5330: 5329: 5328: 5318: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5298: 5296:Serbo-Croatian 5293: 5288: 5283: 5278: 5273: 5268: 5267: 5266: 5261: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5163: 5158: 5152: 5150: 5146: 5145: 5143: 5142: 5137: 5132: 5131: 5130: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5082: 5077: 5072: 5067: 5062: 5057: 5052: 5047: 5042: 5041: 5040: 5035: 5030: 5025: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5002: 5001: 5000: 4995: 4990: 4982: 4981: 4980: 4975: 4967: 4962: 4961: 4960: 4955: 4947: 4942: 4936: 4934: 4930: 4929: 4927: 4926: 4921: 4916: 4915: 4914: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4879: 4874: 4864: 4863: 4862: 4857: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4829: 4828: 4827: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4794: 4789: 4784: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4764: 4763: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4714: 4709: 4703: 4701: 4697: 4696: 4694: 4693: 4692: 4691: 4686: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4666: 4656: 4651: 4645: 4642: 4641: 4630: 4629: 4622: 4615: 4607: 4601: 4600: 4591: 4585: 4580: 4571: 4563: 4562:External links 4560: 4558: 4557: 4551: 4535: 4529: 4512: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4504: 4487: 4475: 4463: 4451: 4439: 4437:, p. 197. 4427: 4415: 4403: 4391: 4379: 4377:, p. 580. 4367: 4355: 4353:, p. 210. 4343: 4326: 4314: 4296:(2): 197–211. 4275: 4273: 4270: 4269: 4268: 4263: 4258: 4251: 4248: 4232:minor syllable 4227:Laurent Sagart 4223:William Baxter 4198:-class words. 4192:breathy voiced 4160:breathy voiced 4046: 4043: 4037: 4036: 4033: 4030: 4027: 4024: 4021: 4018: 4011: 4010: 4007: 4004: 3999: 3988: 3977: 3966: 3955: 3952: 3948: 3947: 3944: 3941: 3938: 3935: 3932: 3929: 3926: 3923: 3920: 3917: 3914: 3911: 3907: 3906: 3897: 3888: 3879: 3870: 3865: 3863:Middle Chinese 3857: 3856: 3834: 3816: 3777:Middle Chinese 3768: 3765: 3764: 3763: 3744: 3725: 3710: 3709: 3706:Middle Chinese 3702: 3691: 3690: 3687: 3672: 3657: 3656:(EMC palatal). 3638: 3608:Middle Chinese 3570: 3567: 3564: 3563: 3560: 3557: 3552: 3546: 3545: 3540: 3534: 3533: 3528: 3510: 3497: 3487: 3486: 3467: 3466: 3461: 3456: 3447: 3437: 3436: 3427: 3417: 3416: 3411: 3406: 3397: 3387: 3386: 3377: 3367: 3366: 3357: 3335: 3322: 3308: 3307: 3284: 3283: 3274: 3265: 3252: 3238: 3237: 3224: 3210: 3209: 3196: 3182: 3181: 3172: 3163: 3150: 3136: 3135: 3126: 3117: 3104: 3090: 3089: 3084: 3079: 3063: 3062: 3053: 3044: 3031: 3017: 3016: 3011: 3006: 3001: 2995: 2994: 2988: 2982: 2977: 2971: 2970: 2964: 2959: 2954: 2948: 2947: 2942: 2936: 2935: 2930: 2925: 2920: 2914: 2913: 2908: 2903: 2891: 2890: 2885: 2880: 2875: 2869: 2868: 2865: 2860: 2857: 2845: 2844: 2843:+ back vowel.) 2823:Labiodentals: 2821: 2810: 2803: 2788: 2785: 2776: 2773: 2771: 2768: 2767: 2766: 2765: 2764: 2741: 2723:breathy voiced 2719: 2706: 2703: 2702: 2701: 2700: 2699: 2680: 2669: 2658: 2632: 2631:(presumably ). 2621: 2602: 2601: 2597: 2596: 2557: 2533: 2532: 2528: 2527: 2506:All remaining 2504: 2484: 2483: 2479: 2478: 2461:All non-final 2459: 2442:All remaining 2440: 2421: 2401: 2400: 2393: 2392: 2377: 2362: 2322: 2321: 2317: 2316: 2277: 2195: 2162: 2161: 2153: 2150: 2108: 2105: 2074: 2073: 2058: 2011: 1960: 1953: 1921: 1918: 1906: 1905: 1862: 1843: 1838:), broke into 1812: 1798: 1769:dropped after 1755: 1748: 1723: 1720: 1700:, yielding MC 1677: 1676: 1673: 1671: 1664: 1661: 1654: 1651: 1644: 1636: 1635: 1632: 1630: 1623: 1620: 1613: 1610: 1603: 1595: 1594: 1591: 1589: 1576: 1573: 1566: 1563: 1556: 1548: 1547: 1544: 1542: 1535: 1532: 1525: 1522: 1515: 1466: 1465: 1444: 1443: 1440: 1439: 1420: 1412: 1411: 1392: 1384: 1383: 1376: 1368: 1367: 1360: 1352: 1351: 1332: 1324: 1323: 1310: 1302: 1301: 1295: 1223: 1220: 1214: 1211: 1187:Fuzhou dialect 1161:Laurent Sagart 1148: 1145: 1127:. Some modern 1085: 1082: 1080: 1077: 1072:Main article: 1069: 1066: 1065: 1064: 1049: 1018: 999: 991: 946:and (earlier) 944:William Baxter 932:Main article: 929: 926: 925: 924: 917: 912:The fact that 910: 903:, chiefly the 855: 854: 839: 832: 817: 810: 780: 757: 629: 626: 625: 624: 621: 614: 595:Tibetan script 534:. This led to 484:Middle Chinese 479: 476: 475: 474: 453: 450:Yunlüe Huitong 446:Francisco Varo 423: 404:Early Mandarin 401: 378: 