898:
332:
5099:
5087:
5123:
5111:
22:
439:
807:
3555:
292:, the land is often considered static as it changes very slowly compared to the other elements that make up the climate system. The position of the continents determines the geometry of the oceans and therefore influences patterns of ocean circulation. The locations of the seas are important in controlling the transfer of heat and moisture across the globe, and therefore, in determining global climate.
566:
423:
and other minerals. The evaporated freshwater later rains back onto the surface. Precipitation and evaporation are not evenly distributed across the globe, with some regions such as the tropics having more rainfall than evaporation, and others having more evaporation than rainfall. The evaporation of
303:
is often darker or lighter than the soil beneath, so that more or less of the Sun's heat gets trapped in areas with vegetation. Vegetation is good at trapping water, which is then taken up by its roots. Without vegetation, this water would have run off to the closest rivers or other water bodies.
919:
The different elements of the climate system respond to external forcing in different ways. One important difference between the components is the speed at which they react to a forcing. The atmosphere typically responds within a couple of hours to weeks, while the deep ocean and ice sheets take
637:
On long timescales, the climate is determined mainly by how much energy is in the system and where it goes. When the Earth's energy budget changes, the climate follows. A change in the energy budget is called a forcing. When the change is caused by something outside of the five components of the
348:
The climate system receives energy from the Sun, and to a far lesser extent from the Earth's core, as well as tidal energy from the Moon. The Earth gives off energy to outer space in two forms: it directly reflects a part of the radiation of the Sun and it emits infra-red radiation as
803:. Still, humans also contribute as a human activity, such as the combustion of biomass or fossil fuels, releases aerosols into the atmosphere. Aerosols counteract some of the warming effects of emitted greenhouse gases until they fall back to the surface in a few years or less.
642:. Volcanoes, for example, result from deep processes within the earth that are not considered part of the climate system. As our human actions, off-planet changes, such as solar variation and incoming asteroids, are also "external" to the climate system's five components.
380:, seasonal changes in wind and precipitation that occur mostly in the tropics, form due to the fact that land masses heat up more easily than the ocean. The temperature difference induces a pressure difference between land and ocean, driving a steady wind.
287:
specifically mountains and valleys, shapes global wind patterns: vast mountain ranges form a barrier to winds and impact where and how much it rains. Land closer to open ocean has a more moderate climate than land farther from the ocean. For the purpose of
608:. These variations can affect global average surface temperature by redistributing heat between the deep ocean and the atmosphere; but also by altering the cloud, water vapour or sea ice distribution, which can affect the total energy budget of the earth.
676:
Slight variations in the Earth's motion can cause large changes in the seasonal distribution of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface and how it is distributed across the globe, although not to the global and yearly average sunlight. The three types of
884:
of the area can change, causing the region to capture more or less sunlight. In addition, vegetation interacts with the hydrological cycle, so precipitation is also affected. Landscape fires release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and release
2824:
Man, Wenmin; Zhou, Tianjun; Jungclaus, Johann H. (October 2014). "Effects of Large
Volcanic Eruptions on Global Summer Climate and East Asian Monsoon Changes during the Last Millennium: Analysis of MPI-ESM Simulations".
2337:
Delworth, Thomas L.; Zeng, Fanrong; Vecchi, Gabriel A.; Yang, Xiaosong; Zhang, Liping; Zhang, Rong (20 June 2016). "The North
Atlantic Oscillation as a driver of rapid climate change in the Northern Hemisphere".
783:, have diverse effects on the climate. Some primarily scatter sunlight, cooling the planet, while others absorb sunlight and warm the atmosphere. Indirect effects include the fact that aerosols can act as
2394:; Cai, Wenju; Gupta, Alex Sen; McPhaden, Michael J.; Purich, Ariaan; Santoso, Agus (9 February 2014). "Recent intensification of wind-driven circulation in the Pacific and the ongoing warming hiatus".
927:. For example, a significant decrease of solar intensity would quickly lead to a temperature decrease on Earth, which would then allow ice and snow cover to expand. The extra snow and ice has a higher
596:
The ocean and atmosphere can also work together to spontaneously generate internal climate variability that can persist for years to decades at a time. Examples of this type of variability include the
931:
or reflectivity, and therefore reflects more of the Sun's radiation back into space before it can be absorbed by the climate system as a whole; this in turn causes the Earth to cool down further.
212:
proper contains all the liquid water on Earth, with most of it contained in the world's oceans. The ocean covers 71% of Earth's surface to an average depth of nearly 4 kilometres (2.5 miles), and
619:
For example, alterations to ocean processes such as thermohaline circulation play a key role in redistributing heat in the world's oceans. Understanding internal variability helped scientists to
2298:
Chiodo, Gabriel; Oehrlein, Jessica; Polvani, Lorenzo M.; Fyfe, John C.; Smith, Anne K. (21 January 2019). "Insignificant influence of the 11-year solar cycle on the North
Atlantic Oscillation".
856:. The sulfur dioxide is chemically converted into aerosols that cause cooling by blocking a fraction of sunlight to the Earth's surface. Small eruptions affect the atmosphere only subtly.
2200:
Brown, Patrick T.; Li, Wenhong; Li, Laifang; Ming, Yi (28 July 2014). "Top-of-atmosphere radiative contribution to unforced decadal global temperature variability in climate models".
837:
Although volcanoes are technically part of the lithosphere, which is part of the climate system, volcanism is defined as an external forcing agent. On average, there are only several
593:. For instance, the weather in Greenland and Canada is cold and dry during a positive NAO. Different phases of the North Atlantic oscillation can be sustained for multiple decades.
103:
also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, certain chemical elements are constantly moving between the components of the climate system. Two examples for these
304:
Water taken up by plants instead evaporates, contributing to the hydrological cycle. Precipitation and temperature influences the distribution of different vegetation zones.
4823:
669:
and longer-term time scales. While the solar cycle is too small to directly warm and cool Earth's surface, it does influence a higher layer of the atmosphere directly, the
531:
from phenomena outside of the system (e.g. a change in Earth's orbit). Longer changes, usually defined as changes that persist for at least 30 years, are referred to as
523:
Climate is constantly varying, on timescales that range from seasons to the lifetime of the Earth. Changes caused by the system's own components and dynamics are called
3429:
Turner, T. Edward; Swindles, Graeme T.; Charman, Dan J.; Langdon, Peter G.; Morris, Paul J.; Booth, Robert K.; Parry, Lauren E.; Nichols, Jonathan E. (5 April 2016).
982:
4999:
2475:
Graf, H.-F.; Feichter, J.; Langmann, B. (1997). "Volcanic sulphur emissions: Estimates of source strength and its contribution to the global sulphate distribution".
376:, the Earth's rotation diverts the air to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern hemisphere, thus forming distinct atmospheric cells.
4667:
269:, a larger part of that hemisphere is covered in snow. Both hemispheres have about the same amount of sea ice. Most frozen water is contained in the ice sheets on
442:
Carbon is constantly transported between the different elements of the climate system: fixed by living creatures and transported through the ocean and atmosphere.
962:
Climate Change 2013: The
Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
395:
transports heat from the tropics to the polar regions. Ocean circulation is further driven by the interaction with wind. The salt component also influences the
4840:
4276:
4102:
611:
The oceanic aspects of these oscillations can generate variability on centennial timescales due to the ocean having hundreds of times more mass than the
501:, before it can be used as a building block in the biosphere. Human activities play an important role in both carbon and nitrogen cycles: the burning of
4271:
3078:"On the contribution of internal variability and external forcing factors to the Cooling trend over the Humid Subtropical Indo-Gangetic Plain in India"
3472:
Wallace, John M.; Deser, Clara; Smoliak, Brian V.; Phillips, Adam S. (2013). "Attribution of
Climate Change in the Presence of Internal Variability".
4139:
2032:
3158:
Olsen, Jesper; Anderson, N. John; Knudsen, Mads F. (23 September 2012). "Variability of the North
Atlantic Oscillation over the past 5,200 years".
1827:
4076:
2055:
3288:
Schmidt, Gavin A.; Ruedy, Reto A.; Miller, Ron L.; Lacis, Andy A. (16 October 2010). "Attribution of the present-day total greenhouse effect".
764:
are increased, temperature and water vapour increase. Accordingly, water vapour and clouds are not seen as external forcings but as feedback.
3785:
3058:
4018:
577:
Components of the climate system vary continuously, even without external pushes (external forcing). One example in the atmosphere is the
3902:
632:
361:
is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy imbalance is negative and Earth experiences cooling.
4161:
4119:
1546:
411:
The hydrological cycle or water cycle describes how it is constantly moved between the surface of the Earth and the atmosphere. Plants
364:
More energy reaches the tropics than the polar regions and the subsequent temperature difference drives the global circulation of the
5040:
4156:
3741:
335:
Earth's atmospheric circulation is driven by the energy imbalance between the equator and the poles. It is further influenced by the
661:
is the predominant source of energy input to the Earth and drives atmospheric circulation. The amount of energy coming from the Sun
4371:
4092:
3810:
3587:
2917:
McMichael, Anthony J; Woodruff, Rosalie E; Hales, Simon (March 2006). "Climate change and human health: present and future risks".
5154:
4727:
4516:
3684:
1623:
897:
2997:
Miles, M.G.; Grainger, R.G.; Highwood, E.J. (2004). "The significance of volcanic eruption strength and frequency for climate".
