Effects of climate change

73: 513: 2123: 210: 505: 1094: 2307: 525: 1103: 1923: 1408: 995: 979: 1217: 359: 44: 624: 751: 1460: 64: 806: 698: 664: 1743:(PTSD). Scientific studies have linked mental health to several climate-related exposures. These include heat, humidity, rainfall, drought, wildfires and floods. The indirect pathway can be disruption to economic and social activities. An example is when an area of farmland is less able to produce food. The third pathway can be of mere awareness of the climate change threat, even by individuals who are not otherwise affected by it. This especially manifests in the form of anxiety over the quality of life for future generations. 1308: 814: 2274: 1981: 2096: 2406: 2747:

Janion-Scheepers, Charlene; Jarzyna, Marta A.; Jennings, Sarah; Lenoir, Jonathan; Linnetved, Hlif I.; Martin, Victoria Y.; McCormack, Phillipa C.; McDonald, Jan; Mitchell, Nicola J.; Mustonen, Tero; Pandolfi, John M.; Pettorelli, Nathalie; Popova, Ekaterina; Robinson, Sharon A.; Scheffers, Brett R.; Shaw, Justine D.; Sorte, Cascade J. B.; Strugnell, Jan M.; Sunday, Jennifer M.; Tuanmu, Mao-Ning; Vergés, Adriana; Villanueva, Cecilia; Wernberg, Thomas; Wapstra, Erik; Williams, Stephen E. (31 March 2017).

2392: 1567: 53: 2221:: Indigenous communities tend to rely more on the environment for food and other necessities. This makes them more vulnerable to disturbances in ecosystems. Indigenous communities across the globe generally have bigger economic disadvantages than non-indigenous communities. This is due to the oppression they have experienced. These disadvantages include less access to education and jobs and higher rates of poverty. All this makes them more vulnerable to climate change. 14075: 14063: 2364: 1782: 486:. For instance such research can look at historical data for a region and conclude that a specific heat wave was more intense due to climate change. In addition , the time shifts of the season onsets, changes in the length of the season durations have been reported in many regions of the world. As a result of this, the timing of the extreme weather events such as heavy precipitaions and heat waves is changing in parallel with season shifting. 14099: 14087: 2378: 725:. Agriculture suffers as a result. This means even regions where overall rainfall is expected to remain relatively stable will experience these impacts. These regions include central and northern Europe. Without climate change mitigation, around one third of land areas are likely to experience moderate or more severe drought by 2100. Due to global warming droughts are more frequent and intense than in the past. 4934: 1396:. Through this interaction, climate change increases the risk of extinction for many terrestrial and freshwater species. At 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) of warming (around 2023) some ecosystems are threatened by mass die-offs of trees and from heatwaves. At 2 °C (3.6 °F) of warming, around 10% of species on land would become critically endangered. This differs by group. For instance 2294:. Another study found that excluding tipping points underestimates the global economic impact by a factor of two to eight. Another study found that a temperature rise of 2 °C (3.6 °F) by 2050 would reduce global GDP by 2.5%–7.5%. By 2100 in this scenario the temperature would rise by 4 °C (7.2 °F). This could reduce global GDP by 30% in the worst case. 1198:

This would contribute 7 m (23 ft) to sea levels globally. The ice loss could become irreversible due to a further self-enhancing feedback. This is called the elevation-surface mass balance feedback. When ice melts on top of the ice sheet, the elevation drops. Air temperature is higher at lower altitudes, so this promotes further melting.

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decade. It has declined over 50% since the first satellite records. Ice-free summers are expected to be rare at 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) degrees of warming. They are set to occur at least once every decade with a warming level of 2 °C (3.6 °F). The Arctic will likely become ice-free at the end of some summers before 2050.

1050:. If there are very deep cuts in emissions, sea level rise would slow between 2050 and 2100. It could then reach by 2100 slightly over 30 cm (1 ft) from now and approximately 60 cm (2 ft) from the 19th century. With high emissions it would instead accelerate further, and could rise by 1.01 m ( 767:. This can cause vegetation and soils to dry out. When a fire starts in an area with very dry vegetation, it can spread rapidly. Higher temperatures can also lengthen the fire season. This is the time of year in which severe wildfires are most likely, particularly in regions where snow is disappearing. 7025:

Smale, Dan A.; Wernberg, Thomas; Oliver, Eric C. J.; Thomsen, Mads; Harvey, Ben P.; Straub, Sandra C.; Burrows, Michael T.; Alexander, Lisa V.; Benthuysen, Jessica A.; Donat, Markus G.; Feng, Ming; Hobday, Alistair J.; Holbrook, Neil J.; Perkins-Kirkpatrick, Sarah E.; Scannell, Hillary A.; Sen Gupta,

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is affected by changes in the water cycle such as river flows. Diminished river flows can cause power shortages in areas that depend on hydroelectric power. Brazil relies on hydroelectricity. So it is particularly vulnerable. Rising temperatures, lower water flow, and changes in rainfall could reduce

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Further impacts may be irreversible, at least over the timescale of many human generations. This includes warming of the deep ocean and acidification. These are set to continue even when global temperatures stop rising. In biological systems, the extinction of species would be an irreversible impact.

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and by physical modeling. There is already moderate risk of global tipping points at 1 °C (1.8 °F) above pre-industrial temperatures. That becomes a high risk at 2.5 °C (4.5 °F). It is possible that some tipping points are close or have already been crossed. Examples are the West

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between 2007 and 2016. The extent of permafrost has been falling for decades. More decline is expected in the future. Permafrost thaw makes the ground weaker and unstable. The thaw can seriously damage human infrastructure in permafrost areas such as railways, settlements and pipelines. Thawing soil

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could also contribute to a partial collapse. But there is limited evidence for its importance. A partial collapse of the ice sheet would lead to rapid sea level rise and a local decrease in ocean salinity. It would be irreversible for decades and possibly even millennia. The complete loss of the West

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Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M. I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J. B. R. Matthews, T. K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, US,

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paired the climatic conditions of 520 major cities worldwide with the predicted climatic conditions of cities in 2050. It found that 22% of the major cities would have climatic conditions that do not exist in any city today. For instance, 2050 London would have a climate similar to 2019 Melbourne in

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Climate change is projected to negatively affect all four pillars of food security. It will affect how much food is available. It will also affect how easy food is to access through prices, food quality, and how stable the food system is. Climate change is already affecting the productivity of wheat

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when parts of the natural environment enter into a new state. Examples are the runaway loss of ice sheets or the dieback of forests. Tipping behavior is found in all parts of the climate system. These include ecosystems, ice sheets, and the circulation of the ocean and atmosphere. Tipping points are

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measures both temperature and humidity. Humans cannot adapt to a wet-bulb temperature above 35 °C (95 °F). This heat stress can kill people. If global warming is kept below 1.5 or 2 °C (2.7 or 3.6 °F), it will probably be possible to avoid this deadly heat and humidity in most of

9625:"3.3.1 Impacts on systems and sectors. In (section): Synthesis Report. In: Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K and Reisinger, A. (eds.))" 2323:

Climate change has a bigger impact on economic sectors directly affected by weather than on other sectors. It heavily affects agriculture, fisheries and forestry. It also affects the tourism and energy sectors. Agriculture and forestry have suffered economic losses due to droughts and extreme heat.

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Global losses reveal rapidly rising costs due to extreme weather events since the 1970s. Socio-economic factors have contributed to the observed trend of global losses. These factors include population growth and increased wealth. Regional climatic factors also play a role. These include changes in

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Economic impacts are bigger the more the temperature rises. Scientists have compared impacts with warming of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) and a level of 3.66 °C (6.59 °F). They use this higher figure to represent no efforts to stop emissions. They found that total damages at 1.5 °C were

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around the world. Those in poverty have a higher chance of experiencing the ill-effects of climate change, due to their increased exposure and vulnerability. A 2020 World Bank paper estimated that between 32 million to 132 million additional people will be pushed into extreme poverty by 2030 due to

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and rising sea levels gradually erode livelihoods. They force communities to abandon traditional homelands. Other forms of migration are adaptive and voluntary. They are based on individual or household decisions. On the other hand, some households may fall into poverty or get poorer due to climate

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and economic growth. The effects of climate change are often interlinked. They can exacerbate each other as well as existing vulnerabilities. Some areas may become too hot for humans to live in. Climate-related changes or disasters may lead people in some areas to move to other parts of the country

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are especially vulnerable. They are likely to experience more intense storm surges, salt water intrusion and coastal destruction. Low-lying small islands in the Pacific, Indian, and Caribbean regions even risk permanent inundation. This would displace their population. On the islands of Fiji, Tonga

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would likely halve rainfall in India and lead to severe drops in temperature in Northern Europe. Many tipping points are interlinked such that triggering one may lead to a cascade of effects. This remains a possibility even well below 2 °C (3.6 °F) of warming. A 2018 study states that 45%

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and food. But 70–90% of today's warm-water coral reefs will disappear even if warming is kept to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). Coral reefs are framework organisms. They build physical structures that form habitats for other sea creatures. Other framework organisms are also at risk from climate change.

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again. Warming over land increases the severity and frequency of droughts around much of the world. In some tropical and subtropical regions of the world, there will probably be less rain due to global warming. This will make them more prone to drought. Droughts are set to worsen in many regions of

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The excess water vapour also gets caught up in storms. This makes them more intense, larger, and potentially longer-lasting. This in turn causes rain and snow events to become stronger and leads to increased risk of flooding. Extra drying worsens natural dry spells and droughts. This increases risk

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Displacement is when people move within a country. Migration is when they move to another country. Some people use the terms interchangeably. Climate change affects displacement in several ways. More frequent and severe weather-related disasters may increase involuntary displacement. These destroy

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In contrast to the West Antarctic ice sheet, melt of the Greenland ice sheet is projected to take place more gradually over millennia. Sustained warming between 1 °C (1.8 °F) (low confidence) and 4 °C (7.2 °F) (medium confidence) would lead to a complete loss of the ice sheet.

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The various layers of the oceans have different temperatures. For example, the water is colder towards the bottom of the ocean. This temperature stratification will increase as the ocean surface warms due to rising air temperatures. Connected to this is a decline in mixing of the ocean layers, so

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the temperature will be about 2.7 °C (2.0–3.6 °C) above pre-industrial levels by 2100. It would rise by 2.4 °C (4.3 °F) if governments achieved all their unconditional pledges and targets. If all the countries that have set or are considering net-zero targets achieve them, the

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Global Warming of 1.5 °C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and

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von Schuckmann, Karina; Minière, Audrey; Gues, Flora; Cuesta-Valero, Francisco José; Kirchengast, Gottfried; Adusumilli, Susheel; Straneo, Fiammetta; Ablain, Michaël; Allan, Richard P.; Barker, Paul M.; Beltrami, Hugo; Blazquez, Alejandro; Boyer, Tim; Cheng, Lijing; Church, John (17 April 2023).

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Migration due to climate and weather is usually within countries. But it is long-distance. Slow-onset disasters such as droughts and heat are more likely to cause long-term migration than weather disasters like floods. Migration due to desertification and reduced soil fertility is typically from

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pressure are other factors. Droughts result in crop failures and the loss of pasture for livestock. Loss and poor growth of livestock cause milk yield and meat production to decrease. The rate of soil erosion is 10–20 times higher than the rate of soil accumulation in agricultural areas that use

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within ecosystems. This is because species from one location do not leave the warming habitat at the same rate. The result is rapid changes in the way the ecosystem functions. Impacts include changes in regional rainfall patterns. Another is earlier leafing of trees and plants over many regions.