363: 341: 329: 318: 311: 286: 283: 247: 244: 243: 242: 236: 219:Middle Chinese 215: 145:⟩, see 121: 120: 119: 116: 115: 30: 28: 21: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7501: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7471: 7469: 7456: 7446: 7436: 7433: 7431: 7428: 7426: 7423: 7421: 7418: 7414: 7411: 7409: 7406: 7405: 7404: 7401: 7397: 7394: 7392: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7374: 7372: 7369: 7367: 7364: 7362: 7359: 7357: 7354: 7353: 7352: 7349: 7345: 7342: 7341: 7340: 7339:Cyrillization 7337: 7336: 7334: 7330: 7325: 7322: 7320: 7317: 7315: 7312: 7310: 7307: 7305: 7303: 7299: 7293: 7290: 7286: 7283: 7281: 7278: 7277: 7276: 7273: 7272: 7264: 7261: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7251: 7249: 7246: 7244: 7241: 7239: 7236: 7234: 7232: 7231:Script styles 7228: 7225: 7223: 7219: 7216: 7214: 7210: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7196: 7194: 7191: 7189: 7186: 7185: 7176: 7173: 7169: 7166: 7164: 7161: 7159: 7156: 7155: 7154: 7151: 7150: 7148: 7144: 7141: 7135: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7114: 7111: 7109: 7106: 7104: 7101: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7085: 7083: 7081: 7077: 7071: 7068: 7066: 7063: 7061: 7058: 7054: 7051: 7049: 7046: 7044: 7041: 7040: 7039: 7036: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7026: 7022: 7019: 7018: 7017: 7014: 7011: 7009: 7006: 7005: 7003: 7001: 6997: 6991: 6990: 6986: 6984: 6983: 6979: 6978: 6976: 6972: 6966: 6963: 6961: 6958: 6956: 6953: 6951: 6948: 6946: 6943: 6942: 6940: 6938: 6934: 6928: 6925: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6915: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6896: 6893: 6892: 6891: 6888: 6887: 6885: 6881: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6856: 6853: 6851: 6848: 6847: 6846: 6843: 6841: 6838: 6836: 6833: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6823: 6822: 6821: 6818: 6817: 6815: 6813: 6807: 6802: 6788: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6749: 6747: 6743: 6735: 6732: 6730: 6727: 6725: 6722: 6721: 6719: 6715: 6712: 6710: 6707: 6706: 6704: 6703: 6701: 6699: 6695: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6672: 6670: 6667: 6665: 6662: 6660: 6657: 6656: 6654: 6650: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6635: 6633: 6631: 6627: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6601: 6598: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6585: 6584: 6581: 6580: 6578: 6576: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6563: 6555: 6552: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6542: 6541: 6540: 6537: 6533: 6530: 6529: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6509: 6507: 6505: 6501: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6475: 6474: 6471: 6467: 6464: 6463: 6462: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6432: 6431: 6430: 6427: 6426: 6424: 6420: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6401: 6399: 6395: 6389: 6386: 6385: 6383: 6381: 6377: 6371: 6368: 6366: 6363: 6362: 6360: 6358: 6354: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6300: 6299: 6297: 6295: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6282: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6262: 6261: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6251: 6249: 6245: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6231: 6230: 6228: 6226: 6222: 6216: 6213: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6192: 6190: 6188: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6175: 6172: 6170: 6166: 6158: 6155: 6154: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6127: 6126: 6123: 6119: 6116: 6115: 6114: 6111: 6110: 6108: 6106: 6102: 6096: 6093: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6079: 6076: 6075: 6074: 6071: 6070: 6068: 6066: 6062: 6054: 6049: 6046: 6042: 6037: 6034: 6030: 6025: 6022: 6018: 6013: 6010: 6006: 6001: 5998: 5997: 5995: 5993: 5989: 5979: 5976: 5975: 5973: 5971: 5967: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5947: 5945: 5943: 5939: 5933: 5930: 5929: 5927: 5925: 5921: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5907: 5905: 5902: 5901: 5899: 5895: 5889: 5886: 5884: 5881: 5880: 5878: 5876: 5872: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5816: 5814: 5812: 5808: 