539:. When the climate changes, the effects may build on each other, cascading through the other parts of the system in a series of
4376:
4339:
4193:
4178:
4097:
3746:
3690:
2755:
Liu, Zaihua; Dreybrodt, Wolfgang; Liu, Huan (June 2011). "Atmospheric CO2 sink: Silicate weathering or carbonate weathering?".
372:. Air rises when it warms, flows polewards and sinks again when it cools, returning to the equator. Due to the conservation of
909:) warming. Observations and modeling studies indicate that there is a net positive feedback to Earth's current global warming.
5035:
4173:
3336:
3231:
3148:
3045:
2956:"Externally Forced and Internally Generated Decadal Climate Variability Associated with the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation"
2872:
Mauritsen, Thorsten; Graversen, Rune G.; Klocke, Daniel; Langen, Peter L.; Stevens, Bjorn; Tomassini, Lorenzo (29 May 2013).
2525:
2463:
2442:
2188:
2167:
2146:
450:
is directly important for climate as it determines the concentrations of two important greenhouse gases in the atmosphere: CO
2011:
573:
and temperatures during the strong El Niño of 1997. El Niño typically brings wetter weather to Mexico and the United States.
5057:
4013:
4008:
2579:
974:
620:
480:. The minerals that are released in this way, transported to the sea, are used by living creatures whose remains can form
4538:
4316:
4134:
4066:
4056:
4039:
3946:
3753:
1382:
589:. The difference in pressure oscillates and this affects weather patterns across the North Atlantic region up to central
4071:
597:
4967:
4828:
4785:
4281:
3382:
462:; this is later re-emitted by the breathing of living creatures. As part of the slow carbon cycle, volcanoes release CO
723:
radiation. In the Earth's past, many processes contributed to variations in greenhouse gas concentrations. Currently,
4894:
4770:
4587:
3790:
3489:
3357:
2378:
605:
446:
Chemical elements, vital for life, are constantly cycled through the different components of the climate system. The
353:. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines
5127:
4765:
4745:
4692:
4644:
3706:
4884:
4835:
4261:
4223:
4168:
3638:
3559:
3327:
Peixoto, José P. (1993). "Atmospheric energetics and the water cycle". In
Raschke, Ehrhard; Jacob, Jacob (eds.).
2249:"Comparing the model-simulated global warming signal to observations using empirical estimates of unforced noise"
2102:
Aiuppa, A.; Federico, C.; Giudice, G.; Gurrieri, S.; Liuzzo, M.; Shinohara, H.; Favara, R.; Valenza, M. (2006).
830:
201:
is the movement of water through the climate system. Not only does the hydrological cycle determine patterns of
4952:
4236:
3993:
560:
194:
radiation the Earth's surface emits to balance the Sun's radiation. This causes surface temperatures to rise.
277:, which average about 2 kilometres (1.2 miles) in height. These ice sheets slowly flow towards their margins.
5062:
4597:
4129:
3476:. World Scientific Series on Asia-Pacific Weather and Climate. Vol. 6. World scientific. pp. 1–29.
1003:
424:
water requires substantial quantities of energy, whereas a lot of heat is released during condensation. This
957:
5045:
4717:
4246:
4241:
4146:
4023:
3580:
724:
2026:
4256:
4109:
601:
358:
331:
1831:
495:
is inert, micro-organisms first have to convert this to an active nitrogen compound in a process called
5115:
4879:
4682:
4639:
4412:
4334:
4188:
2954:
Meehl, Gerald A.; Hu, Aixue; Arblaster, Julie M.; Fasullo, John; Trenberth, Kevin E. (September 2013).
578:
127:
2453:
2046:
4984:
4659:
4634:
4607:
4569:
4486:
4304:
4151:
4114:
3864:
3633:
3628:
3623:
2371:
Hydrosphere: Freshwater
Systems and Pollution (Our Fragile Planet): Fresh Water Systems and Pollution
784:
4499:
760:(~20%) also playing an important role. When concentrations of long-lived greenhouse gases such as CO
162:
envelops the earth and extends hundreds of kilometres from the surface. It consists mostly of inert
4994:
4989:
4979:
4920:
4760:
4266:
4231:
4124:
4051:
3892:
3721:
3657:
3618:
914:
616:
392:
354:
5149:
5103:
5025:
4935:
4677:
4649:
4329:
3988:
3966:
3573:
3509:
Willson, Richard C.; Hudson, Hugh S. (1991). "The Sun's luminosity over a complete solar cycle".
1572:
924:
811:
570:
544:
365:
147:
2785:
458:. In the fast part of the carbon cycle, plants take up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere using
87:, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes, such as
4702:
4522:
4464:
4381:
4366:
4251:
3897:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3828:
3823:
3818:
312:
is almost as much as land plants from the atmosphere. While humans are technically part of the
146:, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by
5091:
4737:
4614:
4422:
3882:
3805:
3431:"Solar cycles or random processes? Evaluating solar variability in Holocene climate records"
3396:"Global impact of smoke aerosols from landscape fires on climate and the Hadley circulation"
2726:
Kundzewicz, Zbigniew W. (January 2008). "Climate change impacts on the hydrological cycle".
4930:
4808:
4469:
4044:
3971:
3518:
3407:
3297:
3252:
3200:
3167:
3089:
3006:
2967:
2885:
2834:
2800:
2764:
2696:
2641:
2602:
2546:
2484:
2403:
2347:
2307:
2260:
2209:
2115:
869:
682:
350:
104:
2908:
2855:
8:
4947:
4722:
3956:
3951:
1479:
702:
694:
612:
336:
305:
266:
262:
119:
58:
26:
3522:
3411:
3301:
3256:
3204:
3171:
3093:
3010:
2971:
2889:
2838:
2804:
2768:
2700:
2645:
2606:
2550:
2488:
2407:
2351:
2311:
2264:
2213:
2119:
4775:
4707:
4624:
4474:
4439:
4396:
4391:
4386:
3961:
3534:
3495:
3455:
3430:
3371:
3313:
3276:
3213:
3188:
3110:
3077:
3022:
2985:
2942:
2860:
2743:
2714:
2620:
2558:
2323:
2281:
2248:
2247:
Brown, Patrick T.; Li, Wenhong; Cordero, Eugene C.; Mauget, Steven A. (21 April 2015).
2235:
838:
412:
213:
198:
2930:
5009:
4672:
4417:
4183:
3976:
3939:
3726:
3680:
3485:
3460:
3378:
3353:
3332:
3268:
3227:
3144:
3115:
3041:
2934:
2864:
2718:
2685:"On the additivity of radiative forcing between land use change and greenhouse gases"
2665:
2657:
2567:
2521:
2505:
2459:
2438:
2374:
2327:
2286:
2184:
2163:
2142:
906:
902:
746:
714:
646:
540:
496:
388:
369:
123:
91:
and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans transports heat from the
83:
is the statistical characterization of the climate system. It represents the average
3317:
3224:
Climate
Variability and Sunspot Activity: Analysis of the Solar Influence on Climate
3026:
2989:
2946:
2776:
2747:
2624:
2239:
1605:
205:, it also has an influence on the movement of energy throughout the climate system.
5052:
4619:
4602:
4543:
4434:
4198:
3922:
3795:
3731:
3538:
3526:
3499:
3477:
3450:
3442:
3415:
3305:
3280:
3260:
3208:
3175:
3136:
3105:
3097:
3014:
2975:
2926:
2903:
2893:
2850:
2842:
2808:
2772:
2735:
2704:
2649:
2632:
Kerr, Richard A. (2013-01-25). "Soot Is
Warming the World Even More Than Thought".
2610:
2554:
2500:
2492:
2430:
2411:
2355:
2315:
2276:
2268:
2225:
2217:
2123:
1106:
865:
481:
373:
282:
183:
182:, are the gases most important for the workings of the climate system, as they are
92:
399:. Vertical movements can bring up colder water to the surface in a process called
5004:
4925:
4889:
4818:
4792:
4780:
4697:
4629:
4504:
4361:
3983:
3934:
3912:
3189:"Internal variability of Earth's energy budget simulated by CMIP5 climate models"
2653:
2391:
2003:
662:
316:, they are often treated as a separate components of Earth's climate system, the
96:
2434:
2425:
Gettelman, Andrew; Rood, Richard B. (2016). "Components of the Climate System".
4957:
4813:
4755:
4750:
4592:
4481:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4061:
3998:
3736:
3716:
3596:
3481:
3243:
Samset, Bjørn Hallvard (13 April 2018). "How cleaner air changes the climate".
3101:
873:
846:
826:
754:
727:
are the cause of increasing concentrations of some greenhouse gases, such as CO
698:
548:
536:
518:
488:
466:
by degassing, releasing carbon dioxide from the Earth's crust and mantle. As CO
459:
318:
221:
179:
139:
131:
112:
54:
3057:
Myhre, Gunman; Lund Myhre, Catherine; Samset, Bjorn; Storelvmo, Trude (2013).
2980:
2898:
2873:
2846:
2739:
2319:
964:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
841:
per century that influence Earth's climate for longer than a year by ejecting
5143:
5030:
4962:
4687:
4509:
4494:
4429:
4324:
3420:
3395:
2680:
2661:
1887:
1885:
877:
736:
396:
309:
289:
202:
88:
3264:
2537:
Hasselmann, K. (December 1976). "Stochastic climate models Part I. Theory".