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Experts can often attribute the intensity of individual heat waves to global warming. Some extreme events would have been nearly impossible without human influence on the climate system. A heatwave that would occur once every ten years before global warming started now occurs 2.8 times as often.

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Steffen, Will; Persson, Åsa; Deutsch, Lisa; Zalasiewicz, Jan; Williams, Mark; Richardson, Katherine; Crumley, Carole; Crutzen, Paul; Folke, Carl; Gordon, Line; Molina, Mario; Ramanathan, Veerabhadran; Rockström, Johan; Scheffer, Marten; Schellnhuber, Hans Joachim; Svedin, Uno (12 October 2011).

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Global warming affects the insurance and financial services sectors. Insurance is an important tool to manage risks. But it is often unavailable to poorer households. Due to climate change, premiums are going up for certain types of insurance, such as flood insurance. Poor adaptation to climate

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Humans have a climate niche. This is a certain range of temperatures in which they flourish. Outside that niche, conditions are less favourable. This leads to negative effects on health, food security and more. This niche is a mean annual temperature below 29 °C. As of May 2023, 60 million

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These changes of land and ocean ecosystems have direct effects on human well-being. For instance, ocean ecosystems help with coastal protection and provide food. Freshwater and land ecosystems can provide water for human consumption. Furthermore, these ecosystems can store carbon. This helps to

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worldwide are moving poleward to colder areas. On land, species may move to higher elevations. Marine species find colder water at greater depths. Climate change had the third biggest impact on nature out of various factors in the five decades up to 2020. Only change in land use and sea use and

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Pecl, Gretta T.; Araújo, Miguel B.; Bell, Johann D.; Blanchard, Julia; Bonebrake, Timothy C.; Chen, I-Ching; Clark, Timothy D.; Colwell, Robert K.; Danielsen, Finn; Evengård, Birgitta; Falconi, Lorena; Ferrier, Simon; Frusher, Stewart; Garcia, Raquel A.; Griffis, Roger B.; Hobday, Alistair J.;

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or destroy the potential of intelligent life on Earth. Key risks of climate change do not fit that definition. However, some key climate risks do have an impact people's ability to survive. For instance, areas may become too hot to survive, or sea level rise may make it impossible to live at a

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Research has shown that climate change is not the most important conflict driver, and that it can only affect conflict risks under certain circumstances. Relevant context factors include agricultural dependence, a history of political instability, poverty, and the political exclusion of ethnic

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Water resources can be affected by climate change in various ways. The total amount of freshwater available can change, for instance due to dry spells or droughts. Heavy rainfall and flooding can have an impact on water quality. They can transport pollutants into water bodies through increased

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Sea ice in the Arctic has declined in recent decades in area and volume due to climate change. It has been melting more in summer than it refreezes in winter. The decline of sea ice in the Arctic has been accelerating during the early twenty-first century. It has a rate of decline of 4.7% per

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in some regions. Furthermore, tropical cyclones and storm tracks are moving towards the poles. This means some regions will see large changes in maximum wind speeds. Scientists expect there will be fewer tropical cyclones. But they expect their strength to increase. There has probably been an

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increase in the number of tropical cyclones that intensify rapidly. Meteorological and seismological data indicate a widespread increase in wind-driven global ocean wave energy in recent decades that has been attributed to an increase in storm intensity over the oceans due to climate change.

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Regions inhabited by a third of the human population could become as hot as the hottest parts of the Sahara within 50 years. This would happen if greenhouse gas emissions continue to grow rapdily without a change in patterns of population growth and without migration. The projected average

1078: ft) by 2100. In the long run, sea level rise would amount to 2–3 m (7–10 ft) over the next 2000 years if warming stays to its current 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over the pre-industrial past. It would be 19–22 metres (62–72 ft) if warming peaks at 5 °C (9.0 °F). 6337:

Armstrong McKay, David I.; Staal, Arie; Abrams, Jesse F.; Winkelmann, Ricarda; Sakschewski, Boris; Loriani, Sina; Fetzer, Ingo; Cornell, Sarah E.; Rockström, Johan; Lenton, Timothy M. (9 September 2022). "Exceeding 1.5 °C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points".

414:. This was around 3 million years ago. At that time, mean global temperatures were about 2–4 °C (3.6–7.2 °F) warmer than pre-industrial temperatures. The global mean sea level was up to 25 metres (82 ft) higher than it is today. The modern observed rise in temperature and CO 2088:, extreme weather events displaced approximately 30 million people in 2020. Violence and wars displaced approximately 10 million in the same year. There may have been a contribution of climate change to these conflicts. In 2018, the World Bank estimated that climate change will cause 10524:

Mach, Katharine J.; Kraan, Caroline M.; Adger, W. Neil; Buhaug, Halvard; Burke, Marshall; Fearon, James D.; Field, Christopher B.; Hendrix, Cullen S.; Maystadt, Jean-Francois; O'Loughlin, John; Roessler, Philip; Scheffran, Jürgen; Schultz, Kenneth A.; von Uexkull, Nina (July 2019).

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Cramer, Wolfgang; Guiot, Joël; Fader, Marianela; Garrabou, Joaquim; Gattuso, Jean-Pierre; Iglesias, Ana; Lange, Manfred A.; Lionello, Piero; Llasat, Maria Carmen; Paz, Shlomit; Peñuelas, Josep; Snoussi, Maria; Toreti, Andrea; Tsimplis, Michael N.; Xoplaki, Elena (November 2018).

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temperature of above 29 °C (84 °F) for these regions would be outside the "human temperature niche". This is a range for climate that is biologically suitable for humans. It is based on historical data of mean annual temperatures. The most affected regions have little

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rose by 15–25 cm (6–10 in), with an increase of 2.3 mm (0.091 in) per year since the 1970s. This was faster than the sea level had ever risen over at least the past 3,000 years. The rate accelerated to 4.62 mm (0.182 in)/yr for the decade 2013–2022.

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reflects 50% to 70% of the incoming solar radiation back into space. Only 6% of incoming solar energy is reflected by the ocean. As the climate warms, the area covered by snow or sea ice decreases. After sea ice melts, more energy is absorbed by the ocean, so it warms up. This

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are likely to become more severe when they do occur. The interactions between rainfall and flooding are complex. There are some regions in which flooding is expected to become rarer. This depends on several factors. These include changes in rain and snowmelt, but also

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Climate change has contributed to global economic inequality. Wealthy countries in colder regions have felt little overall economic impact from climate change or may have benefited. Poor hotter countries probably grew less than if there had been no global warming.

2215:: Climate change increases gender inequality. It reduces women's ability to be financially independent, and has an overall negative impact on the social and political rights of women. This is especially the case in economies that are heavily based on agriculture. 9499:. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, US, pp. 2163–2194, 1391:

change may be a stronger driver of biodiversity loss, at least in the near term. Beyond 2050, climate change may be the major cause of biodiversity loss globally. Climate change interacts with other pressures. These include habitat modification, pollution and

5163:; Xiao, C.; Aðalgeirsdóttir, G.; Drijfhout, S. S.; Edwards, T. L.; Golledge, N. R.; Hemer, M.; Kopp, R. E.; Krinner, G.; Mix, A. (2021). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S. L.; Péan, C.; Berger, S.; Caud, N.; Chen, Y.; Goldfarb, L. (eds.). 2003:

from climate-driven sea level rise vary. Estimates range from 190 million to 300 million. It could even be 640 million in a worst-case scenario related to the instability of the Antarctic ice sheet. People are most affected in the densely-populated low-lying

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from rainforest to savanna might be close. A 2019 study concluded that this ecosystem could begin a 50-year-long collapse to a savanna around 2021. After that it would become increasingly and disproportionally more difficult to prevent or reverse this shift.

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An additional aspect to consider is the detrimental impact climate change can have on green or blue natural spaces, which have been proven to have beneficial impact on mental health. Impacts of anthropogenic climate change, such as freshwater pollution or

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Australia. Athens and Madrid would be like Fez in Morocco. Nairobi in Kenya would be like Maputo in Mozambique. The Indian city Pune would be like Bamako in Mali and Bamako would be like Niamey in Niger. Brasilia would be like Goiania, both in Brazil.

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Economic forecasts of the impact of global warming vary considerably. The impacts are worse if there is insufficient adaptation. Economic modelling may underrate the impact of catastrophic climatic changes. When estimating losses, economists choose a

689:. Climate change leaves soils drier in some areas, so they may absorb rainfall more quickly. This leads to less flooding. Dry soils can also become harder. In this case heavy rainfall runs off into rivers and lakes. This increases risks of flooding. 1114:, the area of the Earth covered by snow or ice, is extremely sensitive to changes in global climate. There has been an extensive loss of snow on land since 1981. Some of the largest declines have been observed in the spring. During the 21st century, 1097:

Earth lost 28 trillion tonnes of ice between 1994 and 2017, with melting grounded ice (ice sheets and glaciers) raising the global sea level by 34.6 ±3.1 mm. The rate of ice loss has risen by 57% since the 1990s−from 0.8 to 1.2 trillion tonnes per

4829: 3762:. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US. 2333:

total energy production by 7% annually by the end of the century. Climate change affects oil and natural gas infrastructure. This is also vulnerable to the increased risk of disasters such as storms, cyclones, flooding and rising sea levels.

1868:. In coastal regions, more salt may find its way into water resources due to higher sea levels and more intense storms. Higher temperatures also directly degrade water quality. This is because warm water contains less oxygen. Changes in the 1471:, changes to the frequency and intensity of tropical storms, and altered ocean circulation patterns. When combined, all of these impacts dramatically alter ecosystem function, as well as the goods and services coral reef ecosystems provide. 1431:

the rainforest is losing this ability. This effect is even worse because climate change brings more frequent droughts to the area. The higher frequency of droughts in the first two decades of the 21st century and other data signal that a

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In the energy sector, thermal power plants depend on water to cool them. Climate change can increase the likelihood of drought and fresh water shortages. Higher operating temperatures make them less efficient. This reduces their output.

241:. Excess heat is causing environmental changes in those locations that exceed the ability of animals to adapt. Species are escaping heat by migrating towards the poles and to higher ground when they can. Sea level rise threatens coastal 1972:

Low-lying cities and other settlements near the sea face multiple simultaneous risks from climate change. They face flooding risks from sea level rise. In addition they may face impacts from more severe storms, ocean acidification, and

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Fox-Kemper, B., H.T. Hewitt, C. Xiao, G. Aðalgeirsdóttir, S.S. Drijfhout, T.L. Edwards, N.R. Golledge, M. Hemer, R.E. Kopp, G. Krinner, A. Mix, D. Notz, S. Nowicki, I.S. Nurhati, L. Ruiz, J.-B. Sallée, A.B.A. Slangen, and Y. Yu, 2021:

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and other causes of illness, injury or death. Heat waves and extreme weather events have a big impact on health both directly and indirectly. When people are exposed to higher temperatures for longer time periods they might experience

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precipitation and flooding events. It is difficult to quantify the relative impact of socio-economic factors and climate change on the observed trend. The trend does suggest social systems are increasing vulnerable to climate change.