5805: 5803: 5799: 5793: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5784: 5782: 5780: 5776: 5766: 5763: 5761: 5758: 5756: 5753: 5752: 5750: 5746: 5740: 5737: 5735: 5732: 5731: 5729: 5727: 5723: 5715: 5712: 5711: 5710: 5707: 5705: 5702: 5700: 5697: 5695: 5692: 5686: 5683: 5682: 5681: 5678: 5674: 5671: 5670: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5660: 5659: 5656: 5655: 5653: 5651: 5647: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5614: 5611: 5610: 5609: 5606: 5604: 5601: 5599: 5596: 5595: 5593: 5591: 5587: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5571: 5568: 5567: 5565: 5563: 5559: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5544: 5542: 5540: 5536: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5521: 5519: 5517: 5513: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5488: 5486: 5484: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5462: 5458: 5457: 5451: 5447: 5440: 5435: 5433: 5428: 5426: 5421: 5420: 5417: 5405: 5402: 5400: 5397: 5395: 5392: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5355: 5352: 5350: 5347: 5346: 5344: 5340: 5334: 5331: 5327: 5324: 5323: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5289: 5287: 5284: 5282: 5279: 5277: 5274: 5272: 5269: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5256: 5254: 5252: 5249: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5154: 5153: 5151: 5147: 5141: 5140:Luxembourgish 5138: 5136: 5133: 5129: 5128:Maastrichtian 5126: 5125: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5039: 5036: 5034: 5031: 5029: 5026: 5024: 5021: 5020: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5003: 4999: 4996: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4985: 4983: 4979: 4976: 4974: 4971: 4970: 4968: 4966: 4963: 4959: 4956: 4954: 4951: 4950: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4938: 4937: 4935: 4931: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4869: 4868: 4865: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4853: 4852: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4833: 4830: 4826: 4823: 4821: 4818: 4816: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4797: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4785: 4783: 4780: 4778: 4775: 4773: 4770: 4768: 4765: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4733: 4732: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4710: 4708: 4705: 4704: 4702: 4698: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4661: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4654:Orthographies 4652: 4650: 4647: 4646: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4628: 4623: 4621: 4616: 4614: 4609: 4608: 4605: 4599: 4595: 4592: 4589: 4586: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4575: 4572: 4569: 4566: 4565: 4554: 4552:1-55619-961-9 4548: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4513: 4501: 4500:Sagart (1999) 4496: 4494: 4492: 4485:, p. 48. 4484: 4483:Baxter (1992) 4479: 4472: 4471:Baxter (1992) 4467: 4460: 4459:Sagart (1999) 4455: 4449:, p. 34. 4448: 4447:Sagart (1999) 4443: 4436: 4435:Baxter (1992) 4431: 4424: 4423:Baxter (1992) 4419: 4412: 4411:Sagart (1999) 4407: 4400: 4399:Baxter (1992) 4395: 4389:, p. 26. 4388: 4387:Sagart (1999) 4383: 4376: 4375:Baxter (1992) 4371: 4364: 4363:Sagart (1999) 4359: 4352: 4351:Baxter (1992) 4347: 4341:, p. 28. 4340: 4339:Sagart (1999) 4335: 4333: 4331: 4323: 4322:Baxter (1992) 4318: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4280: 4276: 4267: 4264: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4254: 4253: 4247: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4228: 4224: 4219: 4214: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4199: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4163: 4161: 4157: 4151: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4125: 4121: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4109: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4090: 4086: 4085:areal changes 4082: 4070: 4062: 4058: 4052: 4042: 4034: 4031: 4019: 4016: 4013: 4012: 4009:to Yang Ping 4008: 4005: 4001:redistributed 3956: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3942: 3939: 3936: 3933: 3930: 3927: 3924: 3921: 3918: 3915: 3912: 3909: 3908: 3869: 3866: 3864: 3860: 3853: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3802: 