1399:
822:
719:
Greenhouse gases trap heat in the lower part of the atmosphere by absorbing
505:
has displaced carbon from the lithosphere to the atmosphere, and the use of
4915:
4712:
4356:
4346:
4003:
3887:
3800:
3464:
3272:
3128:
3119:
2938:
2813:
2669:
2290:
886:
853:
792:
670:
502:
447:
175:
108:
1882:
1585:
880:, particularly through human use of the land, can affect the climate. The
4942:
4459:
4451:
3711:
3309:
2615:
2590:
2415:
2221:
2128:
2103:
1459:
666:
585:
typically have high pressure, whereas there is often lower pressure over
581:(NAO), which operates as an atmospheric pressure see-saw. The Portuguese
426:
416:
357:. When the total of incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy,
229:
220:
with a salt content of about 3.5% on average, but this varies spatially.
135:
100:
70:
62:
38:
30:
1796:
4974:
4351:
3076:
Nath, Reshmita; Luo, Yong; Chen, Wen; Cui, Xuefeng (21 December 2018).
3059:"Aerosols and their Relation to Global Climate and Climate Sensitivity"
2390:
England, Matthew H.; McGregor, Shayne; Spence, Paul; Meehl, Gerald A.;
1748:
796:
768:
690:
686:
678:
506:
476:
300:
274:
258:
254:
250:
237:
66:
34:
3446:
2709:
2684:
2496:
2272:
2230:
1712:
1514:
961:
3929:
3530:
3179:
3018:
2359:
1640:
800:
788:
400:
313:
270:
74:
42:
25:
The five components of the climate system all interact. They are the
2955:
1938:
1936:
1606:"El Niño: Pacific Wind and Current Changes Bring Warm, Wild Weather"
3140:
2181:
The Global Climate System: Patterns, Processes, and Teleconnections
2031:
Sixth Assessment Report (AR6), Working Group I, IPCC, 2021, p. 96.
1858:
1700:
818:
787:, stimulating cloud formation. Natural sources of aerosols include
720:
492:
377:
217:
191:
163:
143:
1846:
1664:
1180:
923:
The initial response of a component to an external forcing can be
216:
is much larger than the heat held by the atmosphere. It contains
3907:
3565:
2158:
Brengtsson, L.; Bonnet, R.-M.; Calisto, M.; Destouni, G. (2014).
2104:"Rates of carbon dioxide plume degassing from Mount Etna volcano"
1933:
779:
Liquid and solid particles in the atmosphere, collectively named
732:
590:
586:
455:
384:
246:
225:
84:
79:
21:
1972:
1948:
1676:
1652:
1315:
1279:
806:
771:
of carbonates and silicates removes carbon from the atmosphere.
697:, which affect climate and are notable for their correlation to
4910:
3554:
2518:
Environmental Structure And Function: Climate System - Volume I
2157:
1435:
1423:
1405:
928:
925:
damped by negative feedbacks and enhanced by positive feedbacks
881:
673:, which may have an effect on the atmosphere near the surface.
582:
474:, this rain can slowly dissolve some rocks, a process known as
471:
438:
167:
3056:
2871:
2429:. Earth Systems Data and Models. Vol. 2. pp. 13–22.
2045:
Stocker, Thomas F.; Dahe, Qin; Plattner, Gian-Kaksper (2013).
1891:
1604:
Carlowicz, Mike; Uz, Stephanie Schollaert (14 February 2017).
1591:
1267:
1221:
1219:
1192:
645:
The primary value to quantify and compare climate forcings is
633:
Climate variability and change § External climate forcing
4824:
Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
3917:
3394:
Tosca, M. G.; Randerson, J. T.; Zender, C. S. (24 May 2013).
2101:
1544:
1465:
1303:
1291:
1036:
750:
509:
has vastly increased the amount of available fixed nitrogen.
242:
171:
130:
and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of
3428:
1960:
1921:
1802:
810:
In atmospheric temperature from 1979 to 2010, determined by
3471:
2063:
See esp. TFE.6: Climate Sensitivity and Feedbacks at p. 82.
1897:
1870:
1760:
1754:
1216:
864:
Changes in land cover, such as change of water cover (e.g.
814:
420:
2389:
1718:
1526:
1502:
1087:
1048:
565:
134:
in the atmosphere, mainly being emitted by people burning
5000:
Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
3126:
2297:
2078:
2066:
1808:
1784:
1736:
1724:
1646:
1520:
1490:
1447:
842:
658:
419:
water from oceans and other water bodies, leaving behind
187:
1327:
3287:
2953:
1864:
1706:
1553:. The science of climate change - Questions and Answers
1204:
3373:
The Earth's Biosphere: Evolution, Dynamics, and Change
2916:
2336:
1852:
1688:
1670:
1077:
1075:
491:
describes the flow of active nitrogen. As atmospheric
326:
4841:
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
2999:
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society
2996:
2018:
1996:
1942:
1060:
535:, although this phrase usually refers to the current
387:
and differences in density play an important role in
3393:
3157:
2566:
Haug, Gerald H.; Keigwin, Lloyd D. (22 March 2004).
2474:
2246:
1978:
1954:
1682:
1658:
1411:
1363:
1351:
1339:
1243:
1231:
1156:
1144:
1132:
1120:
512:
299:
also interacts with the rest of the climate system.
174:(0.9%). Some trace gases in the atmosphere, such as
99:
is the main driving force for this circulation. The
2044:
1772:
1570:
1255:
1072:
920:centuries to millennia to reach a new equilibrium.
901:
Some effects of global warming can either enhance (
430:is the primary source of energy in the atmosphere.
190:to penetrate to the surface, but block some of the
3370:
1909:
126:. These external forcings can be natural, such as
95:to regions that receive less energy from the Sun.
2568:"How the Isthmus of Panama Put Ice in the Arctic"
1168:
343:
5141:
5041:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
2823:
2678:
1984:
1966:
1927:
1820:
889:, which darkens snow, making it easier to melt.
2783:
2754:
2137:Barry, Roger G.; Hall-McKim, Eileen A. (2014).
2136:
2038:
1903:
1876:
1321:
1309:
1285:
1273:
1186:
1026:
484:, bringing the carbon back to the lithosphere.
323:because of human's large impact on the planet.
241:contains all parts of the climate system where
3075:
2179:Bridgman, Howard A.; Oliver, John. E. (2014).
2178:
1532:
1297:
1107:"Vital Signs of the Plant: Ocean Heat Content"
665:on shorter time scales, including the 11-year
232:, 2.5% of all water, is held in ice and snow.
3786:History of climate change policy and politics
3581:
3508:
3329:Energy and Water Cycles in the Climate System
3186:
2424:
2199:
1790:
1766:
1742:
1730:
1225:
1198:
1093:
1054:
1042:
2591:"Orographic effects on precipitating clouds"
2477:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
2004:"The Study of Earth as an Integrated System"
859:
383:Ocean water that has more salt has a higher
150:in the different climate system components.
3903:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
2786:"Global indirect aerosol effects: a review"
2565:
1603:
1210:
833:is a separate event from ocean variability.
626:
5122:
5110:
4567:
3588:
3574:
3187:Palmer, M D; McNeall, D J (1 March 2014).
2725:
2536:
1694:
1066:
892:
687:the tilt angle of Earth's axis of rotation
547:), producing many different effects (e.g.
4862:
4668:Adaptation strategies on the German coast
3811:United Nations Climate Change conferences
3454:
3419:
3212:
3109:
2979:
2907:
2897:
2874:"Climate feedback efficiency and synergy"
2854:
2812:
2708:
2614:
2504:
2280:
2229:
2127:
4372:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
3347:
2458:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
2139:Essentials of the Earth's Climate System
2084:
2072:
896:
805:
693:of Earth's axis. Together these produce
564:
437:
330:
20:
16:Interactions that create Earth's climate
4728:National Adaptation Programme of Action
4517:Land use, land-use change, and forestry
3474:Climate Change: Multidecadal and Beyond
3326:
2679:Jones, Andrew D.; Collins, William D.;
2368:
1830:. University of Montana. Archived from
1477:
1417:
1126:
554:
142:. Human activity also releases cooling
5142:
4377:Economics of climate change mitigation
4340:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
3863:
3691:Scientific consensus on climate change
3242:
3035:
2451:
2014:from the original on November 2, 2016.
1915:
1545:Australian Academy of Science (2015).
1508:
1496:
1453:
1441:
1429:
1369:
1357:
1345:
1249:
1237:
1162:
1150:
1138:
1081:
1030:
821:released by major volcanic eruptions (
57:with five interacting components: the
5036:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
4861:
4566:
4302:
3862:
3774:
3655:
3607:
3569:
3331:. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
2588:
2515:
2455:Climate System Dynamics and Modelling
1333:
1174:
433:
406:
308:from seawater by the growth of small
118:The climate system can change due to
5058:Representative Concentration Pathway
4009:Tipping points in the climate system
3685:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
3368:
2631:
2580:Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
1990:
1853:McMichael, Woodruff & Hales 2006
1828:"Milankovitch Cycles and Glaciation"
1261:
979:climatechange.environment.nsw.gov.au
952:
950:
948:
946:
944:
652:
261:. Because there is more land in the
73:(earth's upper rocky layer) and the
4829:Nationally determined contributions
4539:Individual action on climate change
3754:World energy supply and consumption
3221:
2589:Houze, Robert A. (6 January 2012).
2035:from the original on July 21, 2022.