588:. Precipitation is when water vapour condenses out of clouds, such as rain and snow. Higher temperatures increase evaporation and surface drying. As the air warms it can hold more water. For every degree Celsius it can hold 7% more 9486:, Bastin J-F, Clark E, Elliott T, Hart S, van den Hoogen J, Hordijk I, et al. (2019), PLOS ONE 14(7): e0217592, Crowther Lab, Department for Environmental Systems Science, Institut for Integrative Biology, ETH Zürich, 10 July 2019. 7220:

Hoegh-Guldberg, O., D. Jacob, M. Taylor, M. Bindi, S. Brown, I. Camilloni, A. Diedhiou, R. Djalante, K.L. Ebi, F. Engelbrecht, J.Guiot, Y. Hijioka, S. Mehrotra, A. Payne, S.I. Seneviratne, A. Thomas, R. Warren, and G. Zhou, 2018:

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have risen by 1.1 °C (2.0 °F). Scientists say they will rise further in the future. The changes in climate are not uniform across the Earth. In particular, most land areas have warmed faster than most ocean areas. The

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Sea ice extent in Antarctica varies a lot year by year. This makes it difficult to determine a trend, and record highs and record lows have been observed between 2013 and 2023. The general trend since 1979, the start of the

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Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II (WG2) to the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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Bindoff, N.L., W.W.L. Cheung, J.G. Kairo, J. Arístegui, V.A. Guinder, R. Hallberg, N. Hilmi, N. Jiao, M.S. Karim, L. Levin, S. O'Donoghue, S.R. Purca Cuicapusa, B. Rinkevich, T. Suga, A. Tagliabue, and P. Williamson, 2019:

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Wildfire disasters (those claiming at least 10 lives or affecting over 100 people) have increased substantially in recent decades. Climate change intensifies heatwaves and droughts that dry vegetation, which in turn fuels

2286:. This determines how much one prefers to have goods or cash now compared to at a future date. Using a high discount rate may understate economic losses. This is because losses for future generations weigh less heavily. 2197:

People living with disability. Climate impacts on disabled people have been identified by activists and advocacy groups as well as through the UNHCR adopting a resolution on climate change and the rights of people with

1797:: the baseline, SSP2, and SSP3, scenario of high global rivalry and conflict. The red and the orange lines show projections for SSP3 assuming high and low intensity of future emissions and the associated climate change. 433:) is emitted in the 21st century the hotter the world will be by 2100. For a doubling of greenhouse gas concentrations, the global mean temperature would rise by about 2.5–4 °C (4.5–7.2 °F). If emissions of CO 938:

follows. The reduced vertical mixing makes it harder for the ocean to absorb heat. So a larger share of future warming goes into the atmosphere and land. One result is an increase in the amount of energy available for

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Esperon-Rodriguez, Manuel; Tjoelker, Mark G.; Lenoir, Jonathan; Baumgartner, John B.; Beaumont, Linda J.; Nipperess, David A.; Power, Sally A.; Richard, Benoît; Rymer, Paul D.; Gallagher, Rachael V. (October 2022).

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Watts, Nick; Amann, Markus; Arnell, Nigel; Ayeb-Karlsson, Sonja; Belesova, Kristine; Boykoff, Maxwell; Byass, Peter; Cai, Wenjia; Campbell-Lendrum, Diarmid; Capstick, Stuart; Chambers, Jonathan (16 November 2019).

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Reporting the reduction in Antarctic sea ice extent in mid 2023, researchers concluded that a "regime shift" may be taking place "in which previously important relationships no longer dominate sea ice variability".

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Mountain and arctic ecosystems and species are particularly sensitive to climate change... As ocean temperatures warm and the acidity of the ocean increases, bleaching and coral die-offs are likely to become more

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threaten existing and future water infrastructure. It will be harder to plan investments for water infrastructure. This is because there are significant uncertainties about future variability of the water cycle.

441:, the Earth's climate would not start moving back to its pre-industrial state. Temperatures would stay at the same high level for several centuries. After about a thousand years, 20% to 30% of human-emitted CO 3213:

Oppenheimer, M., B.C. Glavovic , J. Hinkel, R. van de Wal, A.K. Magnan, A. Abd-Elgawad, R. Cai, M. Cifuentes-Jara, R.M. DeConto, T. Ghosh, J. Hay, F. Isla, B. Marzeion, B. Meyssignac, and Z. Sebesvari, 2019:

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the world. These include Central America, the Amazon and south-western South America. They also include West and Southern Africa. The Mediterranean and south-western Australia are also some of these regions.

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Lenton, Timothy M.; Rockström, Johan; Gaffney, Owen; Rahmstorf, Stefan; Richardson, Katherine; Steffen, Will; Schellnhuber, Hans Joachim (November 2019). "Climate tipping points — too risky to bet against".

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The impacts of climate change on nature are likely to become bigger in the next few decades. The stresses caused by climate change, combine with other stresses on ecological systems such as land conversion,

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and wildfires. Scientists have identified human activities as the cause of recent climate trends. They are now able to estimate the impact of climate change on extreme weather events using a process called

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Bouwer, Laurens M. (2019), Mechler, Reinhard; Bouwer, Laurens M.; Schinko, Thomas; Surminski, Swenja (eds.), "Observed and Projected Impacts from Extreme Weather Events: Implications for Loss and Damage",

1682:. Climate change will impact where infectious diseases are able to spread in the future. Many infectious diseases will spread to new geographic areas where people have not previously been exposed to them. 9026:

Climate Change 2014: Impacts,Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

5784:

Collins M., M. Sutherland, L. Bouwer, S.-M. Cheong, T. Frölicher, H. Jacot Des Combes, M. Koll Roxy, I. Losada, K. McInnes, B. Ratter, E. Rivera-Arriaga, R.D. Susanto, D. Swingedouw, and L. Tibig, 2019:

4802: 4083:

Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021:

2290:

90% less than at 3.66 °C. One study found that global GDP at the end of the century would be 3.5% less if warming is limited to 3 °C (5.4 °F). This study excludes the potential effect of

2192:

Climate change does not affect people within communities in the same way. It can have a bigger impact on vulnerable groups such as women, the elderly, religious minorities and refugees than on others.

10027: 1046:'s temperature by many decades, and sea level rise will therefore continue to accelerate between now and 2050 in response to warming that has already happened. What happens after that depends on human 2092:

of between 31 and 143 million people by 2050. This would be as they escape crop failures, water scarcity, and sea level rise. The study covered only Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Latin America.

1731:

and wellbeing are being documented as the consequences of climate change become more tangible and impactful. This is especially the case for vulnerable populations and those with pre-existing serious

1908:(ASEAN) are among the most vulnerable in the world to the negative effects of climate change. ASEAN's climate mitigation efforts are not in proportion to the climate change threats the region faces. 1588: 1174:

will continue to contribute to sea level rise over long time-scales. The Greenland ice sheet loss is mainly driven by melt from the top. Antarctic ice loss is driven by warm ocean water melting the

4218:

Knutson, Thomas; Camargo, Suzana J.; Chan, Johnny C. L.; Emanuel, Kerry; Ho, Chang-Hoi; Kossin, James; Mohapatra, Mrutyunjay; Satoh, Masaki; Sugi, Masato; Walsh, Kevin; Wu, Liguang (6 August 2019).

2812:

Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems

7610: 6920: 10290: 763:

more likely. In some areas, an increase of wildfires has been attributed directly to climate change. Evidence from Earth's past also shows more fire in warmer periods. Climate change increases

7273:

Armstrong McKay, David I.; Staal, Arie; Abrams, Jesse F.; Winkelmann, Ricarda; Sakschewski, Boris; Loriani, Sina; Fetzer, Ingo; Cornell, Sarah E.; Rockström, Johan; Lenton, Timothy M. (2022).

7459:

Lontzek, Thomas S.; Cai, Yongyang; Judd, Kenneth L.; Lenton, Timothy M. (May 2015). "Stochastic integrated assessment of climate tipping points indicates the need for strict climate policy".

3123: 2053:. The consequences of climate change, and the failure to address it, can distract people from tackling its root causes. This leads to what some researchers have termed a "climate doom loop". 592:. Scientists have observed changes in the amount, intensity, frequency, and type of precipitation. Overall, climate change is causing longer hot dry spells, broken by more intense rainfall. 387:

is warming faster than most other regions. Night-time temperatures have increased faster than daytime temperatures. The impact on nature and people depends on how much more the Earth warms.

9537: 11343: 8118: 6489: 6454: 1345:

Movements of species to higher latitudes and altitudes, changes in bird migrations, and shifting of the oceans' plankton and fish from cold- to warm-adapted communities are other impacts.

548:

Under further warming, heatwaves are set to become more frequent. An event that would occur every ten years would occur every other year if global warming reaches 2 °C (3.6 °F).

12160: 1735:. There are three broad pathways by which these effects can take place: directly, indirectly or via awareness. The direct pathway includes stress-related conditions caused by exposure to 9146:

Overland, Indra; Sagbakken, Haakon Fossum; Chan, Hoy-Yen; Merdekawati, Monika; Suryadi, Beni; Utama, Nuki Agya; Vakulchuk, Roman (December 2021). "The ASEAN climate and energy paradox".

3986:

Cohen, Judah; Agel, Laurie; Barlow, Mathew; Garfinkel, Chaim I.; White, Ian (3 September 2021). "Linking Arctic variability and change with extreme winter weather in the United States".

10243: 7353: 2157:

have affected armed conflict within countries (medium confidence), but the influence of climate is small compared to socio-economic, political, and cultural factors (high confidence)."

10143: 7513: 6482:

Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services

6447:

Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services

2869: 11101: 9467: 11881: 11176: 2227:: The Lancet review on health and climate change lists children among the worst-affected by global warming. Children are 14–44 percent more likely to die from environmental factors. 7690: 1340:, harvesting, and pollution. They threaten substantial damage to unique ecosystems. They can even result in their complete loss and the extinction of species. This can disrupt key 178:

and oceans absorb the vast majority of excess heat in the atmosphere, delaying effects there but causing them to accelerate and then continue after surface temperatures stabilize.

5316:

This corresponds to a mean sea-level rise of about 7.5 cm over the whole altimetry period. More importantly, the GMSL curve shows a net acceleration, estimated to be at 0.08mm/yr.

1750:, degrade these landscapes and reduce public access to them. Even when the green and blue spaces are intact, their accessibility is not equal across society, which is an issue of 1088: 453:

temperature will rise by around 1.8 °C (3.2 °F). There is a big gap between national plans and commitments and the actions that governments have taken around the world.

6827: 5204: 2352:. Lack of rainfall possibly linked to climate change reduced the number of ships passing through the canal per day, from 36 to 22 and by February 2024, it is expected to be 18. 11231:

Goli, Imaneh; Omidi Najafabadi, Maryam; Lashgarara, Farhad (9 March 2020). "Where are We Standing and Where Should We Be Going? Gender and Climate Change Adaptation Behavior".