3792: 3789: 3786: 3782: 3781: 3780: 3778: 3773: 3745: 3726: 3715: 3714: 3713: 3707: 3703: 3696: 3695: 3694: 3688: 3673: 3658: 3655: 3651: 3639: 3616: 3615: 3614: 3611: 3609: 3603: 3585: 3581: 3578:distinctions 3577: 3561: 3558: 3553: 3548: 3547: 3541: 3536: 3535: 3529: 3511: 3488: 3469: 3468: 3462: 3438: 3428: 3419: 3418: 3398: 3389: 3388: 3378: 3369: 3368: 3358: 3336: 3309: 3286: 3285: 3275: 3239: 3225: 3212: 3211: 3197: 3184: 3183: 3151: 3138: 3137: 3127: 3118: 3105: 3092: 3091: 3085: 3080: 3065: 3064: 3054: 3045: 3032: 3018: 3012: 3007: 3002: 2997: 2996: 2989: 2983: 2978: 2973: 2972: 2969:or syllable 2965: 2960: 2955: 2950: 2949: 2943: 2938: 2937: 2921: 2916: 2915: 2909: 2904: 2893: 2892: 2886: 2881: 2876: 2870: 2866: 2864: 2861: 2858: 2855: 2854: 2848: 2822: 2811: 2808: 2804: 2801: 2789: 2786: 2783: 2779: 2778: 2762: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2742: 2739: 2735: 2734: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2709: 2708: 2681: 2671:A main vowel 2670: 2668:if non-final. 2660:A main vowel 2659: 2652: 2651: 2633: 2622: 2619: 2615: 2604: 2603: 2599: 2598: 2558: 2535: 2534: 2530: 2529: 2505: 2486: 2485: 2481: 2480: 2460: 2441: 2422: 2403: 2402: 2395: 2394: 2382: 2378: 2367: 2363: 2324: 2323: 2319: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2279:The sequence 2278: 2235: 2196: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2184: 2164: 2163: 2159: 2158: 2157: 2149: 2147: 2139:and Mandarin 2138: 2104: 2101: 2097: 2059: 2012: 1961: 1954: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1942: 1939: 1933: 1931: 1927: 1917: 1876:; otherwise, 1863: 1844: 1813: 1802: 1799: 1756: 1749: 1733: 1732: 1731: 1729: 1719: 1716: 1710: 1704: 1698: 1686: 1684: 1674: 1672: 1669: 1665: 1662: 1659: 1655: 1652: 1649: 1645: 1638: 1637: 1633: 1631: 1628: 1624: 1621: 1618: 1614: 1611: 1608: 1604: 1597: 1596: 1592: 1590: 1587: 1581: 1577: 1574: 1571: 1567: 1564: 1561: 1557: 1550: 1549: 1545: 1543: 1540: 1536: 1533: 1530: 1526: 1523: 1520: 1516: 1509: 1508: 1505: 1502: 1497: 1492: 1486: 1480: 1474: 1461: 1455: 1449: 1445: 1437: 1431: 1425: 1421: 1418: 1414: 1413: 1409: 1403: 1397: 1393: 1390: 1386: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1374: 1370: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1358: 1354: 1353: 1349: 1343: 1337: 1333: 1330: 1326: 1325: 1321: 1315: 1311: 1308: 1304: 1303: 1296: 1290: 1289: 1286: 1281: 1275: 1266: 1257: 1248: 1239: 1230: 1219: 1210: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1162: 1144: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1112: 1102: 1098: 1075: 1050: 1019: 1004: 1000: 997: 992: 989: 988:Tai languages 985: 953: 952: 951: 949: 945: 941: 935: 922: 918: 915: 911: 908: 907: 902: 898: 897: 896: 892: 890: 885: 881: 876: 872: 868: 864: 860: 852: 848: 844: 840: 837: 833: 831:into Chinese. 830: 826: 822: 818: 815: 811: 808: 804: 803:Sino-Japanese 800: 796: 792: 788: 784: 781: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 758: 756:(c. 1150 AD). 755: 754: 750:(601 AD) and 749: 748: 743: 739: 736: 735: 734: 731: 729: 728: 723: 718: 716: 715:Palace Museum 712: 708: 704: 700: 699:Henri Maspero 696: 692: 688: 685: 681: 680: 675: 671: 670:Sino-Japanese 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 639: 635: 622: 619: 615: 612: 608: 607: 606: 604: 600: 596: 592: 591:Korean script 588: 584: 579: 577: 572: 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 547: 545: 541: 537: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 513: 508: 506: 505: 500: 495: 494: 489: 485: 472: 468: 464: 460: 459: 454: 451: 447: 443: 439: 435: 431: 427: 424: 415: 414: 409: 405: 402: 399: 395: 391: 388: 387: 382: 379: 376: 373: 372: 367: 364: 361: 357: 353: 349: 345: 342: 339: 335: 334: 330: 327: 323: 319: 316: 312: 309: 305: 301: 300: 299: 297: 293: 282: 280: 274: 273:(Cambodian). 272: 268: 264: 260: 256: 252: 240: 237: 234: 230: 227: 226: 221: 220: 216: 213: 209: 205: 204: 200: 199: 198: 195: 191: 187: 182: 180: 179:Indo-European 176: 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 148: 136: 132: 130: 126: 112: 109: 101: 90: 87: 83: 80: 76: 73: 69: 66: 62: 59: – 58: 54: 53:Find sources: 47: 43: 37: 36: 31:This article 29: 25: 20: 19: 16: 7361:Hanyu Pinyin 7351:Romanization 7258:Semi-cursive 7103:Old Mandarin 7060:Stroke count 6987: 6980: 6902:Old National 6889: 6745:Unclassified 5650:Southwestern 5483:Northeastern 5465:Major groups 5454: 5394:West Frisian 5181:Massachusett 4824: 4679:Prepositions 4648: 4542: 4520: 4502:, p. 5. 