1943:Miles, Grainger & Highwood 2004
1814:
1778:
708:
569:Difference between normal December
470:in the atmosphere makes rain a bit
327:Flows of energy, water and elements
186:which allow visible light from the
13:
4968:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
3595:
3127:National Research Council (2001).
2784:Lohmann, U.; Feichter, J. (2005).
2559:10.1111/j.2153-3490.1976.tb00696.x
2061:from the original on 16 July 2023.
1979:Tosca, Randerson & Zender 2013
1955:Graf, Feichter & Langmann 1997
1659:Olsen, Anderson & Knudsen 2012
1571:National Geographic (2019-03-28).
745:. The dominant contributor to the
403:, which cools down the air above.
14:
5166:
4895:Satellite temperature measurement
4500:forestry for carbon sequestration
3791:History of climate change science
3547:
3400:Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics
2793:Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics
2516:Gruza, George Vadimovich (2009).
941:
681:change are variations in Earth's
606:Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation
527:. The system can also experience
513:Changes within the climate system
5121:
5109:
5098:
5097:
5085:
4746:Climate Change Performance Index
3553:
3350:Earth's Climate: Past and Future
817:satellites, effects appear from
638:climate system, it is called an
4885:Instrumental temperature record
4836:Sustainable Development Goal 13
3290:Journal of Geophysical Research
3038:Chemistry of the Climate System
2777:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2011.03.085
2728:Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology
2108:Journal of Geophysical Research
2048:IPCC AR5 WG1. Technical Summary
1616:
1597:
1564:
1538:
1478:Riebeek, Holli (16 June 2011).
1471:
1375:
1099:
985:from the original on 2019-05-06
621:attribute recent climate change
5155:Climate variability and change
4953:Climate variability and change
4303:
3994:Retreat of glaciers since 1850
3193:Environmental Research Letters
2909:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-78F9-D
2856:11858/00-001M-0000-0023-F5B2-5
2183:. Cambridge University Press.
2160:The Earth's Hydrological Cycle
2141:. Cambridge University Press.
1967:Jones, Collins & Torn 2013
1928:Man, Zhou & Jungclaus 2014
1521:National Research Council 2001
1020:
996:
967:
561:Climate variability and change
344:Energy and general circulation
1:
5063:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways
4598:Climate emergency declaration
3352:. W. H. Freeman and Company.
3348:Ruddiman, William F. (2001).
3129:"Natural Climatic Variations"
2931:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68079-3
1877:Liu, Dreybrodt & Liu 2011
934:
749:is water vapour (~50%), with
153:
128:variations in solar intensity
5046:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
4272:Middle East and North Africa
3608:
3214:10.1088/1748-9326/9/3/034016
2689:Geophysical Research Letters
2654:10.1126/science.339.6118.382
2202:Geophysical Research Letters
1624:"North Atlantic Oscillation"
1547:"1. What is climate change?"
598:El Niño–Southern Oscillation
525:internal climate variability
7:
3775:
2435:10.1007/978-3-662-48959-8_2
2427:Demystifying Climate Models
1904:Lohmann & Feichter 2005
1322:Barry & Hall-McKim 2014
1310:Barry & Hall-McKim 2014
1286:Barry & Hall-McKim 2014
1274:Barry & Hall-McKim 2014
1187:Barry & Hall-McKim 2014
1027:Barry & Hall-McKim 2014
774:
602:Pacific decadal oscillation
10:
5171:
4880:Global surface temperature
4771:Popular culture depictions
4683:Ecosystem-based adaptation
4413:Carbon capture and storage
4335:Carbon offsets and credits
3656:
3482:10.1142/9789814579933_0001
3102:10.1038/s41598-018-36311-5
2094:
1298:Bridgman & Oliver 2014
912:
712:
630:
615:, and therefore very high
579:North Atlantic Oscillation
558:
516:
397:freezing point temperature
69:(ice and permafrost), the
5092:Climate change portal
5079:
5018:
4985:Extreme event attribution
4903:
4872:
4868:
4857:
4801:
4736:
4658:
4608:School Strike for Climate
4580:
4576:
4562:
4531:
4487:Climate-smart agriculture
4448:
4405:
4315:
4311:
4298:
4222:
4085:
4032:
3875:
3871:
3858:
3781:
3770:
3699:
3668:
3664:
3651:
3634:Climate change adaptation
3629:Climate change mitigation
3624:Effects of climate change
3614:
3603:
2981:10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00548.1
2899:10.1007/s00382-013-1808-7
2847:10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00739.1
2740:10.2478/v10104-009-0015-y
2506:21.11116/0000-0003-2CBB-A
2320:10.1038/s41561-018-0293-3
1791:Willson & Hudson 1991
1767:Gettelman & Rood 2016
1743:Palmer & McNeall 2014
1226:Gettelman & Rood 2016
1199:Gettelman & Rood 2016
1094:Gettelman & Rood 2016
1055:Gettelman & Rood 2016
1043:Gettelman & Rood 2016
860:Land use and cover change
785:cloud condensation nuclei
228:and some lakes, and most
4995:Global warming potential
4802:International agreements
4449:Preserving and enhancing
3893:Arctic methane emissions
3815:Years in climate change
3722:Greenhouse gas emissions
3619:Causes of climate change
3421:10.5194/acp-13-5227-2013
1004:"Earth's climate system"
915:Climate change feedbacks
627:External climate forcing
393:thermohaline circulation
359:Earth's Energy Imbalance
245:is solid. This includes
5026:Climate change scenario
4678:Disaster risk reduction
4330:Carbon emission trading
4140:U.S. insurance industry
4120:Civilizational collapse
3967:sea surface temperature
3265:10.1126/science.aat1723
3036:Möller, Detlev (2010).
2452:Goosse, Hugues (2015).
2373:. Chelsea House books.
1211:Haug & Keigwin 2004
893:Responses and feedbacks
571:sea surface temperature
5019:Research and modelling
4703:Nature-based solutions
4523:Nature-based solutions
4465:Carbon dioxide removal
4382:Fossil fuel divestment
4367:Climate risk insurance
4277:Small island countries
3898:Arctic sea ice decline
3133:Climate Change Science
2814:10.5194/acp-5-715-2005
2520:. EOLSS Publications.
2369:Desonie, Dana (2008).
1817:, pp. xvii–xviii.
1406:Brengtsson et al. 2014
910:
834:
574:
443:
340:
46:
4980:Earth's energy budget
4863:Background and theory
4751:Climate crisis (term)
4423:Fossil fuel phase-out
4317:Economics and finance
4282:by individual country
4224:By country and region
4199:Security and conflict
4194:Psychological impacts
3883:Abrupt climate change
3806:Charles David Keeling
3639:By country and region
3369:Smil, Vaclav (2003).
2595:Reviews of Geophysics
2396:Nature Climate Change
1592:Mauritsen et al. 2013
900:
809:
623:to greenhouse gases.
568:
537:global climate change
441:
355:Earth's energy budget
334:
290:modelling the climate
24:
4809:Glasgow Climate Pact
4470:Carbon sequestration
4045:Mass mortality event
3562:at Wikimedia Commons
3310:10.1029/2010JD014287
3222:Roy, Idrani (2018).
2757:Applied Geochemistry
2616:10.1029/2011RG000365
2416:10.1038/nclimate2106
2222:10.1002/2014GL060625
2129:10.1029/2006JB004307
1671:Delworth et al. 2016
1511:, pp. 129, 197.
703:interglacial periods
555:Internal variability
351:black-body radiation
339:around its own axis.
120:internal variability
4948:Climate sensitivity
4723:The Adaptation Fund
4179:Infectious diseases
4086:Social and economic
3523:1991Natur.351...42W
3412:2013ACP....13.5227T
3302:2010JGRD..11520106S
3257:2018Sci...360..148S
3205:2014ERL.....9c4016P
3172:2012NatGe...5..808O
3094:2018NatSR...818047N
3011:2004QJRMS.130.2361M
2972:2013JCli...26.7298M
2890:2013ClDy...41.2539M
2884:(9–10): 2539–2554.
2839:2014JCli...27.7394M
2805:2005ACP.....5..715L
2769:2011ApGC...26S.292L
2701:2013GeoRL..40.4036J
2646:2013Sci...339..382K
2607:2012RvGeo..50.1001H
2551:1976Tell...28..473H
2489:1997JGR...10210727G
2408:2014NatCC...4..222E
2352:2016NatGe...9..509D
2312:2019NatGe..12...94C
2265:2015NatSR...5E9957B
2214:2014GeoRL..41.5175B
2120:2006JGRB..111.9207A
1865:Schmidt et al. 2010
1755:Wallace et al. 2013
1719:England et al. 2014
1499:, pp. 128–129.
1456:, pp. 123–125.
1336:, pp. 124–125.
1189:, pp. 135–137.
958:Annex III: Glossary
725:emissions by humans
695:Milankovitch cycles
306:Carbon assimilation
267:Southern Hemisphere
263:Northern Hemisphere
4519:(LULUCF and AFOLU)
4491:Forest management
4475:Direct air capture
4440:Sustainable energy
4397:Net zero emissions
4392:Low-carbon economy
4387:Green Climate Fund
4174:Indigenous peoples
4077:Plant biodiversity
3865:Effects and issues
3435:Scientific Reports
3082:Scientific Reports
2960:Journal of Climate
2827:Journal of Climate
2683:(16 August 2013).