10162: 6688:

Cooley, S., D. Schoeman, L. Bopp, P. Boyd, S. Donner, D.Y. Ghebrehiwet, S.-I. Ito, W. Kiessling, P. Martinetto, E. Ojea, M.-F. Racault, B. Rost, and M. Skern-Mauritzen, 2022:

6605: 2715: 1181:

Future melt of the West Antarctic ice sheet is potentially abrupt under a high emission scenario, as a consequence of a partial collapse. Part of the ice sheet is grounded on

13799: 10303:

Cissé, G., R. McLeman, H. Adams, P. Aldunce, K. Bowen, D. Campbell-Lendrum, S. Clayton, K.L. Ebi, J. Hess, C. Huang, Q. Liu, G. McGregor, J. Semenza, and M.C. Tirado, 2022:

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Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

7732:

Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

6716:

Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

6432:

Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

3197:

Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

3102:

Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

410:. These show that recent temperatures have surpassed anything in the last 2,000 years. By the end of the 21st century, temperatures may increase to a level last seen in the 11766: 10309:

Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

7835:

Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

6694:

Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

2529: 72: 12279: 2509: 1768: 10612:

Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

10496: 6480: 6445: 3628: 3239:

Allen, M.R., O.P. Dube, W. Solecki, F. Aragón-Durand, W. Cramer, S. Humphreys, M. Kainuma, J. Kala, N. Mahowald, Y. Mulugetta, R. Perez, M.Wairiu, and K. Zickfeld, 2018:

595:

Climate change has increased contrasts in rainfall amounts between wet and dry seasons. Wet seasons are getting wetter and dry seasons are getting drier. In the northern

390:

Scientists use several methods to predict the effects of human-caused climate change. One is to investigate past natural changes in climate. To assess changes in Earth's

10393: 8803:

IPCC Special Report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems

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may reduce the supply of oxygen from surface waters to deeper waters. This lowers the water's oxygen content even more. The ocean has already lost oxygen throughout its

1880:

issues. If global warming reaches 4 °C (7.2 °F), water insecurity would affect about twice as many people. Water resources are likely to decrease in most dry

12380:

Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Working Group 1 (WG1) Contribution to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 5th Assessment Report (AR5)

1244:, has been roughly flat. Between 2015 and 2023, there has been a decline in sea ice, but due to the high variability, this does not correspond to a significant trend. 13975: 10469: 4608: 5387:

Slater, Thomas; Lawrence, Isobel R.; Otosaka, Inès N.; Shepherd, Andrew; Gourmelen, Noel; Jakob, Livia; Tepes, Paul; Gilbert, Lin; Nienow, Peter (25 January 2021).

13643: 13100: 12253: 2160:

Climate change can increase conflict risks by causing tensions about scarce resources like food, water and land, by weakening state institutions, by reducing the

445:

would remain in the atmosphere. The ocean and land would not have taken them. This would commit the climate to a warmer state long after emissions have stopped.

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Easterling, W.E., P.K. Aggarwal, P. Batima, K.M. Brander, L. Erda, S.M. Howden, A. Kirilenko, J. Morton, J.-F. Soussana, J. Schmidhuber and F.N. Tubiello, 2007:

7897: 2023:. Several factors increase their vulnerability. These are small size, isolation from other land, low financial resources, and lack of protective infrastructure. 9884:

O'Brien, Karen L; Leichenko, Robin M (1 October 2000). "Double exposure: assessing the impacts of climate change within the context of economic globalization".

5619:

Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

4090:

Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

3653:

Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

1888:. But they will increase in high latitudes. However, variable streamflow means even regions with increased water resources can experience additional short-term 14354: 4964: 1144:

in South America and in the Himalayas in Asia, the retreat of glaciers could impact water supply. The melting of those glaciers could also cause landslides or

570:

more wavy. This would lead to outbursts of very cold winter weather across parts of Eurasia and North America and incursions of very warm air into the Arctic.

10526: 10019: 5140: 3341: 13816: 5023:

Cheng, Lijing; Trenberth, Kevin E.; Gruber, Nicolas; Abraham, John P.; Fasullo, John T.; Li, Guancheng; Mann, Michael E.; Zhao, Xuanming; Zhu, Jiang (2020).

1570:

There is a number of places around the globe which can pass a tipping point around a certain level of warming and eventually transition to a different state.

512: 5248: 5175: 5089: 5001: 3742: 3552:

Hekmatzadeh, A.A., Kaboli, S. and Torabi Haghighi, A. (2020) New indices for assessing changes in seasons and in timing characteristics of air temperature.

2172:

to climate change can also cause conflicts, for instance due to higher food and energy prices or when people are forcibly re-located from vulnerable areas.

151:

are crossed. Climate activists are engaged in a range of activities around the world that seek to ameliorate these issues or prevent them from happening.

14424: 11344:"The 2019 report of The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: ensuring that the health of a child born today is not defined by a changing climate" 8119:"The 2019 report of The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: ensuring that the health of a child born today is not defined by a changing climate" 6742: 4614: 7726:

Schneider, S.H., S. Semenov, A. Patwardhan, I. Burton, C.H.D. Magadza, M. Oppenheimer, A.B. Pittock, A. Rahman, J.B. Smith, A. Suarez and F. Yamin, 2007:

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Schneider, S.H., S. Semenov, A. Patwardhan, I. Burton, C.H.D. Magadza, M. Oppenheimer, A.B. Pittock, A. Rahman, J.B. Smith, A. Suarez and F. Yamin, 2007:

13252: 13073: 1967: 982:

The global average sea level has risen about 250 millimetres (9.8 in) since 1880, increasing the elevation on top of which other types of flooding (

305: 10276: 7602: 5119: 14859: 13247: 11740: 10951: 6912: 1901: 12004: 10286: 8944: 5237: 13115: 11438:

Huggel, Christian; Bouwer, Laurens M.; Juhola, Sirkku; Mechler, Reinhard; Muccione, Veruska; Orlove, Ben; Wallimann-Helmer, Ivo (12 September 2022).

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Lenton, Timothy M.; Rockström, Johan; Gaffney, Owen; Rahmstorf, Stefan; Richardson, Katherine; Steffen, Will; Schellnhuber, Hans Joachim (2019).

2122: 1358: 14969: 9051: 4526: 1446: 209: 14304: 6838: 6282: 5737: 10240: 9350:

Tuholske, Cascade; Caylor, Kelly; Funk, Chris; Verdin, Andrew; Sweeney, Stuart; Grace, Kathryn; Peterson, Pete; Evans, Tom (12 October 2021).

7345: 1232:

is a self-reinforcing feedback of climate change. Large-scale measurements of sea ice have only been possible since satellites came into use.

12756: 11392:

Bartlett, Sheridan (2008). "Climate change and urban children: Impacts and implications for adaptation in low- and middle-income countries".

10417: 10140: 8013:

Baker, Rachel E.; Mahmud, Ayesha S.; Miller, Ian F.; Rajeev, Malavika; Rasambainarivo, Fidisoa; Rice, Benjamin L.; et al. (April 2022).

7252: 17: 11516: 6223: 2861: 2045:

Some scientists describe the effects of climate change, with continuing increases in greenhouse gas emissions, as a "climate emergency" or "

957:

Warmer water cannot contain the same amount of oxygen as cold water. As a result, oxygen from the oceans moves to the atmosphere. Increased

12989: 11093: 9464: 8694:, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 273-313. 3621:"Mean Monthly Temperature Records Across the Globe / Timeseries of Global Land and Ocean Areas at Record Levels for October from 1951-2023" 3458: 3199:, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 315-356. 3175: 3104:, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 779-810. 579: 128: 11873: 8320:

Charlson, Fiona; Ali, Suhailah; Benmarhnia, Tarik; Pearl, Madeleine; Massazza, Alessandro; Augustinavicius, Jura; Scott, James G. (2021).

7772:"Impact Assessment of Storm Surge and Climate Change-Enhanced Sea Level Rise on Atoll Nations: A Case Study of the Tarawa Atoll, Kiribati" 7734:, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 779-810 6434:, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 79-131. 3152: 15129: 14829: 12873: 6710:

Fischlin, A., G.F. Midgley, J.T. Price, R. Leemans, B. Gopal, C. Turley, M.D.A. Rounsevell, O.P. Dube, J. Tarazona, A.A. Velichko, 2007:

2176:

groups. Climate change has thus been described as a "threat multiplier". Yet, an impact of climate change on specific conflicts like the

1904:

regions. Low-latitude, less-developed regions are most at risk of experiencing negative climate change impacts. The ten countries of the

1587:

Tipping points are perhaps the most dangerous aspect of future climate change, potentially leading to irreversible impacts on society. A

887: 12185: 10331:

Kaczan, David J.; Orgill-Meyer, Jennifer (2020). "The impact of climate change on migration: a synthesis of recent empirical insights".

15039: 13137: 13090: 12445: 11835: 8117:

Watts, Nick; Amann, Markus; Arnell, Nigel; Ayeb-Karlsson, Sonja; Belesova, Kristine; Boykoff, Maxwell; et al. (16 November 2019).

6819: 6718:, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 211-272. 5933: 2237: 1728: 1718: 1709: 332:, have more resources to adapt to global warming than developing nations do. Cumulative effects and extreme weather events can lead to 5200: 3627:. National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). November 2023. 3389: 1849:

is expected to decrease by about 5%. Tropical and subtropical oceans are most affected, while there may be more fish in polar waters.

14539: 14016: 13132: 12712: 12495: 12019: 10159: 9269: 9079:"Climate change impacts in the Middle East and Northern Africa (MENA) region and their implications for vulnerable population groups" 8959: 6631: 2034: 1631: 1623: 504: 499: 277: 9483: 9474:, Crowther Lab, Department für Umweltsystemwissenschaften, Institut für integrative Biologie, ETH Zürich, zugegriffen: 11 July 2019. 7856:

Romanello, Marina; Di Napoli, Claudia; Drummond, Paul; Green, Carole; Kennard, Harry; Lampard, Pete; et al. (5 November 2022).

5359: 2711: 14374: 14249: 13347: 13063: 12781: 12558: 9518: 4662: 3964: 3879: 3366: 2066: 1685: 1093: 770:

Weather conditions are raising the risks of wildfires. But the total area burnt by wildfires has decreased. This is mostly because

540:

are twice as likely as they were in 1980. Climate change will lead to more very hot days and fewer very cold days. There are fewer

285: 8520:

Cuijpers, Pim; Miguel, Clara; Ciharova, Marketa; Kumar, Manasi; Brander, Luke; Kumar, Pushpam; Karyotaki, Eirini (February 2023).

3030: 14849: 13703: 13492: 12655: 7896:

Romanello, Marina; McGushin, Alice; Di Napoli, Claudia; Drummond, Paul; Hughes, Nick; Jamart, Louis; et al. (October 2021).

7027: 6795: 5506: 2988: 2085: 2019:

nations such as Kiribati, Maldives, the Marshall Islands, and Tuvalu are at risk of being displaced. This could raise issues of

1634:

are increasingly well studied and quantified. Rising temperatures and changes in weather patterns are increasing the severity of

1411:

The rate of global tree cover loss has approximately doubled since 2001, to an annual loss approaching an area the size of Italy.

786: 728:

Several impacts make their impacts worse. These are increased water demand, population growth and urban expansion in many areas.

5988: 5638:

Lee, Ethan; Carrivick, Jonathan L.; Quincey, Duncan J.; Cook, Simon J.; James, William H. M.; Brown, Lee E. (20 December 2021).

3905: 14674: 13352: 13315: 13169: 13154: 13068: 12717: 12661: 12501: 12157: 10487: 7410:; Palomo, Ignacio; Eikelboom, Jasper A. J.; Law, Beverly E.; Huq, Saleemul; Duffy, Philip B.; Rockström, Johan (28 July 2021). 6426:

Rosenzweig, C., G. Casassa, D.J. Karoly, A. Imeson, C. Liu, A. Menzel, S. Rawlins, T.L. Root, B. Seguin, P. Tryjanowski, 2007:

3620: 3301: 2501: 2306: 1776: 1513:

species may benefit. However, some of these are toxic to fish phytoplankton species. Their spread poses risks to fisheries and

1428: 599:, warming has also caused an increase in the amount of snow and rain. In the Southern Hemisphere, the rain associated with the 281: 2164:

for impoverished individuals to join armed groups, and by causing tensions related to (climate-induced) migration. Efforts to

2015:

and western Samoa, migrants from outer islands inhabit low and unsafe areas along the coasts. The entire populations of small

655:

dangerous for aviation (hard to predict or that cannot be avoided by flying higher) probably increases due to climate change.