4478: 4466: 4454: 4442: 4430: 4418: 4406: 4394: 4382: 4370: 4358: 4346: 4317: 4305:. Retrieved 4293: 4289: 4279: 4243: 4239: 4215: 4210: 4206: 4200: 4195: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4164: 4152: 4144:Southern Min 4133: 4126: 4117: 4110: 4098: 4093: 4088: 4068: 4054: 4040: 3774: 3770: 3711: 3692: 3667:unrounds to 3653: 3649: 3612: 3604: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3572: 2863:Old Mandarin 2846: 2820:was dropped. 2799: 2755: 2751: 2731:Middle Indic 2617: 2613: 2559:The medials 2491:, remaining 2412:; likewise, 2380: 2365: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2283:merges into 2191: 2187: 2181: 2155: 2145: 2136: 2110: 2102: 2098: 2075: 1943: 1937: 1934: 1923: 1907: 1814:Back vowels 1725: 1687: 1680: 1495: 1469: 1448: 1284: 1225: 1216: 1191:Amoy Hokkien 1150: 1140: 1136: 1120: 1110: 1100: 1096: 1087: 948:Li Fang-Kuei 937: 921:Sino-Tibetan 904: 893: 888: 883: 879: 874: 870: 858: 856: 851:Matteo Ricci 751: 745: 732: 725: 721: 719: 706: 702: 695:Walter Simon 690: 677: 631: 603:Yuan dynasty 580: 551:Qing dynasty 548: 543: 538:such as the 530:and type of 509: 502: 501:such as the 491: 481: 456: 449: 438:Matteo Ricci 433: 429: 425: 411: 403: 384: 380: 369: 365: 360:Tang dynasty 343: 331: 321: 314: 308:Western Zhou 303: 288: 275: 253: 249: 238: 232: 223: 217: 201: 183: 154: 153: 141:and ⟨ 123: 104: 95: 85: 78: 71: 64: 52: 40:Please help 35:verification 32: 15: 7430:Xiao'erjing 7292:Punctuation 7285:Traditional 7238:Oracle bone 7222:Logographic 7118:Proto-Hakka 7093:Eastern Han 7088:Old Chinese 6950:Classifiers 6917:Northern Wu 6845:Singaporean 6051: [ 6039: [ 6027: [ 6015: [ 6003: [ 5124:Limburgish 5005:Greenlandic 4882:New Zealand 4815:Northern Wu 4669:Determiners 4649:Phonologies 4634:Phonologies 4509:Works cited 4218:Old Chinese 4099:even before 4095:Min Chinese 4057:Min Chinese 3697:Long vowel 3674:LMC medial 3659:LMC medial 2990:dropped or 2984:dropped or 2807:palatalized 2345:; likewise 2341:merge into 2325:EMC finals 1926:Min Chinese 1728:Old Chinese 940:Old Chinese 901:Qin dynasty 807:Sino-Korean 742:rime tables 658:Eastern Min 636:sinologist 567:rime tables 563:Old Chinese 549:During the 536:rime tables 432:(1455) and 338:Min Chinese 326:Han dynasty 255:Old Chinese 203:Old Chinese 186:oracle bone 98:August 2012 7484:Sound laws 7468:Categories 7381:Wade–Giles 7280:Simplified 7175:Vernacular 7168:in Vietnam 7021:Simplified 7008:Biaoxingma 6955:Honorifics 6890:Historical 6835:Philippine 6825:Sichuanese 6752:Badong Yao 6456:Shao–Jiang 6327:Philippine 6135:Xiangxiang 6130:Shuangfeng 5875:Taizhou Wu 5658:Sichuanese 5384:Vietnamese 5255:Ripuarian 5246:Portuguese 5156:Macedonian 5135:Lithuanian 5045:Hindustani 4872:Australian 4825:Historical 4772:Belarusian 4664:Adjectives 4307:24 October 4272:References 4236:Vietnamese 4124:Portuguese 4049:See also: 3954:Tone name 2727:Wu Chinese 2536:Non-final 2404:EMC final 2379:The III-4 2357:) becomes 2172:) becomes 2117:/f,f,bv,ʋ/ 2113:/p,pʰ,b,m/ 1904:otherwise. 847:Sin Sukchu 787:Vietnamese 783:Sino-Xenic 555:Duan Yucai 526:, such as 507:(601 AD). 390:rime table 171:alphabetic 68:newspapers 7319:Taiwanese 7309:Cantonese 7153:Classical 7113:Proto-Min 7048:Microsoft 6907:Cantonese 6883:Phonology 6864:Cantonese 6855:Singdarin 6840:Malaysian 6830:Taiwanese 6734:Rongjiang 6724:Yongjiang 6720:Southern 6705:Northern 6679:Luo–Guang 6588:Hong Kong 6583:Guangzhou 6539:Taiwanese 6532:Changting 6466:Zhanjiang 6380:Zhongshan 6347:Malaysian 6342:Singapore 6307:Zhangzhou 6259:Zhongshan 6152:Yong–Quan 6048:Jing-Zhan 5978:Xuancheng 5955:Jiangshan 5834:Changzhou 5755:Junjiahua 5608:Guanzhong 5491:Changchun 5374:Ukrainian 5281:Sardinian 5259:Colognian 5216:Old Saxon 5201:Norwegian 5166:Maldivian 5110:Latgalian 5055:Icelandic 5050:Hungarian 5038:Samaritan 4919:Esperanto 4805:Cantonese 4782:Bulgarian 4750:Levantine 4722:Afrikaans 4302:0091-3723 4156:Proto-Min 3968:Yang Ping 3852:qúan zhúo 3801:qúan qīng 3791:consonant 3716:LMC coda 3701:shortens. 2756:yang ping 2752:yang ping 2738:Old Xiang 2454:, become 2372:) become 2216:) become 1743:becoming 1683:sonorants 923:dialects. 