2253:Scientific Reports
1803:Turner et al. 2016
1647:Chiodo et al. 2019
1551:www.science.org.au
1480:"The Carbon Cycle"
1466:Aiuppa et al. 2006
1008:World Ocean Review
911:
907:negative feedbacks
903:positive feedbacks
870:drying up of lakes
839:volcanic eruptions
835:
575:
444:
434:Biochemical cycles
407:Hydrological cycle
341:
214:ocean heat content
199:hydrological cycle
148:feedback processes
105:biochemical cycles
47:
5137:
5136:
5075:
5074:
5071:
5070:
5010:Radiative forcing
4853:
4852:
4849:
4848:
4673:Adaptive capacity
4558:
4557:
4554:
4553:
4418:Energy transition
4294:
4293:
4290:
4289:
4014:Tropical cyclones
3940:Urban heat island
3854:
3853:
3766:
3765:
3762:
3761:
3727:Carbon accounting
3681:Greenhouse effect
3647:
3646:
3558:Media related to
3447:10.1038/srep23961
3406:(10): 5227–5241.
3338:978-3-642-76957-3
3251:(6385): 148–150.
3233:978-3-319-77106-9
3160:Nature Geoscience
3150:978-0-309-07574-9
3047:978-3-11-019791-4
2966:(18): 7298–7310.
2925:(9513): 859–869.
2833:(19): 7394–7409.
2710:10.1002/grl.50754
2695:(15): 4036–4041.
2681:Torn, Margaret S.
2527:978-1-84826-738-1
2497:10.1029/96JD03265
2465:978-1-107-08389-9
2444:978-3-662-48957-4
2340:Nature Geoscience
2300:Nature Geoscience
2273:10.1038/srep09957
2208:(14): 5175–5183.
2190:978-1-107-66837-9
2169:978-94-017-8788-8
2148:978-1-107-03725-0
2087:, pp. 16–17.
2075:, pp. 10–12.
2027:Technical Summary
1892:Myhre et al. 2013
1731:Brown et al. 2014
1707:Meehl et al. 2013
1683:Brown et al. 2015
1610:Earth Observatory
1484:Earth Observatory
1383:"The water cycle"
1324:, pp. 95–97.
1288:, pp. 15–23.
1201:, pp. 18–19.
1045:, pp. 14–15.
975:"Climate systems"
747:greenhouse effect
715:Greenhouse effect
653:Incoming sunlight
647:radiative forcing
541:climate feedbacks
482:sedimentary rocks
389:ocean circulation
337:rotation of Earth
124:external forcings
77:(living things).
5162:
5125:
5124:
5113:
5112:
5101:
5100:
5090:
5089:
5088:
5053:Paleoclimatology
4870:
4869:
4859:
4858:
4620:Ecological grief
4603:Climate movement
4578:
4577:
4564:
4563:
4544:Plant-based diet
4435:Renewable energy
4313:
4312:
4300:
4299:
4135:Economic impacts
4067:Invasive species
3923:Coastal flooding
3873:
3872:
3860:
3859:
3796:Svante Arrhenius
3772:
3771:
3742:from agriculture
3732:Carbon footprint
3717:Greenhouse gases
3666:
3665:
3653:
3652:
3605:
3604:
3590:
3583:
3576:
3567:
3566:
3557:
3542:
3531:10.1038/351042a0
3503:
3468:
3458:
3425:
3423:
3388:
3376:
3363:
3342:
3321:
3284:
3237:
3218:
3216:
3183:
3180:10.1038/ngeo1589
3154:
3123:
3113:
3070:
3063:Nature Education
3051:
3030:
3019:10.1256/qj.03.60
3005:(602): 2361–76.
2993:
2983:
2950:
2913:
2911:
2901:
2878:Climate Dynamics
2868:
2858:
2818:
2816:
2790:
2780:
2751:
2734:(2–4): 195–203.
2722:
2712:
2673:
2628:
2618:
2583:
2562:
2531:
2510:
2508:
2483:(D9): 10727–38.
2469:
2448:
2419:
2392:Timmermann, Axel
2384:
2363:
2360:10.1038/ngeo2738
2331:
2294:
2284:
2243:
2233:
2194:
2173:
2152:
2133:
2131:
2088:
2082:
2076:
2070:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2053:
2042:
2036:
2022:
2016:
2015:
2000:
1994:
1988:
1982:
1976:
1970:
1964:
1958:
1952:
1946:
1940:
1931:
1925:
1919:
1913:
1907:
1901:
1895:
1889:
1880:
1874:
1868:
1862:
1856:
1850:
1844:
1843:
1841:
1839:
1824:
1818:
1812:
1806:
1800:
1794:
1788:
1782:
1776:
1770:
1764:
1758:
1752:
1746:
1740:
1734:
1728:
1722:
1716:
1710:
1704:
1698:
1692:
1686:
1680:
1674:
1668:
1662:
1656:
1650:
1644:
1638:
1637:
1635:
1634:
1620:
1614:
1613:
1601:
1595:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1580:
1579:
1573:"Climate Change"
1568:
1562:
1561:
1559:
1558:
1542:
1536:
1533:Nath et al. 2018
1530:
1524:
1518:
1512:
1506:
1500:
1494:
1488:
1487:
1475:
1469:
1463:
1457:
1451:
1445:
1444:, section 2.3.1.
1439:
1433:
1432:, section 2.2.1.
1427:
1421:
1415:
1409:
1403:
1397:
1396:
1394:
1393:
1379:
1373:
1367:
1361:
1355:
1349:
1343:
1337:
1331:
1325:
1319:
1313:
1307:
1301:
1295:
1289:
1283:
1277:
1271:
1265:
1259:
1253:
1247:
1241:
1235:
1229:
1223:
1214:
1208:
1202:
1196:
1190:
1184:
1178:
1172:
1166:
1160:
1154:
1148:
1142:
1136:
1130:
1124:
1118:
1117:
1115:
1114:
1103:
1097:
1091:
1085:
1079:
1070:
1064:
1058:
1052:
1046:
1040:
1034:
1033:, section 1.2.1.
1024:
1018:
1017:
1015:
1014:
1000:
994:
993:
991:
990:
971:
965:
954:
866:rising sea level
743:
709:Greenhouse gases
640:external forcing
617:thermal inertia.
529:external forcing
413:evapotranspirate
374:angular momentum
265:compared to the
184:greenhouse gases
132:greenhouse gases
93:tropical regions
5170:
5169:
5165:
5164:
5163:
5161:
5160:
5159:
5140:
5139:
5138:
5133:
5086:
5084:
5067:
5014:
5005:Orbital forcing
4899:
4864:
4845:
4819:Paris Agreement
4797:
4793:Warming stripes
4732:
4698:Managed retreat
4693:Loss and damage
4654:
4588:Business action
4572:
4550:
4527:
4450:
4444:
4401:
4362:Climate finance
4307:
4286:
4218:
4081:
4057:Extinction risk
4033:Flora and fauna
4028:
3989:Permafrost thaw
3984:Ozone depletion
3913:Extreme weather
3867:
3850:
3777:
3758:
3695:
3660:
3643:
3610:
3599:
3594:
3550:
3545:
3517:(6321): 42–44.
3492:
3385:
3360:
3339:
3296:(D20): D20106.
3234:
3166:(11): 808–812.
3151:
3048:
2788:
2528:
2466:
2445:
2381:
2191:
2170:
2149:
2097:
2092:
2091:
2083:
2079:
2071:
2067:
2058:
2051:
2043:
2039:
2023:
2019:
2002:
2001:
1997:
1989:
1985:
1977:
1973:
1965:
1961:
1953:
1949:
1941:
1934:
1926:
1922:
1914:
1910:
1902:
1898:
1890:
1883:
1875:
1871:
1863:
1859:
1851:
1847:
1837:
1835:
1826:
1825:
1821:
1813:
1809:
1801:
1797:
1789:
1785:
1781:, p. xvii.