528:

Map of increasing heatwave trends (frequency and cumulative intensity) over the midlatitudes and Europe, July–August 1979–2020

15004: 14174: 14137: 14011: 13149: 12331: 11816: 10628: 9044:

Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

9005: 8091: 7526: 6408: 6258: 5713: 5353: 5075: 4823: 4160: 2982: 2551: 2218: 1675: 321: 11673:"The Effects of Climate Change on GDP by Country and the Global Economic Gains From Complying With the Paris Climate Accord" 10975:"Syrian farmers in the midst of drought and conflict: the causes, patterns, and aftermath of land abandonment and migration" 2696: 15044: 14349: 14033: 12984: 12979: 4854:

Cheng, Lijing; Abraham, John; Hausfather, Zeke; Trenberth, Kevin E. (11 January 2019). "How fast are the oceans warming?".

4776: 2291: 1892:. In the arid regions of India, China, the US and Africa dry spells and drought are already affecting water availability. 1801:

Climate change will affect agriculture and food production around the world. The reasons include the effects of elevated CO

1613:

people lived outside this niche. With every additional 0.1 degree of warming, 140 million people will be pushed out of it.

1575: 1557: 1433: 148: 12356: 10466: 8705: 4941: 4604: 2241: 2049:". Some researchers and activists describe them as an existential threat to civilization. Some define these threats under 312:

may be inundated by rising sea levels. Some groups of people may be particularly at risk from climate change, such as the

15109: 15049: 14454: 14399: 13514: 13292: 13110: 13037: 13027: 13010: 12917: 12724: 7804: 3191:

Nicholls, R.J., P.P. Wong, V.R. Burkett, J.O. Codignotto, J.E. Hay, R.F. McLean, S. Ragoonaden and C.D. Woodroffe, 2007:

2429: 2268: 2255: 1302: 1296: 843: 835: 183: 162:. Surface air temperatures over land have also increased at about twice the rate they do over the ocean, causing intense 13042: 9716:

Church, John A.; White, Neil J.; Hunter, John R. (2006). "Sea-level rise at tropical Pacific and Indian Ocean islands".

8274:

Berry, Helen; Kathryn, Bowen; Kjellstrom, Tord (2009). "Climate change and mental health: a causal pathways framework".

1977:

into the groundwater. Changes like continued development in exposed areas increase the risks that these regions face.

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White, Mathew; Smith, Amanda; Humphryes, Kelly; Pahl, Sabine; Snelling, Deborah; Depledge, Michael (1 December 2010).

7833:. In Pörtner, H.-O.; Roberts, D. C.; Tignor, M.; Poloczanska, E. S.; Mintenbeck, K.; Alegría, A.; et al. (eds.). 6634:. Website of the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Goddard Institute for Space Studies. Archived from 6555:

Meyer, Andreas L. S.; Bentley, Joanne; Odoulami, Romaric C.; Pigot, Alex L.; Trisos, Christopher H. (15 August 2022).

1592:

of environmental problems, including those caused by climate change, are interconnected. This increases the risk of a

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The sixth IPCC Assessment Report projects changes in average soil moisture at 2.0 °C of warming, as measured in

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change further widens the gap between what people can afford and the costs of insurance, as risks increase. In 2019

15079: 14103: 13741: 13721: 13668: 13620: 12677: 12368: 12172: 10581: 10266:"1.5 °C – Dead or Alive? The Risks to Transformational Change Reaching and Breaching the Paris Agreement Goal" 5136: 3328: 2652: 919: 532:

Heatwaves over land have become more frequent and more intense in almost all world regions since the 1950s, due to

10304: 9020:

Jiménez Cisneros, B.E., T. Oki, N.W. Arnell, G. Benito, J.G. Cogley, P. Döll, T. Jiang, and S.S. Mwakalila, 2014:

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Hasegawa, Tomoko; Fujimori, Shinichiro; Takahashi, Kiyoshi; Yokohata, Tokuta; Masui, Toshihiko (29 January 2016).

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Chester, R.; Jickells, Tim (2012). "Chapter 9: Nutrients oxygen organic carbon and the carbon cycle in seawater".

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are happening more often. They have widespread impacts on life in the oceans. These include mass dying events and

14489: 13860: 13811: 13237: 13199: 13144: 12609: 9651: 5614: 5164: 5065: 4993: 4190: 4085: 3731: 607:

vary a lot. More monsoon systems are becoming wetter than drier. In Asia summer monsoons are getting wetter. The

349: 124: 12516: 11149:

Rayner, S. and E.L. Malone (2001). "Climate Change, Poverty, and Intragernerational Equity: The National Leve".

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Watts, Nick; Adger, W Neil; Agnolucci, Paolo; Blackstock, Jason; Byass, Peter; Cai, Wenjia; et al. (2015).

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Kozlov, M.V. and Berlina, N.G. (2002) Decline in the length of the summer season on the Kola Peninsula, Russia.

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concentrations has been rapid. Even abrupt geophysical events in Earth's history do not approach current rates.

15019: 14919: 14889: 14869: 14274: 13928: 13212: 12964: 12168: 8453:

Alcock, Ian; White, Mathew P.; Wheeler, Benedict W.; Fleming, Lora E.; Depledge, Michael H. (21 January 2014).

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The Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate: Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

2011: 1790: 1740: 1133: 1127: 508:

New high temperature records have outpaced new low temperature records on a growing portion of Earth's surface.

438: 11124: 10108:

Ripple, William J; Wolf, Christopher; Newsome, Thomas M; Barnard, Phoebe; Moomaw, William R (1 January 2020).

8913: 6696:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 379–550, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.005. 6661: 3267: 2835: 2630: 1407: 1257: 994: 15124: 14959: 14929: 14924: 14854: 14759: 14739: 14554: 14394: 14204: 14154: 14038: 13573: 13105: 12315: 12077: 10265: 9496: 8522:"Impact of climate events, pollution, and green spaces on mental health: an umbrella review of meta-analyses" 5845: 5423: 5111: 2324:

If global warming goes over 1.5 °C, there may be limits to how much tourism and outdoor work can adapt.

1794: 1498: 891: 11727: 10445: 8589:"Socioeconomic Inequalities in Green Space Quality and Accessibility—Evidence from a Southern European City" 4142: 1984:

Floodplains and low-lying coastal areas will flood more frequently due to climate change, like this area of

15059: 14979: 14884: 14714: 14704: 14679: 14644: 14639: 14599: 14574: 14449: 14379: 14329: 14299: 14209: 14199: 14021: 13693: 13222: 13217: 13122: 12994: 12551: 12451: 12140: 12114: 12063: 12023: 12015: 11801:, Climate Risk Management, Policy and Governance, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 63–82, 11657: 11278: 11135: 10939: 9291:

Xu, Chi; Kohler, Timothy A.; Lenton, Timothy M.; Svenning, Jens-Christian; Scheffer, Marten (26 May 2020).

8963: 8955: 8924: 7754: 6803: 6672: 6606:"Thousands of photos captured by everyday Australians reveal the secrets of our marine life as oceans warm" 5234: 4199: 3930: 3648: 3056:

Davy, Richard; Esau, Igor; Chernokulsky, Alexander; Outten, Stephen; Zilitinkevich, Sergej (January 2017).

3011: 2971:

Kennedy, John; Ramasamy, Selvaraju; Andrew, Robbie; Arico, Salvatore; Bishop, Erin; Braathen, Geir (2019).

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in the foreseeable future. However, climate change can increase the risk for intrastate conflicts, such as

1932: 1772: 1186: 289: 265: 261:. At 2 °C (3.6 °F) of warming, around 10% of species on land would become critically endangered. 238: 12211: 9047: 8794: 8744: 8376: 7745: 7727: 3097: 705:. In 2022, the state was experiencing its most serious drought in 1,200 years, worsened by climate change. 15069: 14939: 14894: 14789: 14744: 14684: 14634: 14524: 14479: 14189: 14179: 13232: 13080: 8687: 7857: 7384: 6711: 6427: 6298:"Analysis of Permafrost Thermal Dynamics and Response to Climate Change in the CMIP5 Earth System Models" 4109: 3192: 2224: 1950: 1145: 317: 12309: 7770:

Sabūnas, Audrius; Miyashita, Takuya; Fukui, Nobuki; Shimura, Tomoya; Mori, Nobuhito (10 November 2021).

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Climate change is particularly likely to affect the Arctic, Africa, small islands, Asian megadeltas and

1216: 1161: 829:(μatm; blue) and surface ocean pH (green) at Ocean Station ALOHA in the subtropical North Pacific Ocean. 15089: 14989: 14984: 14949: 14904: 14899: 14824: 14804: 14779: 14699: 14659: 14654: 14584: 14504: 14419: 14414: 14369: 14364: 14324: 14289: 14284: 14269: 14254: 14214: 14091: 13855: 13658: 13615: 13388: 13310: 13164: 9855: 9111: 5741: 4220:"Tropical Cyclones and Climate Change Assessment: Part II. Projected Response to Anthropogenic Warming" 3759: 2444: 2341:

said climate change could make home insurance unaffordable for households at or below average incomes.

2201: 978: 379: 345: 313: 11054: 10792: 9628: 8415: 6087:"Constraining Uncertainties in CMIP5 Projections of September Arctic Sea Ice Extent with Observations" 6020:"Thicker Clouds and Accelerated Arctic Sea Ice Decline: The Atmosphere-Sea Ice Interactions in Spring" 15074: 15064: 15054: 15034: 15009: 14914: 14874: 14834: 14754: 14724: 14719: 14709: 14694: 14624: 14619: 14614: 14559: 14514: 14509: 14474: 14459: 14434: 14409: 14404: 14384: 14359: 14334: 14279: 14244: 14224: 14219: 14194: 14184: 14164: 14159: 14130: 13960: 13635: 13610: 13583: 13545: 13462: 13280: 13127: 13085: 12604: 12599: 9199: 7898:"The 2021 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: code red for a healthy future" 7826:

Cissé, G.; McLeman, R.; Adams, H.; Aldunce, P.; Bowen, K.; Campbell-Lendrum, D.; et al. (2022).

2212: 2169: 2165: 1917: 483: 449: 309: 171: 13475: 10793:"Multi-method evidence for when and how climate-related disasters contribute to armed conflict risk" 9560:"New elevation data triple estimates of global vulnerability to sea-level rise and coastal flooding" 9039: 8240: 6834: 15084: 15029: 15024: 15014: 14974: 14954: 14879: 14844: 14839: 14819: 14794: 14769: 14689: 14649: 14609: 14594: 14589: 14569: 14544: 14494: 14484: 14469: 14439: 14344: 14294: 14264: 14259: 14239: 14229: 14169: 13970: 13965: 13955: 13896: 13736: 13242: 13207: 13095: 13022: 12863: 12692: 12628: 12589: 5755: 4627:

Jones, Matthew; Smith, Adam; Betts, Richard; Canadell, Josep; Prentice, Collin; Le Quéré, Corrine.