666:Cantonese 662:Guangdong 532:phonation 520:phonetics 516:phonology 488:homophone 212:Proto-Min 194:phonology 175:syllabary 7403:Bopomofo 7332:Phonetic 7324:Two-cell 7253:Clerical 7163:in Japan 7158:Adoption 7146:Official 7137:Literary 7012:Boshiamy 6989:Xiehouyu 6945:Numerals 6922:Mandarin 6850:Standard 6810:Standard 6684:Qin–Lian 6674:Yong–Xun 6659:Gao–Yang 6605:Jiujiang 6593:Malaysia 6527:Tingzhou 6478:Wenchang 6439:Jianyang 6429:Northern 6388:Sanxiang 6302:Quanzhou 6285:Southern 6254:Manjiang 6118:Changsha 6078:Nanchang 6073:Chang–Du 5970:Xuanzhou 5960:Qingtian 5914:Wencheng 5860:Jiangyin 5855:Jinxiang 5845:Shaoxing 5839:Hangzhou 5819:Shanghai 5760:Qinjiang 5668:Minjiang 5640:Xinjiang 5598:Dongping 5562:Jiaoliao 5501:Shenyang 5474:Mandarin 5271:Romanian 5080:Japanese 5033:Tiberian 5028:Biblical 5015:Hawaiian 5010:Gujarati 4973:Standard 4965:Galician 4953:Parisian 4924:Estonian 4855:Standard 4800:Mandarin 4796:Chinese 4760:Tunisian 4755:Moroccan 4740:Egyptian 4712:Acehnese 4684:Pronouns 4659:Grammars 4596:done by 4541:(1999), 4519:(1992), 4250:See also 4089:chongniu 4079:, using 4069:chongniu 4017:contour 3957:Yin Ping 3910:Initial 3842:sonorant 3820:sonorant 3785:unvoiced 3720:becomes 3576:chongniu 3562:dropped 3559:dropped 2782:devoiced 2775:Initials 2675:becomes 2664:becomes 2657:is lost. 2653:A glide 2623:A final 2548:, while 2435:becomes 2427:becomes 2416:becomes 2408:becomes 2381:chongniu 2192:chongniu 2188:chongniu 2183:chongniu 1966:becomes 1496:xiesheng 1300:reflex 1294:sonorant 1193:and the 958:(but no 891:system. 825:Sanskrit 814:Sanskrit 791:Japanese 769:Mandarin 711:Dunhuang 684:Guangyun 646:Shanghai 618:Sanskrit 611:alphabet 362:authors. 246:Overview 139:/ / 135:Help:IPA 7302:Braille 7263:Cursive 7213:Scripts 7080:History 7070:ZhengMa 7016:Cangjie 6982:Chengyu 6937:Grammar 6912:Hokkien 6869:Hokkien 6777:Waxiang 6757:Danzhou 6729:Guandao 6714:Younian 6709:Tongdao 6698:Pinghua 6638:Taishan 6554:Raoping 6522:Huizhou 6512:Meixian 6488:Banqiao 6461:Leizhou 6451:Pu–Xian 6446:Central 6434:Jian'ou 6409:Longyan 6357:Teochew 6294:Hokkien 6269:Nanlang 6225:Fu–Ning 6205:Changle 6187:Houguan 6178:Eastern 6125:Loushao 6113:Changyi 6095:Da–Tong 6090:Ying–Yi 6036:Yanzhou 5904:Wenzhou 5897:Oujiang 5888:Tiantai 5883:Taizhou 5792:Zhi–Yan 5739:Nantong 5734:Nanjing 5709:Gui–Liu 5699:Nanping 5694:Kunming 5620:Luoyang 5575:Qingdao 5547:Tianjin 5524:Beijing 5516:Beijing 5399:Yiddish 5364:Turkish 5349:Tagalog 5333:Swedish 5321:Spanish 5306:Slovene 5276:Russian 5236:Persian 5206:Occitan 5186:Medumba 5176:Marathi 5120:Latvian 5100:Kurdish 5090:Konkani 5075:Italian 5060:Ingrian 5019:Hebrew 4993:Ancient 4978:Bernese 4969:German 4949:French 4945:Finnish 4940:Faroese 4867:English 4837:Cornish 4832:Chukchi 4810:Hokkien 4792:Catalan 4787:Burmese 4777:Bengali 4767:Avestan 4731:Arabic 4636:of the 4146:) vs. 4131:English 4115:English 4108:Spanish 4077:/pjian/ 3881:Shang ( 3830:cì zhúo 3812:cì qīng 3788:initial 3729:/p,t,k/ 3516:before 3474:before 3345:before 3295:before 3074:before 2898:before 2835:became 2552:become 2544:become 2542:/-wji-/ 2538:/-jwi-/ 2522:become 2499:become 2473:become 2465:become 2433:/-jow-/ 2309:pai/pei 2297:Jinling 2293:Luoyang 2246:/-iajŋ/ 2242:/-aːjŋ/ 2174:/-jie-/ 1941:below. 1892:became 1868:became 1789:became 1785:before 1761:became 1697:*Cə-lim 1593:'glad' 1408:thr(j)- 1342:thr(j)- 906:Shijing 829:Tibetan 753:Yunjing 660:), and 634:Swedish 587:Yunjing 576:phoneme 540:Yunjing 463:Beijing 455:Modern 452:(1642). 386:Yunjing 356:Shaanxi 208:Shijing 163:Chinese 159:Chinese 127:in the 82:scholar 7371:Postal 7366:MPS II 7243:Bronze 7123:Ba–Shu 7043:Google 7038:Pinyin 6974:Idioms 6787:Yeheni 6669:Wu–Hua 6664:Goulou 6643:Xinhui 6620:Dapeng 6615:Weitou 6600:Xiguan 6575:Yuehai 6544:Sixian 6483:Haikou 6473:Hainan 6404:Zhenan 6370:Haklau 6365:Swatow 6337:Penang 6322:Taiwan 6317:Chawan 6264:Longdu 6233:Ningde 6210:Gutian 6200:Fuqing 6195:Fuzhou 6157:Qiyang 6140:Wugang 6085:Yi–Liu 6012:Xiu-Yi 6000:Ji-She 5950:Quzhou 5942:Chu–Qu 5932:Jinhua 5924:Wuzhou 5909:Rui'an 5850:Ningbo 5824:Suzhou 5714:Wuming 5685:Zigong 5673:Leshan 5635:Lanyin 5630:Dungan 5625:Xuzhou 5603:Gangou 5580:Weihai 5570:Dalian 5529:Taiwan 5496:Harbin 5379:Uyghur 5311:Somali 5301:Slovak 5241:Polish 5231:Pashto 5226:Ottawa 5211:Ojibwe 5196:Nepali 5191:Navajo 5105:Kyrgyz 5095:Korean 5023:Modern 