1777:
1773:
1765:
1761:
1753:
1749:
1741:
1737:
1729:
1725:
1717:
1713:
1705:
1701:
1695:Hasselmann 1976
1693:
1689:
1681:
1677:
1669:
1665:
1657:
1653:
1645:
1641:
1632:
1630:
1622:
1621:
1617:
1602:
1598:
1590:
1586:
1577:
1575:
1569:
1565:
1556:
1554:
1543:
1539:
1531:
1527:
1519:
1515:
1507:
1503:
1495:
1491:
1476:
1472:
1464:
1460:
1452:
1448:
1440:
1436:
1428:
1424:
1416:
1412:
1404:
1400:
1391:
1389:
1381:
1380:
1376:
1368:
1364:
1356:
1352:
1344:
1340:
1332:
1328:
1320:
1316:
1308:
1304:
1296:
1292:
1284:
1280:
1272:
1268:
1260:
1256:
1248:
1244:
1236:
1232:
1224:
1217:
1209:
1205:
1197:
1193:
1185:
1181:
1173:
1169:
1161:
1157:
1149:
1145:
1137:
1133:
1125:
1121:
1112:
1110:
1105:
1104:
1100:
1092:
1088:
1080:
1073:
1067:Kundzewicz 2008
1065:
1061:
1053:
1049:
1041:
1037:
1025:
1021:
1012:
1010:
1002:
1001:
997:
988:
986:
973:
972:
968:
955:
942:
937:
917:
895:
874:outburst floods
862:
850:
823:El Chichón
777:
763:
758:
741:
737:
730:
717:
711:
655:
635:
629:
563:
557:
533:climate changes
521:
515:
498:fixing nitrogen
469:
465:
453:
436:
409:
346:
329:
156:
113:nitrogen cycles
97:Solar radiation
17:
12:
11:
5:
5168:
5158:
5157:
5152:
5150:Earth sciences
5135:
5134:
5132:
5131:
5119:
5107:
5095:
5080:
5077:
5076:
5073:
5072:
5069:
5068:
5066:
5065:
5060:
5055:
5050:
5049:
5048:
5038:
5033:
5028:
5022:
5020:
5016:
5015:
5013:
5012:
5007:
5002:
4997:
4992:
4987:
4982:
4977:
4972:
4971:
4970:
4960:
4958:Cloud feedback
4955:
4950:
4945:
4940:
4939:
4938:
4933:
4928:
4923:
4913:
4907:
4905:
4901:
4900:
4898:
4897:
4892:
4887:
4882:
4876:
4874:
4866:
4865:
4855:
4854:
4851:
4850:
4847:
4846:
4844:
4843:
4838:
4833:
4832:
4831:
4826:
4816:
4814:Kyoto Protocol
4811:
4805:
4803:
4799:
4798:
4796:
4795:
4790:
4789:
4788:
4783:
4778:
4768:
4766:Media coverage
4763:
4758:
4756:Climate spiral
4753:
4748:
4742:
4740:
4734:
4733:
4731:
4730:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4690:
4685:
4680:
4675:
4670:
4664:
4662:
4656:
4655:
4653:
4652:
4647:
4645:Public opinion
4642:
4637:
4632:
4627:
4622:
4617:
4612:
4611:
4610:
4600:
4595:
4593:Climate action
4590:
4584:
4582:
4574:
4573:
4560:
4559:
4556:
4555:
4552:
4551:
4549:
4548:
4547:
4546:
4535:
4533:
4529:
4528:
4526:
4525:
4520:
4514:
4513:
4512:
4507:
4505:REDD and REDD+
4502:
4497:
4489:
4484:
4482:Carbon farming
4479:
4478:
4477:
4472:
4462:
4456:
4454:
4446:
4445:
4443:
4442:
4437:
4432:
4427:
4426:
4425:
4415:
4409:
4407:
4403:
4402:
4400:
4399:
4394:
4389:
4384:
4379:
4374:
4369:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4349:
4344:
4343:
4342:
4332:
4327:
4321:
4319:
4309:
4308:
4296:
4295:
4292:
4291:
4288:
4287:
4285:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4244:
4239:
4234:
4228:
4226:
4220:
4219:
4217:
4216:
4214:Water security
4211:
4209:Water scarcity
4206:
4204:Urban flooding
4201:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4166:
4165:
4164:
4154:
4149:
4144:
4143:
4142:
4132:
4127:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4106:
4105:
4100:
4089:
4087:
4083:
4082:
4080:
4079:
4074:
4069:
4064:
4062:Forest dieback
4059:
4054:
4049:
4048:
4047:
4036:
4034:
4030:
4029:
4027:
4026:
4021:
4016:
4011:
4006:
4001:
3999:Sea level rise
3996:
3991:
3986:
3981:
3980:
3979:
3974:
3972:stratification
3969:
3964:
3959:
3954:
3944:
3943:
3942:
3937:
3927:
3926:
3925:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3879:
3877:
3869:
3868:
3856:
3855:
3852:
3851:
3849:
3848:
3847:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3813:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3782:
3779:
3778:
3768:
3767:
3764:
3763:
3760:
3759:
3757:
3756:
3751:
3750:
3749:
3744:
3739:
3737:Carbon leakage
3734:
3729:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3703:
3701:
3697:
3696:
3694:
3693:
3688:
3678:
3676:Climate system
3672:
3670:
3662:
3661:
3649:
3648:
3645:
3644:
3642:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3615:
3612:
3611:
3601:
3600:
3597:Climate change
3593:
3592:
3585:
3578:
3570:
3564:
3563:
3560:Climate system
3549:
3548:External links
3546:
3544:
3543:
3505:
3504:
3490:
3469:
3426:
3390:
3389:
3384:978-0262692984
3383:
3365:
3364:
3358:
3344:
3343:
3337:
3323:
3322:
3285:
3239:
3238:
3232:
3219:
3184:
3155:
3149:
3141:10.17226/10139
3124:
3072:
3071:
3053:
3052:
3046:
3040:. de Gruyter.
3032:
3031:
2994:
2951:
2914:
2869:
2820:
2819:
2799:(3): 715–737.
2781:
2752:
2723:
2675:
2674:
2629:
2585:
2584:
2563:
2545:(6): 473–485.
2533:
2532:
2526:
2512:
2511:
2471:
2470:
2464:
2449:
2443:
2421:
2420:
2402:(3): 222–227.
2386:
2385:
2379:
2365:
2364:
2346:(7): 509–512.
2333:
2332:
2295:
2244:
2196:
2195:
2189:
2175:
2174:
2168:
2154:
2153:
2147:
2134:
2114:(B9): B09207.
2098:
2096:
2093:
2090:
2089:
2077:
2065:
2037:
2017:
2010:. NASA. 2016.
1995:
1983:
1971:
1959:
1947:
1932:
1920:
1908:
1896:
1881:
1869:
1857:
1845:
1819:
1807:
1795:
1783:
1771:
1759:
1747:
1735:
1723:
1711:
1699:
1687:
1675:
1663:
1651:
1639:
1615:
1596:
1584:
1563:
1537:
1525:
1513:
1501:
1489:
1470:
1458:
1446:
1434:
1422:
1410:
1398:
1374:
1362:
1350:
1338:
1326:
1314:
1302:
1300:, p. 131.
1290:
1278:
1276:, p. 101.
1266:
1264:, p. 133.
1254:
1242:
1230:
1215:
1203:
1191:
1179:
1167:
1155:
1143:
1131:
1119:
1098:
1086:
1071:
1059:
1047:
1035:
1029:, p. 22;
1019:
995:
966:
939:
938:
936:
933:
913:Main article:
905:) or inhibit (
894:
891:
861:
858:
848:
776:
773:
761:
756:
739:
728:
713:Main article:
710:
707:
654:
651:
628:
625:
556:
553:
549:sea level rise
545:albedo changes
519:Climate change
517:Main article:
514:
511:
489:nitrogen cycle
467:
463:
460:photosynthesis
451:
435:
432:
408:
405:
345:
342:
328:
325:
319:anthroposphere
222:Brackish water
180:carbon dioxide
155:
152:
140:climate change
89:ocean currents
55:complex system
51:climate system
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5167:
5156:
5153:
5151:
5148:
5147:
5145:
5130:
5129:
5120:
5118:
5117:
5108:
5106:
5105:
5096:
5094:
5093:
5082:
5081:
5078:
5064:
5061:
5059:
5056:
5054:
5051:
5047:
5044:
5043:
5042:
5039:
5037:
5034:
5032:
5031:Climate model
5029:
5027:
5024:
5023:
5021:
5017:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4973:
4969:
4966:
4965:
4964:
4963:Cloud forcing
4961:
4959:
4956:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4937:
4934:
4932:
4929:
4927:
4924:
4922:
4919:
4918:
4917:
4914:
4912:
4909:
4908:
4906:
4902:
4896:
4893:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4881:
4878:
4877:
4875:
4871:
4867:
4860:
4856:
4842:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4830:
4827:
4825:
4822:
4821:
4820:
4817:
4815:
4812:
4810:
4807:
4806:
4804:
4800:
4794:
4791:
4787:
4784:
4782:
4779:
4777:
4774:
4773:
4772:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4762:
4759:
4757:
4754:
4752:
4749:
4747:
4744:
4743:
4741:
4739:
4738:Communication
4735:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4719:
4718:Vulnerability
4716:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4688:Flood control
4686:
4684:
4681:
4679:
4676:
4674:
4671:
4669:
4666:
4665:
4663:
4661:
4657:
4651:
4648:
4646:
4643:
4641:
4638:
4636:
4633:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4618:
4616:
4613:
4609:
4606:
4605:
4604:
4601:
4599:
4596:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4585:
4583:
4579:
4575:
4571:
4565:
4561:
4545:
4542:
4541:
4540:
4537:
4536:
4534:
4530:
4524:
4521:
4518:
4515:
4511:
4510:reforestation
4508:
4506:
4503:
4501:
4498:
4496:
4495:afforestation
4493:
4492:
4490:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4480:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4467:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4457:
4455:
4453:
4447:
4441:
4438:
4436:
4433:
4431:
4430:Nuclear power
4428:
4424:
4421:
4420:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4410:
4408:
4404:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4341:
4338:
4337:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4325:Carbon budget
4323:
4322:
4320:
4318:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4301:
4297:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4230:
4229:
4227:
4225:
4221:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4163:
4162:Mental health
4160:
4159:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4141:
4138:
4137:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4104:
4103:United States
4101:
4099:
4096:
4095:
4094:
4091:
4090:
4088:
4084:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4068:
4065:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4050:
4046:
4043:
4042:
4041:
4038:
4037:
4035:
4031:
4025:
4022:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
4000:
3997:
3995:
3992:
3990:
3987:
3985:
3982:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3957:deoxygenation
3955:
3953:
3952:acidification
3950:
3949:
3948:
3945:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3932:
3931:
3928:
3924:
3921:
3920:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3880:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3866:
3861:
3857:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3816:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3783:
3780:
3773:
3769:
3755:
3752:
3748:
3747:from wetlands
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3724:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3707:Deforestation
3705:
3704:
3702:
3698:
3692:
3689:
3686:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3673:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3654:
3650:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3616:
3613:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3591:
3586:
3584:
3579:
3577:
3572:
3571:
3568:
3561:
3556:
3552:
3551:
3540:
3536:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3507:
3506:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3491:9789814579926
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3392:
3391:
3386:
3380:
3377:. MIT Press.