2434: 1171: 1047: 794: 722: 411: 325: 301: 214: 167: 159: 12530: 6604:

Wolfe, Barrett; Champion, Curtis; Pecl, Gretta; Strugnell, Jan; Watson, Sue-Ann (28 August 2022).

5439:

Rounce, David R.; Hock, Regine; Maussion, Fabien; Hugonnet, Romain; et al. (5 January 2023).

14999: 14964: 14944: 14934: 14864: 14784: 14749: 14729: 14669: 14629: 14579: 14564: 14549: 14519: 14499: 14464: 14444: 14389: 14319: 14314: 14234: 14079: 14001: 13911: 13653: 13625: 13305: 12959: 12937: 12544: 11508: 10743: 10679:"Climate mitigation policies and the potential pathways to conflict: Outlining a research agenda" 7248: 5139:. National Ocean Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). February 2022. 3674:"Accelerated western European heatwave trends linked to more-persistent double jets over Eurasia" 1284: 1276: 1253: 646:. Both the maximum and mean rainfall rates increase. This more extreme rainfall is also true for 422: 367: 222: 90: 11767:"Global GDP will suffer at least a 3% hit by 2050 from unchecked climate change, say economists" 8224:

Doherty, Susan; Clayton, Thomas J (2011). "The psychological impacts of global climate change".

4367:"Increasing ocean wave energy observed in Earth's seismic wavefield since the late 20th century" 3172: 2254:

also use this theme. There has not been extensive research in this topic. Existential risks are

358: 14994: 14809: 14774: 14664: 14604: 14534: 14529: 14429: 14339: 14309: 13678: 13498: 13440: 13357: 13342: 13227: 12868: 12814: 12809: 12804: 12799: 12794: 12789: 9495:

Glavovic, B.C., R. Dawson, W. Chow, M. Garschagen, M. Haasnoot, C. Singh, and A. Thomas, 2022:

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The Natural Fix? The Role of Ecosystems in Climate Mitigation: A UNEP Rapid Response Assessment

6018:; Xi, Baike; DuVivier, Alice K.; Kay, Jennifer E.; Landrum, Laura L.; Deng, Yi (19 June 2019). 5334:

Climate Stabilization Targets: Emissions, Concentrations, and Impacts over Decades to Millennia

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group which assesses the physical scientific aspects of the climate system and climate change.

12358:

Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation (SREX)

10791:

Ide, Tobias; Brzoska, Michael; Donges, Jonathan F.; Schleussner, Carl-Friedrich (1 May 2020).

9812: 9796: 7334:. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA, pp. 411-429, doi: 10.7930/J0GB227J 4994:"Mixing of the planet's ocean waters is slowing down, speeding up global warming, study finds" 4472: 3146: 2749:"Biodiversity redistribution under climate change: Impacts on ecosystems and human well-being" 1858: 1654:

In addition to direct impacts, climate change and extreme weather events cause changes in the

809:

Oceans have taken up almost 90% of the excess heat accumulated on Earth due to global warming.

135:. As the climate changes it impacts the natural environment with effects such as more intense 14067: 13713: 13590: 13398: 12853: 12776: 9756:"Vulnerability of island countries in the South Pacific to sea level rise and climate change" 8997: 8377:""our Home is Drowning": IÑupiat Storytelling and Climate Change in Point Hope, Alaskalaska*" 8226: 7000: 4092:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US, pp. 1055–1210, 2369: 2277:

Regional median economic impacts predicted due to global warming by 2050 compared to present.

1819: 1809:

regimes are also factors. Increased frequency of extreme events and modified weed, pest, and

1751: 1561: 1376: 470: 12465: 11845: 11841: 9465:

Cities of the future: visualizing climate change to inspire action, current vs future cities

8745:"Impact of climate change adaptation on food security: evidence from semi-arid lands, Kenya" 7324:

Kopp, R.E., K. Hayhoe, D.R. Easterling, T. Hall, R. Horton, K.E. Kunkel, and A.N. LeGrande,

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Thackeray, Chad W.; Derksen, Chris; Fletcher, Christopher G.; Hall, Alex (1 December 2019).

4908:

Doney, Scott C.; Busch, D. Shallin; Cooley, Sarah R.; Kroeker, Kristy J. (17 October 2020).

2573:

Doney, Scott C.; Busch, D. Shallin; Cooley, Sarah R.; Kroeker, Kristy J. (17 October 2020).

14123: 13906: 13784: 13445: 13015: 12942: 12226: 11957: 11904: 11684: 11552: 11451: 11401: 11055:"Long-term environmental change and geographical patterns of violence in Darfur, 2003–2005" 11015: 10843: 10755: 10690: 10541: 10340: 10189: 10062: 9974: 9924: 9767: 9725: 9571: 9423: 9363: 9304: 9215: 9090: 9029:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 229-269. 8890: 8759: 8717: 8659: 8466: 7891: 7889: 7887: 7744:

Arias, Paola A.; Bellouin, Nicolas; Coppola, Erika; Jones, Richard G.; et al. (2021).

7645: 7555: 7468: 7042: 6955: 6866: 6155: 6098: 6031: 5963: 5897: 5824: 5708:. Tina Schoolmeester, Koen Verbist, Kari Synnøve Johansen. Paris, France. 2018. p. 9. 5651: 5536: 5452: 5400: 5337: 5287: 5036: 4863: 4701: 4561: 4484: 4378: 4329: 4272: 4231: 3995: 3844: 3685: 3599:

Aksu, H. (2022). A determination of season shifting across Turkey in the period 1965–2020.

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Overlap between future population distribution and extreme heat in a high emission scenario

1838: 1604:

may be lost. Climate change could make it more likely that endangered languages disappear.

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of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. p. 170.

10662: 10645: 9913:"Climate change and shifts in cropping systems together exacerbate China's water scarcity" 9261: 8927:

of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. p. 766.

8850: 8833: 8648:"Economic implications of climate change impacts on human health through undernourishment" 8363: 6675:

of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. p. 206.

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The Andean glacier and water atlas : the impact of glacier retreat on water resources

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Rousi, Efi; Kornhuber, Kai; Beobide-Arsuaga, Goratz; Luo, Fei; Coumou, Dim (4 July 2022).

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of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. p. 85.

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of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. p. 48.

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of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. p. 54.

11660:

of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. p. 67.

11281:

of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. p. 47.

11196:

Eastin, Joshua (1 July 2018). "Climate change and gender equality in developing states".

9963:"Climate change and interconnected risks to sustainable development in the Mediterranean" 9694: 5329: 5327: 2977:. Geneva: Chairperson, Publications Board, World Meteorological Organization. p. 6. 2251: 2038: 1974: 1755: 1648: 1483: 1454: 1450: 1341: 1229: 1167: 966: 923: 875: 871: 818: 623: 461:

The lower and middle atmosphere, where nearly all weather occurs, are heating due to the

426: 203: 195: 155: 116: 12280:"Changing climate casts a shadow over the future of the Panama Canal – and global trade" 12230: 11961: 11908: 11688: 11622: 11597: 11556: 11455: 11405: 10847: 10759: 10694: 10545: 10344: 10193: 10066: 9978: 9928: 9771: 9729: 9575: 9515: 9427: 9367: 9308: 9219: 9094: 8763: 8721: 8663: 8470: 7884: 7753:

Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the

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Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the

4039:"Winters get warmer with climate change. So what explains Texas' cold snap in February?" 3999: 3956: 3848: 3689: 3655:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US, pp. 3−32, 3500: 3434: 3374: 3216:

Chapter 4: Sea Level Rise and Implications for Low-Lying Islands, Coasts and Communities

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Climate change has long been described as a severe risk to humans. Climate change as an

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Xu, Chi; M. Lenton, Timothy; Svenning, Jens-Christian; Scheffer, Marten (26 May 2020).

10000: 9942: 9698: 9605: 9592: 9559: 9447: 9386: 9351: 9327: 9292: 9238: 9203: 9116: 8894: 8855: 8775: 8623: 8588: 8569: 8556: 8521: 8455:"Longitudinal Effects on Mental Health of Moving to Greener and Less Green Urban Areas" 8392: 8348: 8321: 8315: 8313: 8299: 8206: 8149: 8102: 8083: 8071: 8047: 8014: 7990: 7957: 7938: 7671: 7494: 7187: 7130: 7103: 7058: 7028:"Marine heatwaves threaten global biodiversity and the provision of ecosystem services" 6976: 6943: 6889: 6854: 6843:

Chart in section titled "Annual rates of global tree cover loss have risen since 2000".

6581: 6556: 6537: 6373: 6276: 6179: 6124: 6067: 5915: 5866: 5731: 5680: 5639: 5560: 5486: 4910:"The Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Marine Ecosystems and Reliant Human Communities" 4887: 4508: 4347: 4293: 4260: 4166: 4019: 3860: 3813: 3708: 3673: 3633:(change "202310" in URL to see years other than 2023, and months other than 10=October) 3522: 3483:

Swain, Daniel L.; Singh, Deepti; Touma, Danielle; Diffenbaugh, Noah S. (19 June 2020).

3034: 2928: 2786: 2604: 2575:"The Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Marine Ecosystems and Reliant Human Communities" 2472: 2397: 2205: 2126:

Overlap between state fragility, extreme heat, and nuclear and biological catastrophic

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Effects of climate change on agriculture § Global food security and undernutrition

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Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets, the Amazon rainforest, and warm-water coral reefs.

1536: 1532: 1312: 911: 779: 764: 750: 668: 230: 11362: 9897: 9869: 9850: 9191: 8184: 8137: 7958:"Climate Change Impacts on Waterborne Diseases: Moving Toward Designing Interventions" 7916: 7877: 7274: 7155:"Ocean acidification impacts on coastal ecosystem services due to habitat degradation" 6428:

Chapter 1: Assessment of observed changes and responses in natural and managed systems

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Clarke, Ben; Otto, Friederike; Stuart-Smith, Rupert; Harrington, Luke (28 June 2022).

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Thomas R. Karl; Jerry M. Melillo; Thomas C. Peterson (eds.). "Global Climate Change".

2972: 2645:"Climate Science Special Report / Fourth National Climate Assessment (NCA4), Volume I" 947:

for fish in the upper ocean layers. These changes also reduce the ocean's capacity to

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Barnett, Jon; Adger, W. Neil (December 2003). "Climate Dangers and Atoll Countries".

9627:. Book version: IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. This version: IPCC website. Archived from 9609: 9597: 9451: 9439: 9411: 9391: 9332: 9243: 9120: 9078: 9001: 8898: 8779: 8628: 8610: 8573: 8561: 8543: 8502: 8494: 8435: 8396: 8353: 8291: 8269: 8267: 8253: 8210: 8198: 8153: 8141: 8087: 8052: 8034: 7995: 7977: 7942: 7930: 7663: 7583: 7522: 7441: 7304: 7192: 7174: 7135: 6981: 6894: 6586: 6541: 6404: 6377: 6365: 6319: 6264: 6254: 6183: 6171: 6128: 6116: 6071: 6059: 5992: 5919: 5870: 5858: 5850: 5812: 5811:

Stokes, Chris R.; Abram, Nerilie J.; Bentley, Michael J.; et al. (August 2022).