4984:Greek 4958:Quebec 4912:Middle 4851:Dutch 4847:Danish 4745:Hejazi 4717:Adyghe 4707:Abkhaz 4549: 4527: 4300: 4073:/pian/ 4063:(e.g. 4035:to 35 4032:to 51 4006:to Qu 3872:Ping ( 3838:voiced 3569:Finals 2694:-> 2686:-> 2610:/-aː-/ 2585:/-aː-/ 2579:, and 2546:/-jy-/ 2501:/-aː-/ 2471:/-wə-/ 2469:, and 2463:/-jə-/ 2437:/-yw-/ 2431:, and 2429:/-əw-/ 2425:/-uw-/ 2266:/-aː-/ 2254:/-iaŋ/ 2178:/-ie-/ 1938:Qieyun 1902:/-jɨj/ 1896:after 1886:/-woj/ 1872:after 1730:(OC): 1627:*hljot 1436:th(r)- 1380:xw(j)- 1373:*hngw- 1320:x(w)j- 1005:(e.g. 889:Qieyun 884:Qieyun 880:Qieyun 875:Qieyun 871:Qieyun 859:Qieyun 843:Hangul 795:Korean 747:Qieyun 707:Qieyun 703:Qieyun 691:Qieyun 679:fanqie 654:Fuzhou 583:Pāṇini 559:Middle 544:Qieyun 504:Qieyun 493:fanqie 371:Qieyun 233:Qieyun 225:Qieyun 169:, not 143: 84: 77: 70: 63: 55: 7435:Nüshu 7139:forms 7053:Sogou 7000:Input 6874:Hakka 6812:forms 6652:Other 6610:Shiqi 6549:Hailu 6517:Wuhua 6504:Hakka 6422:Other 6397:Other 6332:Pedan 6247:Other 6238:Fu'an 6215:Matsu 6147:Ji–Xu 6105:Xiang 6055:] 6043:] 6031:] 6024:Qi-De 6019:] 6007:] 5865:Shadi 5811:Taihu 5765:Gyami 5748:Other 5704:Wuhan 5613:Xi'an 5552:Jinan 5389:Welsh 5369:Ubykh 5354:Tamil 5316:Sotho 5286:Scots 5221:Oromo 5171:Māori 5161:Malay 5115:Latin 5085:Kiowa 5070:Irish 5065:Inuit 4998:Koine 4842:Czech 4689:Verbs 4674:Nouns 4059:have 3998:, 4) 3987:, 3) 3979:Shang 3976:, 2) 3965:, 1) 3836:V+ = 3783:V− = 3767:Tones 3524:, or 3482:, or 3364:/tɕʰ/ 3353:, or 3342:/tɕʰ/ 3303:, or 3292:/tɕʰ/ 3281:/tsʰ/ 3272:/tsʰ/ 3263:/dzʰ/ 3259:/tsʰ/ 3246:/tsʰ/ 3231:/tɕʰ/ 3218:/tɕʰ/ 3207:/ɖʐʰ/ 3203:/ʈʂʰ/ 3190:/tʃʰ/ 3179:/ʈʂʰ/ 3170:/ʈʂʰ/ 2967:/ʐ~ɻ/ 2796:/ɻ~ʐ/ 2748:Hakka 2593:/-w-/ 2589:/-u-/ 2581:/-j-/ 2577:/-ə-/ 2573:/-a-/ 2569:/-i-/ 2565:/-j-/ 2561:/-i-/ 2554:/-y-/ 2524:/-a-/ 2520:/-o-/ 2516:/-ɛ-/ 2512:/-e-/ 2508:/-æ-/ 2497:/-ɛ-/ 2493:/-æ-/ 2475:/-u-/ 2467:/-i-/ 2452:/-om/ 2448:/-oj/ 2444:/-o-/ 2418:/juə/ 2389:/jyj/ 2366:hekou 2347:/jɨ-/ 2339:/jɨj/ 2307:, or 2285:/-ɛj/ 2281:/-ɛɨ/ 2274:/-jk/ 2270:/-jŋ/ 2262:/-a-/ 2258:/-jk/ 2250:/-aŋ/ 2166:/-e-/ 2086:/-ɛɨ/ 1930:below 1894:/-ij/ 1882:/-oj/ 1878:/-ej/ 1870:/-ɛj/ 1801:Tones 1668:*ljot 1617:sywet 1586:*lots 1583:< 1539:*hlot 1529:thwat 1430:thrj- 1424:x-(?) 1364:x(j)- 1357:*hng- 1314:x(w)- 1260:/ŋ̊ʷ/ 1256:*hngw 1141:grjeʔ 1133:Hakka 1101:ngjet 765:Hakka 352:Gansu 271:Khmer 131:(IPA) 89:JSTOR 75:books 7396:Yale 7386:EFEO 7248:Seal 7033:Dayi 6630:Siyi 6312:Amoy 5829:Wuxi 5726:Huai 5539:Jilu 5404:Zuni 5359:Taos 4547:ISBN 4525:ISBN 4309:2023 4298:ISSN 4244:yang 4242:and 4225:and 4211:yang 4209:and 4196:yang 4184:yang 4180:yang 4168:yang 4140:Amoy 4135:chai 4122:vs. 4075:and 4026:214 4015:Tone 3899:Ru ( 3890:Qu ( 3868:Tone 3818:L = 3760:/jk/ 3758:and 3756:/jŋ/ 3752:/wk/ 3750:and 3748:/wŋ/ 3739:and 3699:/aː/ 3682:and 3644:and 3633:and 3631:/jy/ 3621:and 3619:/ji/ 3598:and 3592:/aː/ 3590:and 3584:y/jy 3582:and 3580:i/ji 3504:/ɣʰ/ 3454:/zʰ/ 3384:/kʰ/ 3375:/kʰ/ 3360:/tɕ/ 3338:/tɕ/ 3333:/ɡʰ/ 3329:/kʰ/ 3316:/kʰ/ 3288:/tɕ/ 3277:/ts/ 3268:/ts/ 3255:/ts/ 3250:/dz/ 3242:/ts/ 3235:/dʑ/ 3227:/tɕ/ 3222:/dʑ/ 3214:/tɕ/ 3199:/ʈʂ/ 3194:/dʒ/ 3186:/tʃ/ 3175:/ʈʂ/ 3166:/ʈʂ/ 3161:/ɖʰ/ 3157:/ʈʰ/ 3144:/ʈʰ/ 3133:/tʰ/ 3124:/tʰ/ 3115:/dʰ/ 3111:/tʰ/ 3098:/tʰ/ 3060:/pʰ/ 3051:/pʰ/ 3042:/bʰ/ 3038:/pʰ/ 3025:/pʰ/ 2859:LMC 2856:EMC 2818:/ɣʰ/ 2746:and 2618:xian 2616:and 2591:and 2575:and 2563:and 2540:and 2495:and 2450:and 2414:/ju/ 2410:/uə/ 2387:and 2385:/ji/ 2374:/yj/ 2364:The 2359:/i-/ 2353:and 2331:/ij/ 2327:/je/ 2311:and 2303:and 2289:/-ɛ/ 2272:and 2264:and 2252:and 2244:and 2238:/jŋ/ 2230:/jk/ 2228:and 2226:/jŋ/ 2222:/jk/ 2220:and 2218:/jŋ/ 2200:and 2094:/jk/ 2092:and 2090:/jŋ/ 2064:and 2051:/aː/ 2039:/aː/ 2008:/aː/ 2002:and 1994:and 1988:/jy/ 1976:/ji/ 1964:/jw/ 1890:/ɨj/ 1866:/ɨj/ 1857:and 1818:and 1750:The 1745:/ej/ 1715:/*r/ 1663:< 1658:jwet 1653:< 1622:< 1612:< 1607:shuō 1580:*los 1575:< 1570:dwaj 1565:< 1534:< 1524:< 1473:/*l/ 1417:*hr- 1389:*hl- 1329:*hn- 1307:*hm- 1278:/r̥/ 1269:/l̥/ 1251:/ŋ̊/ 1247:*hng 1242:/n̥/ 1233:/m̥/ 1169:and 1139:and 1131:and 1121:gjeX 1111:tsye 1097:nyet 1053:/wŋ/ 1044:(or 1015:/n̥/ 1011:/m̥/ 1007:/kʷ/ 986:and 980:/Cə/ 976:/C-/ 867:Tang 827:and 805:and 793:and 779:etc. 740:and 697:and 672:and 561:and 518:and 440:and 419:中原音韻 354:and 61:news 7128:Gan 7028:CKC 6895:Old 6772:She 6762:Mai 6566:Yue 6169:Min 6065:Gan 5992:Hui 5841:(?) 5779:Jin 5506:Taz 5342:T–Z 5149:M–S 4933:F–L 4907:Old 4820:Old 4700:A–E 4240:yin 4207:yin 4188:yin 4176:yin 4172:yin 4127:chá 4119:tea 4104:/r/ 4065:/f/ 4029:51 4023:35 4020:55 3946:V+ 3940:V− 3937:V+ 3931:V− 3928:V+ 3922:V− 3919:V+ 3913:V− 3844:) ( 3804:or 3741:/w/ 3737:/j/ 3733:/k/ 3722:/n/ 3718:/m/ 3684:/n/ 3680:/l/ 3676:/u/ 3669:/i/ 3665:/y/ 3661:/u/ 3654:shi 3650:she 3646:/y/ 3642:/i/ 3635:/y/ 3627:/j/ 3623:/i/ 3600:/ŋ/ 3596:/n/ 3588:/a/ 3555:/ʔ/ 3550:/ʔ/ 3543:/x/ 3538:/x/ 3531:/ɕ/ 3526:/j/ 3522:/y/ 3518:/i/ 3513:/ɕ/ 3508:/j/ 3500:/x/ 3495:/ɣ/ 3491:/x/ 3484:/j/ 3480:/y/ 3476:/i/ 3471:/ɕ/ 3464:/s/ 3459:/s/ 3450:/s/ 3445:/z/ 3441:/s/ 3434:/ʑ/ 3430:/ɕ/ 3425:/ʑ/ 3421:/ɕ/ 3414:/ʂ/ 3409:/ʂ/ 3404:/ʐ/ 3400:/ʂ/ 3395:/ʒ/ 3391:/ʃ/ 3380:/k/ 3371:/k/ 3355:/j/ 3351:/y/ 3347:/i/ 3325:/k/ 3320:/ɡ/ 3312:/k/ 3305:/j/ 3301:/y/ 3297:/i/ 3153:/ʈ/ 3148:/ɖ/ 3140:/ʈ/ 3129:/t/ 3120:/t/ 3107:/t/ 3102:/d/ 3094:/t/ 3087:/f/ 3082:/f/ 3076:/j/ 3071:/v/ 3067:/f/ 3056:/p/ 3047:/p/ 3034:/p/ 3029:/b/ 3021:/p/ 3014:/l/ 3009:/l/ 3004:/l/ 2999:/l/ 2992:/n/ 2986:/n/ 2980:/ŋ/ 2975:/ŋ/ 2962:/ʒ/ 2957:/ɲ/ 2952:/ɲ/ 2945:/ɳ/ 2940:/ɳ/ 2933:/n/ 2928:/n/ 2923:/n/ 2918:/n/ 2911:/w/ 2906:/v/ 2900:/j/ 2895:/ɱ/ 2888:/m/ 2883:/m/ 2878:/m/ 2873:/m/ 2841:/j/ 2837:/w/ 2833:/ʋ/ 2829:/f/ 2825:/v/ 2814:/ʔ/ 2792:/ɻ/ 2744:Gan 2716:/ɻ/ 2712:/ɲ/ 2696:/j/ 2692:/ɥ/ 2688:/u/ 2684:/y/ 2677:/ɨ/ 2673:/i/ 2666:/ə/ 2662:/i/ 2655:/j/ 2648:/ɥ/ 2646:or 2644:/y/ 2640:/j/ 2638:or 2636:/i/ 2629:/ɨ/ 2625:/i/ 2614:jia 2606:/j/ 2489:/j/ 2456:/ə/ 2406:/u/ 2398:/ə/ 2370:/w/ 2355:/t/ 2351:/n/ 2343:/i/ 2335:/i/ 2260:. ( 2214:/e/ 2210:/ɛ/ 2206:/æ/ 2202:/k/ 2198:/ŋ/ 2170:/j/ 2146:wén 2137:man 2121:/j/ 2082:/ɨ/ 2078:/j/ 2070:/j/ 2066:/y/ 2062:/i/ 2055:/ɨ/ 2047:/ə/ 2043:/a/ 2035:/ə/ 2031:/a/ 2027:/ɨ/ 2023:/u/ 2019:/y/ 2015:/i/ 2004:/ə/ 2000:/a/ 1996:/y/ 1992:/i/ 1984:/y/ 1980:/w/ 1972:/i/ 1968:/y/ 1957:/j/ 1950:/ɻ/ 1914:/j/ 1912:or 1910:/i/ 1898:/r/ 1874:/r/ 1859:/u/ 1855:/o/ 1851:/w/ 1847:/w/ 1840:/w/ 1836:/t/ 1832:/r/ 1828:/n/ 1824:/j/ 1820:/u/ 1816:/o/ 1809:/ʔ/ 1805:/s/ 1795:/a/ 1791:/j/ 1787:/s/ 1783:/t/ 1779:/s/ 1775:/k/ 1771:/a/ 1767:/j/ 1763:/n/ 1759:/r/ 1752:/r/ 1741:/i/ 1736:/j/ 1709:/l/ 1703:lim 1694:as 1648:yuè 1560:duì 1519:tuō 1491:/l/ 1485:/j/ 1479:/d/ 1454:(j) 1402:sy- 1396:th- 1348:sy- 1336:th- 1274:*hr 1265:*hl 1238:*hn 1229:*hm 1183:ɣ~ɦ 1157:ɣ~ɦ 1137:kje 1129:Min 1061:/n/ 1057:/r/ 1046:/ɨ/ 1042:/ə/ 1038:/u/ 1034:/o/ 1030:/e/ 1026:/i/ 1022:/a/ 972:/ʔ/ 970:or 968:/s/ 964:/w/ 962:or 960:/j/ 956:/r/ 863:Sui 773:Min 761:Yue 652:), 471:PRC 394:Min 173:or 44:by 7470:: 6053:zh 6041:zh 6029:zh 6017:zh 6005:zh 5802:Wu 4576:, 4490:^ 4329:^ 4294:24 4292:. 4288:. 4150:. 4129:, 4113:, 4111:te 3990:Qu 3973:陽平 3962:陰平 3943:L 3934:L 3925:L 3916:L 3905:) 3896:) 3887:) 3878:) 3847:全濁 3825:次濁 3807:次清 3796:全清 3610:. 3602:. 3520:, 3502:, 3493:, 3478:, 3452:, 3443:, 3432:, 3423:, 3402:, 3393:, 3382:, 3373:, 3362:, 3349:, 3340:, 3331:, 3327:, 3318:, 3314:, 3299:, 3290:, 3279:, 3270:, 3261:, 3257:, 3248:, 3244:, 3233:, 3229:, 3220:, 3216:, 3205:, 3201:, 3192:, 3188:, 3177:, 3168:, 3159:, 3155:, 3146:, 3142:, 3131:, 3122:, 3113:, 3109:, 3100:, 3096:, 3069:, 3058:, 3049:, 3040:, 3036:, 3027:, 3023:, 2831:; 2800:er 2698:). 2690:, 2518:, 2514:, 2510:, 2337:, 2333:, 2329:, 2313:pa 2305:ya 2301:ai 2212:, 2208:, 2148:. 2049:, 2045:, 2037:, 2033:, 2021:, 2017:, 1986:, 1982:, 1978:, 1974:, 1916:. 1834:, 1830:, 1826:, 1797:). 1781:; 1773:; 1765:; 1747:.) 1718:. 1501:y- 1460:sy 1433:, 1427:, 1405:, 1399:, 1345:, 1339:, 1317:, 1298:MC 1292:OC 1262:, 1253:, 1244:, 1235:, 1199:k- 1189:, 1048:). 1040:, 1036:, 1032:, 1028:, 1024:, 1013:, 950:: 801:, 789:, 777:Wu 775:, 771:, 767:, 763:, 717:. 650:Wu 569:, 546:. 298:: 5438:e 5431:t 5424:v 4626:e 4619:t 4612:v 4555:. 4533:. 4311:. 4142:( 3995:去 3992:( 3984:上 3981:( 3970:( 3959:( 3902:入 3893:去 3884:上 3875:平 3855:) 3833:) 3815:) 3793:( 3743:. 3724:. 3708:. 3686:. 3671:. 3637:. 2620:. 2556:. 2526:. 2503:. 2477:. 2458:. 2439:. 2376:. 2361:. 2315:. 2276:. 2142:文 2133:文 2127:微 2010:. 1952:. 1861:. 1691:林 1641:悅 1600:說 1553:兌 1512:脫 1207:ɡ 1203:ɡ 1178:匣 1172:後 1166:厚 1153:ɡ 1116:技 1109:( 1106:支 1092:熱 1063:. 1017:. 865:- 664:( 656:( 648:( 416:( 400:. 328:. 149:. 111:) 105:( 100:) 96:( 86:· 79:· 72:· 65:· 38:.

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Knowledge

Historical Chinese phonology

Index