3375:
3374:
3367:
3366:
3361:
3359:0-7167-3741-8
3355:
3351:
3346:
3345:
3340:
3334:
3330:
3325:
3324:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3241:
3240:
3235:
3229:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3199:(3): 034016.
3198:
3194:
3190:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3156:
3152:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3135:. p. 8.
3134:
3130:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3074:
3073:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3055:
3054:
3049:
3043:
3039:
3034:
3033:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2822:
2821:
2815:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2787:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2763:: S292–S294.
2762:
2758:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2677:
2676:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2640:(6118): 382.
2639:
2635:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2601:(1): RG1001.
2600:
2596:
2592:
2587:
2586:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2535:
2534:
2529:
2523:
2519:
2514:
2513:
2507:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2473:
2472:
2467:
2461:
2457:
2456:
2450:
2446:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2423:
2422:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2388:
2387:
2382:
2380:9780816062157
2376:
2372:
2367:
2366:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2335:
2334:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2198:
2197:
2192:
2186:
2182:
2177:
2176:
2171:
2165:
2161:
2156:
2155:
2150:
2144:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2100:
2099:
2086:
2085:Ruddiman 2001
2081:
2074:
2073:Ruddiman 2001
2069:
2057:
2050:
2049:
2041:
2034:
2030:
2028:
2021:
2013:
2009:
2005:
1999:
1992:
1987:
1980:
1975:
1968:
1963:
1956:
1951:
1944:
1939:
1937:
1929:
1924:
1917:
1912:
1905:
1900:
1893:
1888:
1886:
1878:
1873:
1866:
1861:
1854:
1849:
1834:on 2011-07-16
1833:
1829:
1823:
1816:
1811:
1804:
1799:
1792:
1787:
1780:
1775:
1769:, p. 23.
1768:
1763:
1756:
1751:
1744:
1739:
1732:
1727:
1720:
1715:
1708:
1703:
1696:
1691:
1684:
1679:
1672:
1667:
1660:
1655:
1648:
1643:
1629:
1625:
1619:
1611:
1607:
1600:
1593:
1588:
1574:
1567:
1552:
1548:
1541:
1534:
1529:
1522:
1517:
1510:
1505:
1498:
1493:
1485:
1481:
1474:
1467:
1462:
1455:
1450:
1443:
1438:
1431:
1426:
1419:
1414:
1407:
1402:
1388:
1384:
1378:
1372:, p. 13.
1371:
1366:
1360:, p. 12.
1359:
1354:
1348:, p. 18.
1347:
1342:
1335:
1330:
1323:
1318:
1312:, p. 95.
1311:
1306:
1299:
1294:
1287:
1282:
1275:
1270:
1263:
1258:
1252:, p. 28.
1251:
1246:
1240:, p. 26.
1239:
1234:
1228:, p. 19.
1227:
1222:
1220:
1212:
1207:
1200:
1195:
1188:
1183:
1176:
1171:
1165:, p. 25.
1164:
1159:
1153:, p. 22.
1152:
1147:
1141:, p. 20.
1140:
1135:
1128:
1123:
1108:
1102:
1096:, p. 17.
1095:
1090:
1084:, p. 11.
1083:
1078:
1076:
1068:
1063:
1057:, p. 16.
1056:
1051:
1044:
1039:
1032:
1028:
1023:
1009:
1005:
999:
984:
980:
976:
970:
963:
959:
953:
951:
949:
947:
945:
940:
932:
930:
926:
921:
916:
908:
904:
899:
890:
888:
883:
879:
878:deforestation
875:
871:
867:
857:
855:
851:
844:
840:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
813:
808:
804:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
772:
770:
765:
759:
752:
748:
744:
734:
726:
722:
716:
706:
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
685:, changes in
684:
680:
674:
672:
668:
664:
660:
650:
648:
643:
641:
634:
624:
622:
618:
614:
609:
607:
603:
599:
594:
592:
588:
584:
580:
572:
567:
562:
552:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
520:
510:
508:
504:
500:
499:
494:
490:
485:
483:
479:
478:
473:
461:
457:
449:
440:
431:
429:
428:
422:
418:
415:and sunlight
414:
404:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
381:
379:
375:
371:
367:
362:
360:
356:
352:
338:
333:
324:
322:
320:
315:
311:
310:phytoplankton
307:
302:
298:
293:
291:
286:
284:
283:Earth's crust
278:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
239:
233:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
206:
204:
203:precipitation
200:
195:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
151:
149:
145:
141:
138:, is causing
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
116:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
81:
76:
72:
68:
65:(water), the
64:
60:
56:
52:
44:
40:
36:
32:
28:
23:
19:
5126:
5114:
5102:
5083:
4916:Carbon cycle
4873:Measurements
4568:Society and
4452:carbon sinks
4357:Climate debt
4347:Carbon price
4169:Human rights
4004:Season creep
3962:heat content
3888:Anoxic event
3801:James Hansen
3675:
3514:
3510:
3473:
3441:(1): 23961.
3438:
3434:
3403:
3399:
3372:
3349:
3328:
3293:
3289:
3248:
3244:
3226:. Springer.
3223:
3196:
3192:
3163:
3159:
3132:
3088:(1): 18047.
3085:
3081:
3066:
3062:
3037:
3002:
2998:
2963:
2959:
2922:
2918:
2881:
2877:
2830:
2826:
2796:
2792:
2760:
2756:
2731:
2727:
2692:
2688:
2637:
2633:
2598:
2594:
2575:
2571:
2542:
2538:
2517:
2480:
2476:
2454:
2426:
2399:
2395:
2370:
2343:
2339:
2306:(2): 94–99.
2303:
2299:
2256:
2252:
2205:
2201:
2180:
2159:
2138:
2111:
2107:
2080:
2068:
2047:
2040:
2025:
2024:Fig. TS.17,
2020:
2007:
1998:
1986:
1974:
1962:
1950:
1923:
1911:
1899:
1872:
1860:
1848:
1836:. Retrieved
1832:the original
1822:
1810:
1798:
1786:
1774:
1762:
1750:
1738:
1726:
1714:
1702:
1690:
1678:
1666:
1654:
1642:
1631:. Retrieved
1627:
1618:
1609:
1599:
1587:
1576:. Retrieved
1566:
1555:. Retrieved
1550:
1540:
1528:
1523:, p. 8.
1516:
1504:
1492:
1483:
1473:
1461:
1449:
1437:
1425:
1420:, p. 5.
1418:Peixoto 1993
1413:
1408:, p. 6.
1401:
1390:. Retrieved
1386:
1377:
1365:
1353:
1341:
1329:
1317:
1305:
1293:
1281:
1269:
1257:
1245:
1233:
1206:
1194:
1182:
1170:
1158:
1146:
1134:
1129:, p. 4.
1127:Desonie 2008
1122:
1111:. Retrieved
1101:
1089:
1062:
1050:
1038:
1022:
1011:. Retrieved
1007:
998:
987:. Retrieved
978:
969:
956:IPCC, 2013:
922:
918:
887:black carbon
882:reflectivity
863:
854:stratosphere
836:
831:El Niño
793:mineral dust
780:
778:
766:
718:
683:eccentricity
675:
671:stratosphere
656:
644:
639:
636:
610:
595:
576:
532:
528:
524:
522:
503:fossil fuels
497:
486:
475:
448:carbon cycle
445:
425:
410:
382:
363:
347:
317:
296:
295:Lastly, the
294:
281:
279:
236:
234:
224:is found in
209:
207:
196:
176:water vapour
159:
157:
136:fossil fuels
117:
78:
50:
48:
18:
4943:Carbon sink
4921:atmospheric
4786:video games
4460:Blue carbon
4093:Agriculture
4072:Marine life
4019:Water cycle
3977:temperature
3712:Fossil fuel
2259:(1): 9957.