5719: 5709: 5685: 5667: 5564: 5552: 5490: 5478: 5349: 5081: 5071: 4879: 4819: 4729: 4689: 4500: 4404: 4351: 4298: 4170: 4156: 4023: 4011: 3864: 3817: 3805: 3713: 3526: 3514: 2978: 2932: 2920: 2893:"The impact of climate change on migration: a synthesis of recent empirical insights" 2790: 2778: 2608: 2596: 2547: 2204:: Climate change disproportionally affects poor people in low-income communities and 2142: 2062: 1939: 1416: 1364: 1033: 935: 907: 847: 790: 639: 631: 462: 333: 258: 11421: 11217: 10830:

von Uexkull, Nina; Croicu, Mihai; Fjelde, Hanne; Buhaug, Halvard (17 October 2016).

10808: 10004: 9737: 9702: 8859: 8310: 8303: 8110: 7675: 7498: 7062: 4891: 4512: 4318:"Climate-Induced Decadal Ocean Wave Height Variability\ From Microseisms: 1931–2021" 3329:"Chapter 12: Long-term Climate Change: Projections, Commitments and Irreversibility" 1527:

are very sensitive to global warming and ocean acidification. Coral reefs provide a

1185:

below sea level. This makes it possibly vulnerable to the self-enhancing process of

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is an indigenous practice in the US and Australia. It can reduce wildfire burning.

14028: 13595: 13578: 13519: 13410: 13174: 12893: 12766: 12702: 12234: 11975: 11965: 11912: 11802: 11702: 11692: 11617: 11609: 11568: 11560: 11475: 11459: 11409: 11358: 11313: 11305: 11240: 11209: 11205: 11158: 11066: 11027: 10986: 10910: 10869: 10851: 10804: 10763: 10744:"The missing subject: Enabling a postcolonial future for climate conflict research" 10714: 10698: 10657: 10616: 10557: 10549: 10376:"Part One: Chapter 2: Reducing Human Vulnerability: Helping People Help Themselves" 10348: 10312: 10205: 10197: 10121: 10080: 10070: 9990: 9982: 9932: 9893: 9864: 9775: 9733: 9690: 9587: 9579: 9500: 9431: 9381: 9371: 9322: 9312: 9233: 9223: 9163: 9155: 9106: 9098: 8993: 8886: 8845: 8767: 8725: 8667: 8618: 8600: 8551: 8533: 8484: 8474: 8427: 8388: 8343: 8333: 8283: 8245: 8217: 8188: 8180: 8133: 8097: 8079: 8042: 8026: 7985: 7969: 7920: 7912: 7873: 7838: 7783: 7653: 7573: 7563: 7484: 7476: 7431: 7423: 7325: 7294: 7286: 7231: 7182: 7166: 7125: 7115: 7085: 7050: 6971: 6963: 6884: 6874: 6576: 6568: 6527: 6396: 6355: 6347: 6309: 6206: 6163: 6106: 6049: 6039: 5905: 5840: 5832: 5794: 5675: 5659: 5622: 5586: 5544: 5468: 5460: 5418: 5408: 5341: 5305: 5295: 5257: 5044: 4921: 4871: 4811: 4719: 4709: 4569: 4492: 4394: 4386: 4337: 4288: 4280: 4239: 4148: 4093: 4003: 3852: 3795: 3785: 3703: 3693: 3656: 3604: 3557: 3504: 3438: 3249: 3223: 3077: 2912: 2815: 2768: 2760: 2586: 2537: 2177: 2161: 2117: 2100: 2050: 2000: 1785:

Projected changes in average food availability (represented as calorie consumption

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predicts different levels of sea level rise for coastlines within a single country.

940: 813: 729: 663: 537: 246: 98: 12525: 10991: 10974: 8912:

Bezner Kerr, Rachel; Hasegawa, Toshihiro; Lasco, Rodel; Bhatt, Indra; et al.

8264: 7837:(Report). Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1041–1170. 6532: 6515: 5441:"Global glacier change in the 21st century: Every increase in temperature matters" 5025:"Improved Estimates of Changes in Upper Ocean Salinity and the Hydrological Cycle" 4573: 2273: 1845:, warming waters decrease the amount of fish in the ocean. Per degree of warming, 147:. These changes impact ecosystems and societies, and can become irreversible once 43: 13980: 13901: 13865: 13794: 13768: 13756: 13673: 13605: 13480: 13337: 12954: 12905: 12883: 12164: 11070: 10473: 10375: 10311:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, US, pp. 1041–1170, 10247: 10166: 10147: 9541: 9522: 9471: 9195: 8168: 8063: 5510: 5252: 5241: 5016: 4979: 4968: 4945: 4423: 3509: 3485:"Attributing Extreme Events to Climate Change: A New Frontier in a Warming World" 3484: 3179: 2688: 2283: 2181: 2095: 2073: 1823: 1822:

it is 100 times higher. Climate change worsens this type of land degradation and

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away from the rainforest. This water is essential for sustaining the rainforest.

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has warmed the most, and temperatures on land have generally increased more than

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C. Rocha, Juan; Peterson, Garry; Bodin, Örjan; Levin, Simon (21 December 2018).

7230:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 175-312. 7084:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 447–587. 6143: 5793:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 589–655. 5070:(3rd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley/Blackwell. pp. 182–183. 4747: 3327:

Collins, M.; Knutti, R.; Arblaster, J. M.; Dufresne, J.-L.; et al. (2013).

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are increasing. Salty areas are becoming saltier and fresher areas less salty.

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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Vermeulen, Sonja J.; Campbell, Bruce M.; Ingram, John S.I. (21 November 2012).

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of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press,

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Surminski, Swenja; Bouwer, Laurens M.; Linnerooth-Bayer, Joanne (April 2016).

11564: 11177:"Revised Estimates of the Impact of Climate Change on Extreme Poverty by 2030" 10553: 10316: 9986: 9504: 9102: 8729: 8672: 8647: 8538: 8446: 8287: 7973: 7849: 7842: 7819: 7788: 7771: 7275:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points" 7235: 7089: 7054: 6314: 6268: 6210: 5798: 5723: 5626: 5590: 5585:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 39–69. 5300: 5275: 5261: 4815: 4714: 4496: 4097: 3660: 3253: 3248:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 49-92. 3227: 2819: 2542: 1194:

Antarctic ice sheet would cause over 5 metres (16 ft) of sea level rise.

1106:

Melting of glacial mass is approximately linearly related to temperature rise.

465:. Evaporation and atmospheric moisture content increase as temperatures rise. 15103: 14006: 13938: 13663: 13485: 13470: 13405: 13300: 11471: 11439: 11413: 11309: 11078: 11039: 11031: 11000: 10924: 10865: 10816: 10777: 10710: 10287:"What's a Climate 'Doom Loop?' These Researchers Fear We're Heading Into One" 9652:"For small island nations, climate change is not a threat. It's already here" 9443: 8873:

Carter, Colin; Cui, Xiaomeng; Ghanem, Dalia; Mérel, Pierre (5 October 2018).

8614: 8547: 8498: 8439: 8400: 8160: 8038: 7981: 7691:"Risks of 'domino effect' of tipping points greater than thought, study says" 7445: 7427: 7406:

Ripple, William J; Wolf, Christopher; Newsome, Thomas M.; Gregg, Jillian W.;

7308: 7223:

Chapter 3: Impacts of 1.5 °C Global Warming on Natural and Human Systems

7178: 6773: 6769:"The first breach of 1.5 °C will be a temporary but devastating failure" 6400: 6205:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 3-24. 6175: 6120: 6111: 6086: 6063: 5854: 5671: 5621:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US 5556: 5524: 5160: 5085: 5049: 5024: 4733: 4504: 4244: 4219: 3809: 3586:

Sparks, T.H. and Menzel, A. (2002) Observed changes in seasons: an overview.

3518: 2924: 2892: 2849:

of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press.

2600: 2391: 2020: 1885: 1846: 1806: 1781: 1747: 1693: 1593: 1506: 1384: 1287:

globally is approximately 1600 gigatons. This is twice the atmospheric pool.

1241: 926:. Scientists estimate that the ocean absorbs about 25% of all human-caused CO 686: 585: 269: 250: 14115: 12510: 12254:"Climate change could make insurance too expensive for most people – report" 11970: 10856: 10486:

Kumari Rigaud, Kanta; de Sherbinin, Alex; Jones, Bryan; et al. (2018).

10126: 10109: 10075: 9376: 9317: 9228: 8874: 7862:

Countdown on health and climate change: health at the mercy of fossil fuels"

7658: 7633: 7331:

Climate Science Special Report: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume I

7290: 7120: 6999:

US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

6351: 5813:"Response of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet to past and future climate change" 5464: 5112:"Climate Change Indicators: Sea Level / Figure 1. Absolute Sea Level Change" 4875: 4636: 4261:"A recent increase in global wave power as a consequence of oceanic warming" 4007: 3265: 3033:(Report). World Meteorological Organization. 2022. p. 2. Archived from 2764: 2666: 1566: 998:

Long-term sea level rise occurs in addition to intermittent tidal flooding.

721:

Higher temperatures increase evaporation. This dries the soil and increases

154:

The effects of climate change vary in timing and location. Up until now the

13891: 13688: 13332: 13322: 12974: 12858: 12771: 11989: 11631: 11582: 11489: 11370: 11327: 10883: 10728: 10569: 10219: 10094: 10020:"One billion people will live in insufferable heat within 50 years – study" 9601: 9395: 9336: 9247: 8632: 8605: 8565: 8506: 8357: 8338: 8295: 8257: 8202: 8145: 8056: 7999: 7934: 7667: 7587: 7196: 7139: 6985: 6898: 6879: 6590: 6572: 6369: 5862: 5703: 5689: 5482: 5413: 5388: 4883: 4471:

Cook, Benjamin I.; Mankin, Justin S.; Anchukaitis, Kevin J. (12 May 2018).

4408: 4302: 4015: 3880:"Global heating pushes tropical regions towards limits of human livability" 3800: 3717: 3116:"To Predict Effects Of Global Warming, Scientists Looked Back 20,000 Years" 2782: 2419: 2411: 2349: 1943: 1697: 1671: 1644: 1548:

are considered to be at moderate risk from lower levels of global warming.

962: 733: 647: 589: 563: 551: 391: 136: 10620: 9797:"Indigenous People and Environmental Justice:The Impact of Climate Change" 9408: 8988:

Sadoff, Claudia; Grey, David; Borgomeo, Edoardo (2020). "Water Security".

8793:

Mbow, C.; Rosenzweig, C.; Barioni, L. G.; Benton, T.; et al. (2019).

7728:

Chapter 19: Assessing key vulnerabilities and the risk from climate change

7377:"Climate change driving entire planet to dangerous 'global tipping point'" 4955: 4953: 4903: 4901: 4527:"Scientists confirm global floods and droughts worsened by climate change" 4152: 3390:"Study: Why troposphere warming differs between models and satellite data" 3098:

Chapter 19: Assessing key vulnerabilities and the risk from climate change

2773: 1942:

threatens urban settlements. This is made worse by the loss of shade from

1486:

have increased. This is in response to warming waters, loss of oxygen and

1132:

Since the beginning of the twentieth century, there has been a widespread

1024:

due to human activities is the main cause. Between 1993 and 2018, melting

29:

For effects of changes in climate prior to the Industrial Revolution, see

13918: 13435: 13427: 12682: 12491: 12409: 12378: 12323: 12238: 11799:

Loss and Damage from Climate Change: Concepts, Methods and Policy Options

11697: 11672: 10915: 10898: 10446:"Extreme Weather Displaces Record Numbers of People as Temperatures Rise" 9187: 9168: 7925: 7828:"Chapter 7: Health, Wellbeing, and the Changing Structure of Communities" 7480: 7411: 7170: 7153:

Hall-Spencer, Jason M.; Harvey, Ben P. (10 May 2019). Osborn, Dan (ed.).