1916:Samset 2018
1509:Möller 2010
1497:Möller 2010
1454:Möller 2010
1442:Goosse 2015
1430:Goosse 2015
1370:Goosse 2015
1358:Goosse 2015
1346:Goosse 2015
1250:Goosse 2015
1238:Goosse 2015
1163:Goosse 2015
1151:Goosse 2015
1139:Goosse 2015
1082:Goosse 2015
1031:Goosse 2015
753:(~25%) and
667:solar cycle
507:fertilizers
427:latent heat
210:hydrosphere
101:water cycle
71:lithosphere
63:hydrosphere
61:(air), the
39:lithosphere
31:hydrosphere
5144:Categories
4975:Cryosphere
4936:permafrost
4708:Resilience
4660:Adaptation
4635:Litigation
4625:Governance
4570:adaptation
4352:Carbon tax
4305:Mitigation
4242:Antarctica
4130:Disability
2919:The Lancet
2231:10161/9167
1633:2019-10-03
1628:Met Office
1578:2019-10-20
1557:2019-10-20
1392:2019-10-14
1387:Met Office
1334:Gruza 2009
1175:Houze 2012
1113:2022-02-12
1013:2019-10-13
989:2019-05-06
935:References
797:meteorites
769:weathering
691:precession
631:See also:
613:atmosphere
604:, and the
559:See also:
477:weathering
417:evaporates
366:atmosphere
301:Vegetation
275:Antarctica
259:snow cover
255:permafrost
251:ice sheets
238:cryosphere
230:freshwater
170:(21%) and
160:atmosphere
154:Components
67:cryosphere
59:atmosphere
35:cryosphere
27:atmosphere
4990:Feedbacks
4761:Education
4262:Caribbean
4257:Australia
4184:Migration
4147:Fisheries
4098:Livestock
4024:Wildfires
3930:Heat wave
2865:128676242
2719:128670263
2662:0036-8075
2328:133676608
1991:Kerr 2013
1262:Smil 2003
852:into the
801:volcanoes
789:sea spray
679:kinematic
401:upwelling
314:biosphere
297:biosphere
271:Greenland
226:estuaries
75:biosphere
43:biosphere
5116:Glossary
5104:Category
4926:biologic
4640:Politics
4532:Personal
4237:Americas
4110:Children
3876:Physical
3669:Overview
3609:Overview
3465:27045989
3318:28195537
3273:29650656
3120:30575779
3027:53005926
2990:16183172
2947:11220212
2939:16530580
2748:15552176
2670:23349261
2625:46645620
2291:25898351
2240:16933795
2162:. ISSI.
2056:Archived
2033:Archived
2012:Archived
2008:nasa.gov
1815:Roy 2018
1779:Roy 2018
983:Archived
827:Pinatubo
819:aerosols
781:aerosols
775:Aerosols
721:longwave
493:nitrogen
378:Monsoons
218:seawater
192:infrared
164:nitrogen
144:aerosols
107:are the
49:Earth's
41:and the
4931:oceanic
4781:fiction
4630:Justice
4581:Society
4189:Poverty
3908:Drought
3776:History
3700:Sources
3539:4273483
3519:Bibcode
3500:8821489
3456:4820721
3408:Bibcode
3298:Bibcode
3281:4888863
3253:Bibcode
3245:Science
3201:Bibcode
3168:Bibcode
3111:6303293
3090:Bibcode
3007:Bibcode
2968:Bibcode
2886:Bibcode
2835:Bibcode
2801:Bibcode
2765:Bibcode
2697:Bibcode
2642:Bibcode
2634:Science
2603:Bibcode
2572:Oceanus
2547:Bibcode
2485:Bibcode
2404:Bibcode
2348:Bibcode
2308:Bibcode
2282:4404682
2261:Bibcode
2210:Bibcode
2116:Bibcode
2095:Sources
1838:2 April
1612:. NASA.
1486:. NASA.
733:methane
699:glacial
591:Eurasia
587:Iceland
456:methane
385:density
247:sea ice
166:(78%),
85:weather
80:Climate
4911:Albedo
4904:Theory
4615:Denial
4406:Energy
4267:Europe
4247:Arctic
4232:Africa
4157:Health
4152:Gender
4115:Cities
4040:Biomes
3947:Oceans
3935:Marine
3658:Causes
3537:
3511:Nature
3498:
3488:
3463:
3453:
3381:
3356:
3335:
3316:
3279:
3271:
3230:
3147:
3118:
3108:
3044:
3025:
2988:
2945:
2937:
2863:
2746:
2717:
2668:
2660:
2623:
2539:Tellus
2524:
2462:
2441:
2377:
2326:
2289:
2279:
2238:
2187:
2166:
2145:
1109:. NASA
960:. In:
929:albedo
751:clouds
689:, and
663:varies
600:, the
583:Azores
543:(e.g.
472:acidic
391:. The
370:oceans
168:oxygen
109:carbon
37:, the
33:, the
29:, the
5128:Index
4890:Proxy
4650:Women
4125:Crime
4052:Birds
3918:Flood
3535:S2CID
3496:S2CID
3314:S2CID
3277:S2CID
3023:S2CID
2986:S2CID
2943:S2CID
2861:S2CID
2789:(PDF)
2744:S2CID
2715:S2CID
2621:S2CID
2578:(2).
2324:S2CID
2236:S2CID
2059:(PDF)
2052:(PDF)
876:) or
243:water
172:argon
53:is a
4713:Risk
4252:Asia
3844:2024
3839:2023
3834:2022
3829:2021
3824:2020
3819:2019
3486:ISBN
3461:PMID
3379:ISBN
3354:ISBN
3333:ISBN
3269:PMID
3228:ISBN
3145:ISBN
3116:PMID
3042:ISBN
2935:PMID
2666:PMID
2658:ISSN
2522:ISBN
2460:ISBN
2439:ISBN
2375:ISBN
2287:PMID
2185:ISBN
2164:ISBN
2143:ISBN
1840:2009
872:and
843:tons
825:and
815:NASA
799:and
767:The
735:and
701:and
657:The
487:The
454:and
421:salt
368:and
280:The
273:and
257:and
235:The
208:The
197:The
178:and
158:The
122:and
111:and
4776:art
3527:doi
3515:351
3478:doi
3451:PMC
3443:doi
3416:doi
3306:doi
3294:115
3261:doi
3249:360
3209:doi
3176:doi
3137:doi
3106:PMC
3098:doi
3015:doi
3003:130
2976:doi
2927:doi
2923:367
2904:hdl
2894:doi
2851:hdl
2843:doi
2809:doi
2773:doi
2736:doi
2705:doi
2650:doi
2638:339
2611:doi
2555:doi
2501:hdl
2493:doi
2481:102
2431:doi
2412:doi
2356:doi
2316:doi
2277:PMC
2269:doi
2226:hdl
2218:doi
2124:doi
2112:111
845:of
829:).
812:MSU
659:Sun
551:).
188:Sun
115:.
45:.
5146::
3533:.
3525:.
3513:.
3494:.
3484:.
3459:.
3449:.
3437:.
3433:.
3414:.
3404:13
3402:.
3398:.
3312:.
3304:.
3292:.
3275:.
3267:.
3259:.
3247:.
3207:.
3195:.
3191:.
3174:.
3162:.
3143:.
3131:.
3114:.
3104:.
3096:.
3084:.
3080:.
3065:.
3061:.
3021:.
3013:.
3001:.
2984:.
2974:.
2964:26
2962:.
2958:.
2941:.
2933:.
2921:.
2902:.
2892:.
2882:41
2880:.
2876:.
2859:.
2849:.
2841:.
2831:27
2829:.
2807:.
2795:.
2791:.
2771:.
2761:26
2759:.
2742:.
2730:.
2713:.
2703:.
2693:40
2691:.
2687:.
2664:.
2656:.
2648:.
2636:.
2619:.
2609:.
2599:50
2597:.
2593:.
2576:42
2574:.
2570:.
2553:.
2543:28
2541:.
2499:.
2491:.
2479:.
2437:.
2410:.
2398:.
2354:.
2342:.
2322:.
2314:.
2304:12
2302:.
2285:.
2275:.
2267:.
2255:.
2251:.
2234:.
2224:.
2216:.
2206:41
2204:.
2122:.
2110:.
2106:.
2054:.
2006:.
1935:^
1884:^
1626:.
1608:.
1549:.
1482:.
1385:.
1218:^
1074:^
1006:.
981:.
977:.
943:^
868:,
847:SO
795:,
791:,
755:CO
731:,
705:.
649:.
253:,
249:,
3687:)
3683:(
3589:e
3582:t
3575:v
3541:.
3529::
3521::
3502:.
3480::
3467:.
3445::
3439:6
3424:.
3418::
3410::
3387:.
3362:.
3341:.
3320:.
3308::
3300::
3283:.
3263::
3255::
3236:.
3217:.
3211::
3203::
3197:9
3182:.
3178::
3170::
3164:5
3153:.
3139::
3122:.
3100::
3092::
3086:8
3069:.
3067:5
3050:.
3029:.
3017::
3009::
2992:.
2978::
2970::
2949:.
2929::
2912:.
2906::
2896::
2888::
2867:.
2853::
2845::
2837::
2817:.
2811::
2803::
2797:5
2779:.
2775::
2767::
2750:.
2738::
2732:8
2721:.
2707::
2699::
2672:.
2652::
2644::
2627:.
2613::
2605::
2582:.
2561:.
2557::
2549::
2530:.
2509:.
2503::
2495::
2487::
2468:.
2447:.
2433::
2418:.
2414::
2406::
2400:4
2383:.
2362:.
2358::
2350::
2344:9
2330:.
2318::
2310::
2293:.
2271::
2263::
2257:5
2242:.
2228::
2220::
2212::
2193:.
2172:.
2151:.
2132:.
2126::
2118::
2029:,
1993:.
1981:.
1969:.
1957:.
1945:.
1930:.
1918:.
1906:.
1894:.
1879:.
1867:.
1855:.
1842:.
1805:.
1793:.
1757:.
1745:.
1733:.
1721:.
1709:.
1697:.
1685:.
1673:.
1661:.
1649:.
1636:.
1594:.
1581:.
1560:.
1535:.
1468:.
1395:.
1213:.
1177:.
1116:.
1069:.
1016:.
992:.
849:2
762:2
757:2
742:O
740:2
738:N
729:2
468:2
464:2
452:2
321:,
285:,
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