6044: 6019: 4342: 4317: 3833:"Projections of tropical heat stress constrained by atmospheric dynamics" 3539:

Schwartz, M.D. and Reiter, B.E. (2000) Changes in North American spring.

3302:"In-depth Q&A: The IPCC's sixth assessment report on climate science" 2005: 1869: 1842: 1689: 1514: 1420: 987: 948: 895: 714: 627: 600: 466: 273: 9995: 8587:

Hoffimann, Elaine; Barros, Henrique; Ribeiro, Ana Isabel (August 2017).

7330: 7299: 6360: 6054: 5473: 5321: 2644: 1837:

catches are already decreasing because of global warming and changes in

825:

at Mauna Loa (in parts per million volume, ppmv; red), surface ocean pCO

554:

is related to temperature. It also increases if humidity is higher. The

229:

The ecosystems most immediately threatened by climate change are in the

63: 13950: 13327: 12520: 11707: 10899:"Rise or Recede? How Climate Disasters Affect Armed Conflict Intensity" 10768: 10561: 10210: 8489: 8193: 7578: 7489: 7407: 7078:

Chapter 5: Changing Ocean, Marine Ecosystems, and Dependent Communities

6942:

Cooper, Gregory S.; Willcock, Simon; Dearing, John A. (10 March 2020).

6085:

Senftleben, Daniel; Lauer, Axel; Karpechko, Alexey (15 February 2020).

4962:

Chapter 5: Changing Ocean, Marine Ecosystems, and Dependent Communities

4950: 4898: 4663:"Explainer: How climate change is affecting wildfires around the world" 4586:

Daniel Tsegai, Miriam Medel, Patrick Augenstein, Zhuojing Huang (2022)

3774:"Extreme weather impacts of climate change: an attribution perspective" 2329: 1954: 1881: 1786: 1635: 1524: 1464: 1401: 1263: 1115: 1111: 1025: 934:

that warm water stabilises near the surface. A reduction of cold, deep

567: 562:

There is some evidence climate change is leading to a weakening of the

395: 234: 175: 163: 140: 10308: 9025: 8691: 8479: 8454: 8169:"Health and climate change: policy responses to protect public health" 7834: 7731: 7436: 6715: 6693: 6561:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

6431: 6323: 5640:"Accelerated mass loss of Himalayan glaciers since the Little Ice Age" 5618: 5245: 4690:"Heat stored in the Earth system 1960–2020: where does the energy go?" 4686: 4191:"Chapter 11: Weather and climate extreme events in a changing climate" 4089: 3652: 3196: 3101: 12900: 11874:"Nearly $ 2tn of damage inflicted on other countries by US emissions" 11722: 9780: 9755: 9484:

Understanding climate change from a global analysis of city analogues

8249: 7082:

IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate

6662:"Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and their Services" 5886:"Record low Antarctic sea ice coverage indicates a new sea ice state" 5791:

IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate

5583:

IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate

4973:

IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate

4447:"California is rationing water amid its worst drought in 1,200 years" 4189:

Seneviratne, Sonia I.; Zhang, Xuebin; Adnan, M.; et al. (2021).

3608: 3220:

IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate

3082: 3057: 2836:"Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and their Services" 2338: 2138: 1805:

in the atmosphere. Higher temperatures and altered precipitation and

1655: 1541: 1518: 1137: 1032:

accounted for 44% of sea level rise, with another 42% resulting from

1016: 859: 775: 541: 495: 478: 353: 12513:

UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs Sustainable Development

12400: 12128:

Pörtner, H.-O.; Roberts, D.C.; Adams, H.; Adelekan, I.; et al.

12102:

Pörtner, H.-O.; Roberts, D.C.; Adams, H.; Adelekan, I.; et al.

12051:

Pörtner, H.-O.; Roberts, D.C.; Adams, H.; Adelekan, I.; et al.

11645:

Pörtner, H.-O.; Roberts, D.C.; Adams, H.; Adelekan, I.; et al.

11596:

Kotz, Mazimilian.; Levermann, Anders; Wenz, Leonie (17 April 2024).

11266:

Pörtner, H.-O.; Roberts, D.C.; Adams, H.; Adelekan, I.; et al.

10702: 9827: 7603:"Climate tipping points could topple like dominoes, warn scientists" 7272: 6944:"Regime shifts occur disproportionately faster in larger ecosystems" 6336: 6296:

Koven, Charles D.; Riley, William J.; Stern, Alex (1 October 2012).

5129: 3443: 3418: 3173:

The 20th century was the hottest in nearly 2,000 years, studies show

2643: 1999:

on the coasts is high. Estimates of the number of people at risk of

536:. Heat waves are more likely to occur simultaneously with droughts. 10264:

Laybourn, Laurie; Throp, Henry; Sherman, Suzannah (February 2023).

9962: 8875:"Identifying the Economic Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture" 6817: 6728:

Settele, J.; Scholes, R.; Betts, R.; Bunn, S.; et al. (2014).

6660:

Parmesan, Camille; Morecroft, Mike; Trisurat, Yongyut; et al.

5345: 5229: 5227: 5225: 5201:"WMO annual report highlights continuous advance of climate change" 5158: 5154: 5152: 5150: 4552:

Mishra, A. K.; Singh, V. P. (2011). "Drought modeling – A review".

4450: 2834:

Parmesan, Camille; Morecroft, Mike; Trisurat, Yongyut; et al.

2622: 2345: 2344:

It is possible that climate change has already begun to affect the

1810: 1663: 1545: 1510: 1388: 1327:

Recent warming has had a big effect on natural biological systems.

952: 944: 760: 407: 399: 293: 242: 82: 9516:

Climate change: Sea level rise to affect 'three times more people'

9262:"Climate change: More than 3bn could live in extreme heat by 2070" 9204:"Climate Endgame: Exploring catastrophic climate change scenarios" 7895: 7326:

2017: Potential surprises – compound extremes and tipping elements

6632:"Science Briefs: Warming Climate is Changing Life on Global Scale" 5328:

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2011).

5273: 4588:

Drought in Numbers 2022 - restoration for readiness and resilience

3741:. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2021. pp. 8–10. 2748: 2621: 2077:

change. This limits their ability to move to less affected areas.

280:

can be impacted by weather extremes or by ripple effects like the

12878: 12536: 11016:"Climatic Stress, Internal Migration, and Syrian Civil War Onset" 8645: 8593:

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

8326:

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

7805:"Global heating will push billions outside 'human climate niche'" 2673:. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. September 2023. 2146: 1985: 1834: 1601: 1528: 1447:

Effects of climate change on oceans § Impacts on marine life

1372: 1368: 1328: 1224: 1182: 1029: 903: 771: 710: 604: 297: 296:. Higher temperatures will increasingly prevent outdoor labor in 12308:(2007), Core Writing Team; Pachauri, R.K; Reisinger, A. (eds.), 11537: 10380:

Managing social risks: Empower communities to protect themselves

9145: 9032: 8706:"Measuring economic impacts of drought: a review and discussion" 8704:

Ding, Ya; Hayes, Michael J.; Widhalm, Melissa (30 August 2011).

5756:"As Himalayan Glaciers Melt, a Water Crisis Looms in South Asia" 5222: 5147: 3771: 3671: 3151:, NOAA Paleoclimatology Program – NCDC Paleoclimatology Branch, 2862:"The Industries and Countries Most Vulnerable to Climate Change" 2250:

has emerged as a key theme in the climate movement. People from

1089:

Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate

52: 13886: 12319: 12209: 11541:"The Anthropocene: From Global Change to Planetary Stewardship" 10425:. Internal Displacement Monitoring Center. 2021. pp. 42–53 10275:. Chatham House, the Royal Institute of International Affairs. 10178: 10110:"Corrigendum: World Scientists' Warning of a Climate Emergency" 7855: 7541: 4853: 2127: 1502: 1497:

Ocean acidification can harm marine organisms in various ways.

1397: 732:

can help reduce the impact of droughts. One example of this is

681: 520:

events (for increasing degrees of global warming) are expected.

384: 363: 12526:

United Nations Environment Programme and the climate emergency

11230: 11094:"Climate Change and Rising Food Prices Heightened Arab Spring" 10485: 10160:

Climate change could pose 'existential threat' by 2050: report

9849:

Dietz, Thomas; Shwom, Rachael L.; Whitley, Cameron T. (2020).

5174:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, US. 3831:

Zhang, Yi; Held, Isaac; Fueglistaler, Stephan (8 March 2021).

2528:

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), ed. (2022),

2067:

Climate change adaptation § Migration and managed retreat

1876:

Between 1.5 and 2.5 billion people live in areas with regular

914:

because the ocean takes up most of the additional heat in the

13800:

Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement

12888: 11494:

Text was copied from this source, which is available under a

11340: 10829: 10305:

Health, Wellbeing, and the Changing Structure of Communities.

9650:

Rasheed Hassan, Hussain; Cliff, Valerie (24 September 2019).

9535:

Rising sea levels pose threat to homes of 300m people – study

8801: 8362:

Text was copied from this source, which is available under a

8166: 8116: 7956:

Levy, Karen; Smith, Shanon M.; Carlton, Elizabeth J. (2018).

7081: 6913:"Ecosystems the size of Amazon 'can collapse within decades'" 6811: 6144:"Dramatic decline of Arctic sea ice linked to global warming" 5790: 5582: 5525:"Snow and Climate: Feedbacks, Drivers, and Indices of Change" 5386: 4972: 4937:

Text was copied from this source, which is available under a

4933: 4590:, United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) 3219: 2811: 2471:

CounterAct; Women's Climate Justice Collective (4 May 2020).

2016: 1905: 1491: 1141: 1043: 1037: 863: 817:

Climate change causes a drop in the ocean's pH value (called

612: 559:

the tropics. But there may still be negative health impacts.

403: 102: 11891:

Callahan, Christopher W.; Mankin, Justin S. (12 July 2022).

7769: 7515:

Climate Tipping Points: Insights for Effective Policy Action

7346:"Climate emergency: world 'may have crossed tipping points'" 7226: 7102:

Riebesell, Ulf; Körtzinger, Arne; Oschlies, Andreas (2009).

6712:

Chapter 4: Ecosystems, their properties, goods, and services

6201: 5934:"Thermodynamics: Albedo | National Snow and Ice Data Center" 5522: 3931:"How global warming can cause Europe's harsh winter weather" 3244: 3148:

NOAA Paleoclimatology Global Warming – The Story: Proxy Data

2891:

Kaczan, David J.; Orgill-Meyer, Jennifer (1 February 2020).

1938:

Increased extreme heat exposure from climate change and the

1118:

is projected to continue its retreat in almost all regions.

854:

are linked to this. The rising temperature contributes to a

12441: 12305: 11723: 10790: 10048: 9181: 9179: 9048:

Sec. 3.3.3 Especially affected systems, sectors and regions

8792: 8519: 7101: 6935: 6690:

Chapter 3: Oceans and Coastal Ecosystems and Their Services

6557:"Risks to biodiversity from temperature overshoot pathways" 5193: 5022: 1607: 1589:

collapse of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation

1140:

lost around 8% of their mass between 1971 and 2019. In the

999: 12186:"40% of Oil and Gas Reserves Threatened by Climate Change" 12137: