Haskalah - Knowledge

998:– was united only in the ambition of thoroughly reforming Jewish society. The government had no interest in the visions of renaissance which the Enlightened so fervently cherished. It demanded the Jews to turn into productive, loyal subjects with rudimentary secular education, and no more. The rich Jews were sometimes open to the movement's agenda, but mostly practical, hoping for a betterment of their people that would result in emancipation and equal rights. Indeed, the great cultural transformation which occurred among the 3522: 7375: 5710: 3485:, Berlin became known as a secular, multi-cultural and multi-ethnic center, a fertile environment for conversations and radical movements. This move by the Maskilim away from religious study, into much more critical and worldly studies was made possible by this German city of modern and progressive thought. It was a city in which the rising middle class Jews and intellectual elites not only lived among, but were exposed to previous 7389: 40: 978:, derisively regarded it – in a manner similar to other romantic-nationalist movements' understanding of the general Enlightenment – as a naive, liberal and assimilationist ideology which induced foreign cultural influences, gnawed at the Jewish national consciousness and promised false hopes of equality in exchange for spiritual enslavement. This hostile view was promulgated by nationalist thinkers and historians, from 3694:

Orthodox Jews were actively against these reformers because they viewed changing Jewish tradition as an insult to God and believed that fulfillment in life could be found in serving God and keeping his commandments. The effect of Haskalah was that it gave a voice to plurality of views, while the orthodoxy preserved the tradition, even to the point of insisting on dividing between sects.

4427: 298:, authored tracts in various genres that were further disseminated and re-read among other Maskilim. Each generation, in turn, elaborated and added its own works to the growing body. The emergence of the Maskilic canon reflected the movement's central and defining enterprise, the revival of Hebrew as a literary language for secular purposes (its 641:

rabbinical establishment, which stemmed from its function as interpreters of the holy teachings and their status as the only truly worthy field of study. Though secular subjects could be and were easily tolerated, their elevation to the same level as sacred ones was a severe threat, and indeed mobilized the rabbis against the nascent

3585:'s (1773–1839) satire of the Hasidic movement, "Revealer of Secrets" (Megalleh Temirim), is said to be the first modern novel in Hebrew. It was published in Vienna in 1819 under the pseudonym "Obadiah ben Pethahiah". The Haskalah's message of integration into non-Jewish society was subsequently counteracted by alternative secular 3442:

revealed hitherto unsuspected possibilities of integration and acceptance of Jews among non-Jews. Mendelssohn also provided methods for Jews to enter the general society of Germany. A good knowledge of the German language was necessary to secure entrance into cultured German circles, and an excellent

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undoubtedly played a part, the contemporary historical consensus portrays it as much humbler. Other transformation agents, from state-imposed schools to new economic opportunities, were demonstrated to have rivaled or overshadowed the movement completely in propelling such processes as acculturation,

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viewed the contemporary state of Jews as deplorable and in dire need of rejuvenation, whether in matters of morals, cultural creativity or economic productivity. They argued that such conditions were rightfully scorned by others and untenable from both practical and idealistic perspectives. It was to

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Historian Shmuel Feiner discerned that Wessely insinuated (consciously or not) a direct challenge to the supremacy of sacred teachings, comparing them with general subjects and implying the latter had an intrinsic rather than merely instrumental value. He therefore also contested the authority of the

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were much immersed in the study of sciences and Hebrew grammar, this was not a profoundly new phenomenon, and their creativity was a continuation of a long, centuries-old trend among educated Jews. What truly marked the movement was the challenge it laid to the monopoly of the rabbinic elite over the

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The Maskilim's attitude toward Hebrew, as noted by Moses Pelli, was derived from Enlightenment perceptions of language as reflecting both individual and collective character. To them, a corrupt tongue mirrored the inadequate condition of the Jews which they sought to ameliorate. They turned to Hebrew

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Another important facet of the Haskalah was its interest in non-Jewish religions, and for some the desire to synchronize or appreciate Christian and Islamic traditions and history. Moses Mendelssohn criticized some aspects of Christianity, but depicted Jesus as a Torah-observant rabbi, who was loyal

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in Germany. "Enlightened" Jews sided with gentile governments, in plans to increase secular education and assimilation among the Jewish masses, which brought them into acute conflict with the orthodox, who believed this threatened the traditional Jewish lifestyle – which had up until that point been

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and its formal literary language was Hebrew, with another: a refined Hebrew for internal usage and the local vernacular for external ones. They almost universally abhorred Judaeo-German, regarding it as a corrupt dialect and another symptom of Jewish destitution – the movement pioneered the negative

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generated an upheaval which – though by no means alone – broke the sway held by the rabbis and the traditional values over Jewish society. Combined with many other factors, they laid the path to all modern Jewish movements and philosophies, either those critical, hostile or supportive to themselves.

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The movement advocated against Jewish reclusiveness, encouraged the adoption of prevalent attire over traditional dress, while also working to diminish the authority of traditional community institutions such as rabbinic courts and boards of elders. It pursued a set of projects of cultural and moral

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biographies. The children of these activists almost never followed their parents; they rather went forward in the path of acculturation and assimilation. While their fathers learned the vernaculars late and still consumed much Hebrew literature, the little available material in the language did not

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The spread of Haskalah affected Judaism, as a religion, because of the degree to which different sects desired to be integrated, and in turn, integrate their religious traditions. The effects of the Enlightenment were already present in Jewish religious music, and in opinion on the tension between

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A major factor which always characterized the movement was its weakness and its dependence of much more powerful elements. Its partisans were mostly impoverished intellectuals, who eked out a living as private tutors and the like; few had a stable financial base, and they required patrons, whether

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was predicated on a similar approach. It opposed the reclusive community of the past but sought a maintenance of a strong Jewish framework (with themselves as leaders and intercessors with the state authorities); the Enlightened were not even fully agreeable to civic emancipation, and many of them

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In the linguistic field, this transitory nature was well attested. The traditional Jewish community in Europe inhabited two separate spheres of communication: one internal, where Hebrew served as written high language and Yiddish as vernacular for the masses, and one external, where Latin and the

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was dualistic in nature. The Jewish Enlighteners pursued two parallel agendas: they exhorted the Jews to acculturate and harmonize with the modern state, and demanded that the Jews remain a distinct group with its own culture and identity. Theirs was a middle position between Jewish community and

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sought to introduce a different bilingualism: renovated, refined Hebrew for internal matters, while Yiddish was to be eliminated; and national vernaculars, to be taught to all Jews, for external ones. However, they insisted on the maintenance of both spheres. When acculturation far exceeded the

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received old-style, secluded education, and were young Torah scholars before they were first exposed to outside knowledge (from a gender perspective, the movement was almost totally male-dominated; women did not receive sufficient tutoring to master Hebrew). For generations, Mendelssohn's Bible

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autobiographies. Having imbibed the image of European bourgeoisie family values, many of them sought to challenge the semi-matriarchal order of rabbinic families – which combined a lack of Jewish education for women with granting them the status of providers – early marriage, and rigid modesty.

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were formed, because such groups wanted, and actively advocated for, a change in Jewish tradition, in particular, regarding rituals like circumcision. Another non-Orthodox group was the Conservative Jews, who emphasized the importance of traditions but viewed with a historical perspective. The

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of Central and Eastern Europe with their own philosophy, which embraced the liberal, rationalistic notions of the 18th and 19th centuries and cast them in their own particular mold. This intellectual upheaval was accompanied by the desire to practically change Jewish society. Even the moderate

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was the most influential member of the Jewish community. In addition to being a religious scholar and "clergy", a rabbi also acted as a civil judge in all cases in which both parties were Jews. Rabbis sometimes had other important administrative powers, together with the community elders. The

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In matters of faith (which were being cordoned off into a distinct sphere of "religion" by modernization pressures) the movement's partisans, from moderates to radicals, lacked any uniform coherent agenda. The main standard through which they judged Judaism was that of rationalism. Their most

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mysticism popular in Ukraine, Poland, Hungary and Russia. In the 19th century, Haskalah sought dissemination and transformation of traditional education and inward pious life in Eastern Europe. It adapted its message to these different environments, working with the Russian government of the

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or the Russified intelligentsia in Eastern Europe a century later, were castigated and derided no less than the old rabbinic authorities which the movement confronted. It was not uncommon for its partisans to become a conservative element, combating against further dilution of tradition: in

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were raised in the rabbinic elite, in which (unlike among the poor Jewish masses or the rich communal wardens) the males were immersed in traditional studies and their wives supported them financially, mostly by running business. Many of the Jewish enlightened were traumatized by their own

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to traditional Judaism. Mendelssohn explicitly linked positive Jewish views of Jesus with the issues of Emancipation and Jewish-Christian reconciliation. Similar revisionist views were expressed by Rabbi Isaac Ber Levinsohn and other traditional representatives of the Haskalah movement.

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ideals were converted into practical steps via numerous reform programs initiated locally and independently by its activists, acting in small groups or even alone at every time and area. Members of the movement sought to acquaint their people with European culture, have them adopt the

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as interlocutors and specialists in their efforts for reform, especially as educators, and the latter used this as leverage to benefit their ideology. However, the activists were much more dependent on the former than vice versa; frustration from one's inability to further the

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translation to German was employed by such young initiates to bridge the linguistic gap and learn a foreign language, having been raised on Hebrew and Yiddish only. The experience of abandoning one's sheltered community and struggle with tradition was a ubiquitous trait of

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Likewise, those who abandoned the optimistic, liberal vision of the Jews (albeit as a cohesive community) integrating into wider society in favour of full-blown Jewish nationalism or radical, revolutionary ideologies which strove to uproot the established order like

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One facet of the Haskalah was a widespread cultural adaptation, as those Jews who participated in the enlightenment began, in varying degrees, to participate in the cultural practices of the surrounding gentile population. Connected with this was the birth of the

3772:(1729–1781) was a German philosopher, dramatist, publicist and art critic, and a representative of the Enlightenment era; considered by theatre historians to have been the first dramaturg. Author of works attempting to reconcile the Abrahamic faiths, such as 941:" – those who embraced the Enlightenment values and secular knowledge but did not seek to balance these with their Jewishness, but rather strove for full assimilation. Such elements, whether the radical universalists who broke off the late Berlin 630:

who lacked wisdom was inferior to an animal's carcass. He called upon the Jews to introduce general subjects, like science and vernacular language, into their children's curriculum; this "Teaching of Man" was necessarily linked with the "Teaching

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was also mainly a movement of transformation, straddling both the declining traditional Jewish society of autonomous community and cultural seclusion and the beginnings of a modern Jewish public. As noted by Feiner, everything connected with the

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occurred only much later). The Maskilim researched and standardized grammar, minted countless neologisms and composed poetry, magazines, theatrical works and literature of all sorts in Hebrew. Historians described the movement largely as a

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along with other German-Jewish scholars compiled Hebrew and Aramaic dictionaries and grammars. Jews also began to study and communicate in the languages of the countries in which they settled, providing another gateway for integration.

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Instead, they insisted that men become economically productive while confining their wives to the home environment but also granting them proper religious education, reversing Jewish custom and copying contemporary Christian attitudes.

657:(various contestants before the Enlightened were branded as schismatics and cast out), they very much emulated the manner in which secular intellectuals dethroned and replaced the Church from the same status among Christians. Thus the 729:(Society for the Education of Boys), the first institution in Ashkenazi Jewry that taught general studies in addition to the reformulated and reduced traditional curriculum. This model, with different stresses, was applied elsewhere. 3415:

rabbinate was the highest aim of many Jewish boys, and the study of the Talmud was the means of obtaining that coveted position, or one of many other important communal distinctions. Haskalah followers advocated "coming out of the

714:, empowered to rule on numerous civic matters, and the board of elders, which served as lay leadership. The maskilim perceived those as remnants of medieval discrimination. They criticized various traits of Jewish society, such as 679:

be remedied by the shedding of the base and corrupt elements of Jewish existence and retention of only the true, positive ones; indeed, the question what those were, exactly, loomed as the greatest challenge of Jewish modernity.

3670:) rejected the continuing observance of those aspects of Jewish law which they classified as ritual—as opposed to moral or ethical. Even within orthodoxy, the Haskalah was felt through the appearance, in response, of the 694:

believed, would be able to take their place as equals in an enlightened world. But all, including the moderate and disillusioned, stated that adjustment to the changing world was both unavoidable and positive in itself.

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was the first modern Hebrew grammarian, and beginning with his 1796 manual of the language, he authored books which explored it and were vital reading material for young Maskilim until the end of the 19th century.

355:, who were deemed backward. The movement's literary canon is defined by a grandiloquent, archaic register copying the Biblical one and often combining lengthy allusions or direct quotes from verses in the prose. 3505:. Reference to Berlin in relation to the Haskalah movement is necessary because it provides context for this episode of Jewish history. Subsequently, having left Germany and spreading across Eastern Europe, the 925:(published since 1806) was written almost entirely in German, befitting its editors' agenda of linguistic assimilation. Likewise, upon the demise of Jewish Enlightenment in Eastern Europe, authors abandoned the 849:

had little in common. On the right-wing were conservative members of the rabbinic elite who merely wanted a rationalist approach, and on the extreme left some ventured far beyond the pale of orthodoxy towards

1002:(affluent communal wardens) class – they were always more open to outside society, and had to tutor their children in secular subjects, thus inviting general Enlightenment influences – was a precondition of 3738:(1811–1899) was a Jewish writer, poet, playwright, historian, journalist and educator. He mostly wrote in Hebrew, but also wrote poetry and dramas in Yiddish. His first collection was published in 1835. 493:), (Hidden in Thunder), he abandoned its strict conventions in favour of a mixed, facile and common style. His career marked the end of the Maskilic period in Hebrew literature and the beginning of the 388: 775:, who sought to acquaint their pupils with refined Hebrew so they may understand the Pentateuch and prayers and thus better identify with their heritage; ignorance of Hebrew was often lamented by 710:

in favour of the prevalent one, and preached patriotism and loyalty to the new centralized governments. They acted to weaken and limit the jurisdiction of traditional community institutions – the

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The central platforms of the Maskilic "Republic of Letters" were its great periodicals, each serving as a locus for contributors and readers during the time it was published. The first was the

3800:(1801–1863) was a Russian bibliographer, author, and publisher. His parents moved to Vilnius when he was still a child, and there he received instruction in Hebrew grammar and rabbinical lore. 3589:

advocating Folkish, Socialist or Nationalist secular Jewish identities in Eastern Europe. While Haskalah advocated Hebrew and sought to remove Yiddish, these subsequent developments advocated

497:. The writers of the latter period lambasted their Maskilic predecessors for their didactic and florid style, more or less paralleling the Romantics' criticism of Enlightenment literature. 690:, of a world freed of superstition and backwardness in which all humans will come together under the liberating influence of reason and progress. The reconstituted Jews, these radical 3686: 649:, who openly and vehemently denounced the traditional authorities. The appropriate intellectual and moral leadership needed by the Jewish public in modern times was, according to the 224:, exhorted and implemented communal, educational and cultural reforms in both the public and the private spheres. Owing to its dual policies, it collided both with the traditionalist 278:

shared a sense of common identity and self-consciousness. They were anchored in the existence of a shared literary canon, which began to be formulated in the first Maskilic locus at

4480: 3617:, rather than on religion. This, in turn, resulted in the political engagement of Jews in a variety of competing ways within the countries where they lived on issues that included 4207: 3766:(1846–1930) was one of the greatest Hebrew 'bookmen' of all time. He was a bookseller, bibliographer, publicist, polemicist, historian, memoirist, author, editor and publisher. 885:

surrounding society, received mores and modernity. Sliding away from this precarious equilibrium, in any direction, signified also one's break with the Jewish Enlightenment.

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attitude to Yiddish which persisted many years later among the educated – though often its activists had to resort to it for lack of better medium to address the masses.

3812:(1794–1886) was the German Jewish founder of academic Judaic Studies (Wissenschaft des Judentums), the critical investigation of Jewish literature, hymnology and ritual. 2061: 187:

culture, style, and vernacular, and the adoption of modern values. At the same time, economic production, and the taking up of new occupations was pursued. The

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agenda and being surrounded by apathetic Jews, either conservative "fanatics" or parvenu "assimilationists", is a common theme in the movement's literature.

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as breeding apathy towards Judaism. Far less Talmud, considered cumbersome and ill-suited for children, was taught; elements considered superstitious, like

343:" and often employed loanwords from other languages. Some activists, however, were not averse to using Mishnaic and Rabbinic forms. They also preferred the 2181: 3782:(1788-1860), also known as the Ribal; Jewish scholar of Hebrew, a satirist, a writer and Haskalah leader. He has been called "the Mendelssohn of Russia." 3389: 3451:, or grammatical commentary, prepared under Mendelssohn's supervision, was designed to counteract the influence of traditional rabbinical methods of 1153: 862:

experiences, either of assertive mothers or early marriage, often conducted at the age of thirteen. Bitter memories from those are a common theme in

771:, who were particularly reviled in maskilic circles. Those were replaced by teachers trained in modern methods, among others in the spirit of German 706:

language of their lands, and integrate them into larger society. They opposed Jewish reclusiveness and self-segregation, called upon Jews to discard

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One commentator describes these effects as "The emancipation of the Jews brought forth two opposed movements: the cultural assimilation, begun by

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like were used for apologetic and intercessory purposes toward the Christian world. A tiny minority of writers was concerned with the latter. The

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influenced multiple Jewish communities who were interested in non-religious scholarly texts and insight to worlds beyond their Jewish enclaves.

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Maskilic reforms included educational efforts. In 1778, partisans of the movement were among the founders of the Berlin Jewish Free School, or

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which served as almost the sole system of thought among Ashkenazim and an explanatory system for observance. Rather than complex allegorical

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Language played a key role in the haskalah movement, as Mendelssohn and others called for a revival of Hebrew and a reduction in the use of

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were more concerned with the rapid assimilation of local Jews into the colonial French culture than with the ills of traditional society.

7229: 1663: 1626: 370:"The Moralist", regarded as the beginning of modern writing in Hebrew and the first journal in the language. Between 1789 and his death, 299: 271:. While Maskilic centres sometimes had loose institutions around which their members operated, the movement as a whole lacked any such. 5747: 809:

preached productivization and abandonment of traditional Jewish occupations in favour of agriculture, trades and liberal professions.

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in 1783 and printed with growing intervals until 1797. The magazine had several dozen writers and 272 subscribers at its zenith, from

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viewed it with reserve, sometimes anxiety. In their writings, they drew a sharp line between themselves and whom they termed "pseudo-

718:– traumatized memories from unions entered at the age of thirteen or fourteen are a common theme in Haskalah literature – the use of 5776: 5527: 4422:(audio archive giving history of ideas of the Haskalah movement and its later secular offshoot movements), London Jewish Book Week. 2625: 7275: 4547: 4176: 1975: 183:

found in print. Concurrently, it strove for an optimal integration in surrounding societies. Practitioners promoted the study of

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The Haskalah was multifaceted, with many loci which rose and dwindled at different times and across vast territories. The name

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secularization, religious reform from moderate to extreme, adoption of native patriotism and so forth. In many regions the

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fulfilled an important, though limited, part in the modernization of Central and Eastern European Jews. Its activists, the

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Brown, Lucille W., and Stephen M. Berk. "Fathers and Sons: Hasidim, Orthodoxy, and Haskalah: A View from Eastern Europe."

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attract their offspring, who often lacked a grasp of Hebrew due to not sharing their parents' traditional education.

3447:. This work became a bridge over which ambitious young Jews could pass to the great world of secular knowledge. The 6139: 6047: 5061: 2760: 2742: 2648: 2542: 2394: 2389: 2314: 2279: 2146: 3872: 7304: 6498: 5605: 4930: 3707: 3278: 3177: 2732: 2715: 2668: 2567: 2477: 2414: 2364: 2344: 2339: 2259: 2233: 2208: 2086: 2076: 2066: 2046: 2041: 5363: 6180: 5740: 5478: 4720: 4316: 4053:

David Jan Sorkin, The Transformation of German Jewry, 1780–1840. Wayne State University Press, 1999. pp. 80–81.

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affluent Jews or the state's institutions. This triplice – the authorities, the Jewish communal elite, and the

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to influence secular educational methods, while its writers satirised Hasidic mysticism, in favour of solely

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When Did Haskalah Begin? Establishing the Beginning of Haskalah Literature and the Definition of "Modernism"

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was robust enough to lack any single platform. Its members published several large magazines, including the

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Antonio's Devils: Writers of the Jewish Enlightenment and the Birth of Modern Hebrew and Yiddish Literature

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Resources > Modern Period > Central and Western Europe (17th\18th Cent.) > Enlightenment (Haskala)

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2000 Years of Jewish History: From the Destruction of the Second Bais Hamikdash Until the Twentieth Century

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Haskalah did not stay restricted to Germany, however, and the movement quickly spread throughout Europe.

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Rasplus, Valéry "Les judaïsmes à l'épreuve des Lumières. Les stratégies critiques de la Haskalah", in:

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During a century of activity, the Maskilim produced a massive contribution, forming the first phase of

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elite, which attempted to preserve old Jewish values and norms in their entirety, and with the radical

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intellectual sphere of Jewish life, contesting its role as spiritual leadership. In his 1782 circular

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The Jewish History Resource Center – Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The

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Haskalah and Beyond: The Reception of the Hebrew Enlightenment and the Emergence of Haskalah Judaism

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later (in the face of continued persecutions in late nineteenth-century Europe), the development of

7299: 7130: 6429: 6304: 5137: 5102: 4671: 4113:(2007). "Review: Haskalah: A New Paradigm: The Jewish Enlightenment by Shmuel Feiner; Chaya Naor." 3797: 3769: 3061: 3041: 2151: 1631: 1172: 792:

wished to replace the dualism which characterized the traditional Ashkenazi community, which spoke

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turned from a progressive into an adversary of more radical elements within a generation. In the

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as their primary creative medium. The Maskilim inherited the Medieval Grammarians' – such as

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Jewish Enlightenment in an English Key: Anglo-Jewry's Construction of Modern Jewish Thought

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maintained through segregation from their gentile neighbors – and Jewish identity itself.

3462:. The result was an outpouring of new, secular literature, as well as critical studies of 71: 8: 6997: 6965: 6891: 6800: 6746: 6353: 6153: 5887: 5852: 5443: 5127: 4895: 4864: 4474: 3850:

81:7 variously translated as "in the secret place of thunder", "hidden in thunder", etc.

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as a source and standard, emphatically advocating what they termed "Pure Hebrew Tongue" (

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paradigm not toward assimilation but in favour of exclusive use of Hebrew and Yiddish.

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who wished to eliminate or minimize the existence of the Jews as a defined collective.

111: 6612: 6488: 5425: 4594: 3806:(1819–1899) was a Jewish writer who translated various volumes and novels into Hebrew. 7415: 7113: 7044: 6926: 6911: 6694: 6565: 6530: 5819: 5658: 5463: 5458: 5420: 5410: 5259: 5175: 5170: 5112: 4960: 4950: 4715: 4572: 4393: 4383: 4293: 4273: 4248: 4211: 4182: 3785: 3643: 3423: 3331: 3273: 3253: 3070: 2630: 2269: 1729: 1600: 1530: 1407: 1320: 1187: 979: 814: 722:

to enforce community will and the concentration on virtually only religious studies.

707: 463: 363: 283: 176: 79: 5499: 4920: 1030:

as a major factor in those; Feiner noted that "every modern Jew was identified as a

835:

sought a literal understanding of scripture and sacred literature. The rejection of

31: 7179: 7147: 7108: 7079: 7062: 7012: 6813: 6622: 6555: 6508: 6456: 6424: 6415: 6400: 6274: 6249: 6225: 6109: 6040: 5957: 5824: 5663: 5295: 5275: 5244: 4935: 4900: 4844: 3773: 3459: 3443:

means of acquiring it was provided by Mendelssohn in his German translation of the

3301: 3182: 3142: 3106: 2804: 2354: 1865: 1621: 1525: 1440: 1330: 1122: 772: 654: 623: 416: 103: 5378: 249:

became a standard self-appellation in 1860, when it was taken as the motto of the

7089: 7084: 6896: 6823: 6656: 6627: 6550: 6540: 6503: 6478: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6269: 6264: 6254: 6239: 6030: 5947: 5914: 5872: 5862: 5468: 5353: 5229: 5191: 5010: 4854: 4849: 4651: 4557: 4419: 3803: 3763: 3728:(1816–1893) was a Polish-Russian Jewish journalist. He was founder and editor of 3671: 3663: 3614: 3561: 3263: 3222: 3217: 3197: 3119: 3113: 3046: 2998: 2838: 2819: 1970: 1699: 1611: 1594: 1138: 1027: 750: 615: 486: 435: 414:

into Hebrew, and an abridged form of the "Are at this hour asleep!" monologue in

340: 324: 320: 312: 180: 136: 5517: 4412: 3467: 3455:. Together with the translation, it became, as it were, the primer of Haskalah. 911:

movement's plans, Central European Jews turned almost solely to the vernacular.

7393: 7368: 7189: 7096: 7054: 7034: 7022: 7002: 6916: 6906: 6874: 6867: 6847: 6818: 6790: 6785: 6751: 6661: 6585: 6575: 6513: 6311: 6259: 6170: 6165: 5927: 5922: 5857: 5786: 5640: 5590: 5448: 5325: 5320: 5310: 5206: 5132: 5041: 5036: 4859: 4834: 4814: 4799: 4784: 4769: 4436: 3659: 3610: 3606: 3463: 3439: 3363: 3162: 3017: 2897: 2876: 2853: 2848: 2826: 2814: 2409: 1890: 1824: 1789: 1767: 1704: 1542: 1520: 1382: 1361: 1337: 1103: 1085: 753:. They all abandoned the received methods of Ashkenazi education: study of the 715: 352: 160: 156: 152: 30:"Maskil" redirects here. For the Hebrew literary term heading some psalms, see 3685:

traditionalist and modernist tendencies. Groups of Reform Jews, including the

3438:(1773–1839). Mendelssohn's extraordinary success as a popular philosopher and 462:"Love of Zion", which was published in 1853 after twenty-three years of work. 382:

that exerted influence on all neo-Hebraic poets in the following generations.

7409: 7162: 7007: 6934: 6741: 6675: 6648: 6597: 6545: 6518: 6493: 6483: 6244: 6190: 6124: 6104: 6094: 6089: 6062: 6008: 5937: 5882: 5668: 5625: 5595: 5575: 5239: 5165: 5092: 4995: 4925: 4839: 4794: 4779: 4676: 4625: 4431: 4270:

From Rebel to Rabbi: reclaiming Jesus and the making of modern Jewish culture

3822: 3732:, and other periodicals published in Russian and Yiddish; he wrote in Hebrew. 3651: 3482: 3311: 3306: 2512: 2439: 1965: 1814: 1809: 1804: 1794: 1772: 1724: 1486: 1325: 1230: 1192: 1143: 983: 917: 793: 627: 510: 451: 393:

was the Haskalah's pioneering playwright, best known for his 1794 epic drama

359: 291: 51: 974:. The Jewish national movements of Eastern Europe, founded by disillusioned 915:

demonstrated this with the two great journals of German Jewry: the maskilic

857:

Another aspect was the movement's attitude to gender relations. Many of the

845:, were extremely controversial in traditional society; apart from that, the 501: 307:, an intellectual community based on printing houses and reading societies. 7142: 6939: 6901: 6862: 6451: 6195: 6134: 6114: 6074: 6057: 6025: 6013: 5974: 5892: 5867: 5678: 5673: 5620: 5610: 5585: 5565: 5285: 5254: 5201: 5196: 4980: 4890: 4829: 4809: 4696: 4620: 4110: 3809: 3667: 3341: 3167: 3008: 3003: 2961: 2914: 2008: 1875: 1860: 1819: 1784: 1397: 1239: 987: 921:

was written in Hebrew and supported the study of German; the post-maskilic

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Uzi Shavit, "An Examination of the Term 'Haskala' in Hebrew Literature".

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as a subject of higher learning, all presided over by old-school tutors,

730: 431: 411: 192: 99: 55: 4645: 4430: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 4125: 3901: 3754:(1754/6 - 1835), German-Jewish writer, translator, Biblical commentator. 3521: 7246: 6953: 6535: 6129: 5877: 5799: 5635: 5615: 5600: 5570: 4819: 4730: 4587: 4562: 4552: 4490: 4149: 2984: 1998: 1927: 1885: 1714: 1694: 1253: 1160: 1080: 754: 703: 670: 473: 200: 196: 7167: 6632: 6523: 6434: 6052: 5986: 4661: 4582: 4390:

Haskalah and Hasidism in the Kingdom of Poland: a History of Conflict

3557: 3147: 3132: 2222: 2170: 1932: 1880: 1870: 1551: 1547: 1537: 1452: 1212: 1022:

became synonymous, among friends and foes alike and in much of early

967: 781: 585: 571: 255: 143:; literally, "wisdom", "erudition" or "education"), often termed the 6003: 3914: 3716:(~1790–1878) was a Lithuanian Jewish Hebraist, poet, and grammarian. 1900: 335:) and lambasting the Rabbinic style of letters, which mixed it with 6886: 6828: 6773: 6439: 5725: 5020: 4615: 3498: 3490: 3452: 3316: 2926: 2858: 1197: 1148: 839:, often accompanied with attempts to refute the ancientness of the 828: 823: 767: 738: 719: 711: 425: 4324:

Discusses Rashi's influence on Moses Mendelssohn and the Haskalah.

39: 7101: 6985: 6980: 6970: 6958: 6778: 6763: 6707: 6642: 6617: 6580: 6444: 6119: 6018: 5942: 5834: 5760: 3647: 3635: 3565: 3494: 3478: 3427: 3407: 3292: 3258: 3127: 2921: 1910: 1905: 1777: 1668: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1304: 1299: 1276: 1258: 1133: 1128: 1118: 1096: 1071: 955: 947: 566: 539: 454:, and also authored biblical exegesis and educational handbooks. 336: 204: 184: 466:

was the most eminent poet of his generation and arguably of the

207:, and is largely perceived as the Jewish variant of the general 7172: 7039: 6975: 4691: 3847: 3556:

was the heartland of Rabbinic Judaism, with its two streams of

3474: 3416: 2952: 2947: 2907: 2892: 2003: 1895: 1315: 1281: 1267: 1202: 762: 590: 583:

and more, though the probably most influential of them all was

580: 550: 535: 523: 519: 505: 434:

pioneered satirist writings in his biting, mocking critique of

279: 250: 4346:. New Brunswick, New Jersey, London: Rutgers University Press. 3406:

communities, and as long as all social interaction with their

1034:

and every change in traditional religious patterns was dubbed

805:(Rashness and Sanctimony) in 1796. On the economic front, the 7123: 7118: 7072: 7027: 6948: 6943: 6207: 5962: 5932: 4577: 3979:. University of Pennsylvania Press (2011). pp. 1–17, 150–152. 3477:

was the city of origin for the movement. The capital city of

3444: 3411: 1915: 1344: 1248: 1217: 851: 841: 801:, for example, authored the first modern Judaeo-German play, 761:(medieval Yiddish) translation and an exclusive focus on the 633: 379: 225: 3430:

Jew, served to lead this movement, which was also shaped by

561:, published in the same city from 1845 to 1870. The Russian 530:. The movement lacked an equivalent until the appearance of 267:

from 1 October 1783: its publishers described themselves as

7222: 5756: 4372:

Enlightenment Jewish Style: The Haskalah Movement in Europe

1067: 990:

and onwards. It was once common in Israeli historiography.

398: 148: 4406:

Oświecenie żydowskie w Królestwie Polskim wobec chasydyzmu

4165:; second ed., New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1964; p. 906. 3597:

variously satirised or sentimentalised Hasidic mysticism.

682:

The more extreme and ideologically bent came close to the

263:

for activists were already common in the first edition of

179:

for use in secular life, which resulted in an increase in

481:

was during his youth a Maskilic writer but from his 1886

378:"Poems of Glory", an eighteen-part epic cycle concerning 526:

in the west, making it the sounding board of the Berlin

470:

in its entirety. His most famous work was the 1876 epic

4290:

Complex Identities: Jewish consciousness and modern art

3581:(1788–1860) became known as the "Russian Mendelssohn". 669:

sought to replace the framework of values held by the

450:"Verses in the Holy Tongue" considered a milestone in 4374:. Mainz: Leibniz Institute of European History (IEG). 3722:(1840–1919) was a Russian Jewish educator and author. 2931: 2912: 1335: 4470:Map of the spread of Haskalah, on Boston Univ site 4392:. Oxford: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization. 4369: 3846:"Beseter ra'am" is a allusion to an expression in 3760:(1820–1895) was a Russian Hebrew-language writer. 902:was, by and large, a unigenerational experience. 446:was primarily a leading metricist, with his 1842 401:", which was printed in twelve editions by 1888. 7407: 3934:. University Press of America (2012). pp. 29–32. 3605:The Haskalah also resulted in the creation of a 4465:The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe 4233:Turim: Studies in Jewish History and Literature 4077:Port Jews and the Three Regions of Emancipation 5741: 4506: 3383: 557:from 1834 to 1857, and to a lesser degree by 458:authored the first Hebrew full-length novel, 420:was included in his 1816 lyrical compilation 4635: 4606: 4592: 4365:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 4245: 3996:, Rutgers University Press, 2012. pp. 73–74. 327:as pristine and correct. They turned to the 7230:Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation 4701: 4435: 3915:Towards a Historical Definition of Haskalah 3501:. The movement is often referred to as the 1627:History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire 618:, one of the most traditional and moderate 549:. That function was later fulfilled by the 5748: 5734: 4513: 4499: 4344:Haskalah. The Romantic Movement in Judaism 3994:Haskalah: The Romantic Movement in Judaism 3957:Haskalah Literature - Trends and Attitudes 3390: 3376: 813:important contribution was the revival of 4387: 733:opened the first modern Jewish school in 147:, was an intellectual movement among the 5777:Index of Jewish history-related articles 4520: 4360: 38: 27:1770s–1880s Jewish intellectual movement 7276:United States Holocaust Memorial Museum 5913: 4477:ThinkTorah.org by Rabbi Menachem Levine 4201: 4174: 3873:"Jewish Emancipation and Enlightenment" 3794:(1773-1839) (noted in Haskalah article) 1006:. The state and the elite required the 870: 159:, with a certain influence on those in 14: 7408: 4341: 4337:. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 4332: 4250:Judaism: History, Belief, and Practice 4230: 3894:Jerusalem Studies in Hebrew Literature 347:, considered more prestigious, to the 5729: 4751: 4532: 4494: 4288:Matthew Baigell and Milly Heyd, eds. 4163:The Columbia-Viking Desk Encyclopedia 3691:Association for the Reform of Judaism 600: 538:between 1820 until 1831, serving the 5755: 4413:The Unique Case of Jewish Secularism 4202:Klugman, Rabbi Eliyahu Meir (1996). 4021:Jewish Women's Archive: Encyclopedia 3870: 3516: 3701: 490: 140: 24: 7223:YIVO Institute for Jewish Research 7203:American Jewish Historical Society 4370:Schumacher-Brunhes, Marie (2012). 4328:Jewish Virtual Library on Haskalah 4272:, Stanford University Press, 2007 4014: 240: 32:Psalms § Themes and execution 25: 7442: 4454: 4439:; et al., eds. (1901–1906). 4292:. Rutgers University Press, 2001 4017:"Haskalah Attitudes Toward Women" 1418:Historical population comparisons 821:, as an alternative to mysticist 745:opened similar institutes in the 442:"Revealer of Secrets" from 1819. 7387: 7374: 7373: 5709: 5708: 4449:. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. 4425: 4161:"Jews", William Bridgwater, ed. 3919:New Perspectives on the Haskalah 3687:Society of the Friends of Reform 3520: 2062:Democratic Republic of the Congo 1976:Historical population by country 274:In spite of that diversity, the 259:, but derivatives and the title 4282: 4262: 4239: 4224: 4195: 4168: 4155: 4131: 4099: 4086: 4069: 4056: 4047: 4034: 4008: 3999: 3708:Category:People of the Haskalah 3560:Talmudism centred primarily in 7295:Relations with other religions 4475:The Haskalah in Eastern Europe 4317:Hebrew University of Jerusalem 4208:ArtScroll Mesorah Publications 3982: 3969: 3948: 3937: 3924: 3921:. Litmann (2001). p. 208. 3907: 3886: 3864: 3840: 741:in 1813, and Eastern European 300:restoration as a spoken tongue 235: 13: 1: 7282:Encyclopedia of the Holocaust 4376:Digital version available at 4306: 3857: 3744:(1756–1828), was a Hungarian 3402:As long as the Jews lived in 1633:Christianity and Judaism 788:In the linguistic field, the 7213:Leo Baeck Institute New York 7208:American Sephardi Federation 4752: 4638:Liberté, égalité, fraternité 932:The political vision of the 614:(Words of Peace and Truth), 351:, which was linked with the 214:In its various changes, the 7: 6036:Constantinopolitan Karaites 4607: 4361:Ruderman, David B. (2000). 4204:Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch 4115:The Jewish Quarterly Review 3816: 3748:, mathematician, and rabbi. 3593:among Maskilim. Writers of 3577:interpretation of Judaism. 3410:neighbors was limited, the 2932: 2913: 2640:Latin America and Caribbean 1336: 817:, rather dormant since the 686:aspirations of the radical 605:While the partisans of the 410:was the first to translate 384:Joseph ha-Efrati Troplowitz 96:Solomon Judah Loeb Rapoport 10: 7447: 7431:Jews and Judaism in Europe 7264:National Library of Israel 5905:Zionism, race and genetics 4533: 4487:, University of Manchester 4388:Wodzinski, Marcin (2009). 4246:Cohn-Sherbok, Dan (2003). 4081:Jewish Culture and History 3705: 3662:, whose founders (such as 3629:Jewish political movements 3600: 3587:Jewish political movements 3245:Jewish political movements 2942:Conversion to Judaism 1050: 622:, quoted the passage from 29: 7362: 7218:Yeshiva University Museum 7198:Center for Jewish History 7188: 7053: 6925: 6799: 6693: 6224: 5843: 5785: 5767: 5695: 5649: 5551: 5508: 5487: 5434: 5403: 5387: 5334: 5268: 5220: 5184: 5151: 5070: 5029: 4873: 4762: 4758: 4747: 4652:Methodological skepticism 4543: 4539: 4528: 4411:Brinker, Menahem (2008), 3714:Abraham Dob Bär Lebensohn 3512: 1648:Hinduism and Judaism 444:Avraham Dov Ber Lebensohn 7421:Hebrew words and phrases 5810:Ancient Israel and Judah 4418:17 November 2017 at the 4354:, n° 17, septembre 2006 3977:The Jewish Enlightenment 3833: 3798:Isaac ben Jacob Benjacob 3770:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing 1474:Temple in Jerusalem 1167:Bar and bat mitzvah 803:Leichtsinn und Frömmelei 6186:North African Sephardim 6159:Jewish tribes of Arabia 4446:The Jewish Encyclopedia 4379:European History Online 4333:Dauber, Jeremy (2004). 4231:Bleich, Judith (2007). 4210:. pp. Ch. 1–2, 5. 4181:. Feldheim Publishers. 4175:Schloss, Chaim (2002). 3954:See also: Moshe Pelli, 1436:Twelve Tribes of Israel 7289:Holocaust Encyclopedia 7259:Jewish Virtual Library 4702: 4636: 4602:Enlightened absolutism 4593: 4322:Rashi by Maurice Liber 3992:, p. 35; Olga Litvak, 3758:Eliezer Dob Liebermann 3609:, with an emphasis on 3607:secular Jewish culture 1047:had no effect at all. 970:, also broke with the 589:, launched in 1860 at 345:Sephardi pronunciation 323:and preference of the 317:Judah ben David Hayyuj 126: 7236:Encyclopaedia Judaica 7018:Sefer Raziel HaMalakh 6203:Sephardic Bnei Anusim 5953:Udmurt and Tatar Jews 4568:Counter-Enlightenment 4342:Litvak, Olga (2012). 3917:", in: David Sorkin, 3752:Aaron Halle-Wolfssohn 3720:Abraham Jacob Paperna 3677:Torah im Derech Eretz 3562:Lithuania and Belarus 3432:Aaron Halle-Wolfssohn 2182:São Tomé and Príncipe 2177:Republic of the Congo 1571:Second Temple Judaism 1442:Kingdom of Judah 1413:Modern historiography 1024:Jewish historiography 799:Aaron Halle-Wolfssohn 727:Hevrat Hinuch Ne'arim 612:Divrei Shalom v'Emeth 479:Mendele Mocher Sforim 448:Shirei S'fat haQodesh 372:Naphtali Hirz Wessely 362:literature. In 1755, 288:Naphtali Hirz Wessely 175:renewal, including a 76:Naphtali Hirz Wessely 48:Raphael Levi Hannover 42: 5815:Second Temple period 4522:Age of Enlightenment 4485:John Rylands Library 3726:Aleksander Zederbaum 3579:Isaac Baer Levinsohn 3487:Age of Enlightenment 3284:World Agudath Israel 2425:United Arab Emirates 1512:Second Temple period 1502:Babylonian captivity 871:Transitory phenomena 595:Aleksander Zederbaum 516:Isaac Abraham Euchel 403:Judah Leib Ben-Ze'ev 282:. Its members, like 209:Age of Enlightenment 145:Jewish Enlightenment 124:Isaac Baer Levinsohn 60:Marcus Elieser Bloch 7253:Jewish Encyclopedia 6998:Hekhalot literature 6809:Religious movements 6344:Judeo-Tripolitanian 5528:Feijóo y Montenegro 5479:Vorontsova-Dashkova 4481:Haskalah collection 4139:Oral History Review 4096:, pp. 197–198, 201. 4005:Pelli, pp. 295–296. 3780:Isaac Bär Levinsohn 3742:David Friesenhausen 3627:involvement in new 3623:Jewish emancipation 3591:Yiddish Renaissance 1577:Hellenistic Judaism 1155:Land of Israel 1114:Principles of faith 952:Samuel Joseph Fuenn 819:Italian Renaissance 477:(Tittle of a Jot). 305:Republic of Letters 169:Jewish emancipation 120:Samuel Joseph Fuenn 68:Salomon Jacob Cohen 66:, Berlin Haskalah: 7394:Judaism portal 7330:Jews and Halloween 7325:Jews and Christmas 6715:Rabbinic authority 6467:Judaeo-Piedmontese 5900:Xueta Christianity 5805:Origins of Judaism 5772:Outline of Judaism 4667:Natural philosophy 4083:, 2001. pp. 33–34. 3871:Ettinger, Shmuel. 3776:, Nathan the Wise. 3736:Avrom Ber Gotlober 3674:in Lithuania, and 3595:Yiddish literature 3571:Pale of Settlement 3532:. You can help by 3138:Jewish Koine Greek 2680:Dominican Republic 1961:Judaism by country 1640:Jews and Christmas 1495:Assyrian captivity 747:Pale of Settlement 601:Reforming movement 495:Era of Renaissance 333:S'fat E'ver tzacha 127: 112:Avrom Ber Gotlober 46:, proto-Maskilim: 7403: 7402: 7369:extinct languages 7270:YIVO Encyclopedia 7045:Hebrew literature 7013:Sefer HaEtz Chaim 6853:Reconstructionist 6531:Judaeo-Portuguese 6220: 6219: 6176:Eastern Sephardim 5820:Synagogal Judaism 5723: 5722: 5691: 5690: 5687: 5686: 4743: 4742: 4739: 4738: 4716:Scientific method 4573:Critical thinking 4404:(translated from 4399:978-1-904113-08-9 4188:978-1-58330-214-9 3786:Moses Mendelssohn 3644:Moses Mendelssohn 3621:the struggle for 3550: 3549: 3489:thinkers such as 3424:Moses Mendelssohn 3400: 3399: 3349: 3348: 3097: 3096: 2844:Reconstructionist 2788: 2787: 1940: 1939: 1747: 1746: 1584:Jewish–Roman wars 1532:Hasmonean dynasty 1448:Kingdom of Israel 1352: 1351: 980:Peretz Smolenskin 815:Jewish philosophy 757:with the archaic 708:traditional dress 464:Judah Leib Gordon 422:Melitzat Yeshurun 366:began publishing 364:Moses Mendelssohn 284:Moses Mendelssohn 253:-based newspaper 177:revival of Hebrew 80:Moses Mendelssohn 72:David Friedländer 16:(Redirected from 7438: 7426:Jewish movements 7392: 7391: 7390: 7377: 7376: 6509:Judeo-Golpaygani 6110:Palestinian Jews 6085:Alexandrian Jews 6041:Crimean Karaites 5958:Unterlander Jews 5911: 5910: 5825:Rabbinic Judaism 5750: 5743: 5736: 5727: 5726: 5712: 5711: 4760: 4759: 4749: 4748: 4707: 4641: 4612: 4598: 4541: 4540: 4530: 4529: 4515: 4508: 4501: 4492: 4491: 4450: 4429: 4428: 4403: 4375: 4366: 4357: 4347: 4338: 4300: 4286: 4280: 4268:Matthew Hoffman 4266: 4260: 4259: 4253: 4243: 4237: 4236: 4228: 4222: 4221: 4199: 4193: 4192: 4172: 4166: 4159: 4153: 4135: 4129: 4103: 4097: 4090: 4084: 4073: 4067: 4060: 4054: 4051: 4045: 4038: 4032: 4031: 4029: 4027: 4015:Feiner, Shmuel. 4012: 4006: 4003: 3997: 3986: 3980: 3973: 3967: 3952: 3946: 3941: 3935: 3928: 3922: 3913:Samuel Feiner, " 3911: 3905: 3890: 3884: 3883: 3881: 3879: 3868: 3851: 3844: 3774:Nathan der Weise 3702:List of Maskilim 3554:Poland–Lithuania 3545: 3542: 3524: 3517: 3481:and, later, the 3434:(1754–1835) and 3392: 3385: 3378: 3241: 3240: 3122: 2943: 2937: 2918: 2882: 2881: 2829: 2776:New Zealand 2728: 2691:El Salvador 2681: 2613:Northern America 2605: 2199: 1955: 1954: 1866:Crimean Karaites 1762: 1761: 1740: 1738: 1659: 1657: 1649: 1643: 1634: 1622:Rabbinic Judaism 1603: 1597: 1591: 1579: 1567: 1533: 1526:Maccabean Revolt 1503: 1496: 1490: 1482: 1475: 1469: 1461: 1443: 1367: 1366: 1341: 1236: 1235: 1168: 1156: 1055: 1054: 958:, the few local 773:philanthropinism 655:Rabbinic Judaism 624:Leviticus Rabbah 532:Bikurei ha-I'tim 492: 417:Henry IV, Part 2 408:Solomon Löwisohn 392: 230:assimilationists 142: 104:Baruch Jeitteles 92:Judah Löb Mieses 21: 7446: 7445: 7441: 7440: 7439: 7437: 7436: 7435: 7406: 7405: 7404: 7399: 7388: 7386: 7358: 7184: 7049: 6921: 6795: 6689: 6504:Judeo-Borujerdi 6479:Judeo-Malayalam 6425:Judeo-Aragonese 6396:Lishanid Noshan 6228: 6216: 5948:Oberlander Jews 5909: 5839: 5781: 5763: 5754: 5724: 5719: 5718: 5705: 5683: 5645: 5547: 5504: 5483: 5430: 5399: 5395:Carvalho e Melo 5383: 5330: 5264: 5216: 5180: 5147: 5066: 5025: 4869: 4754: 4735: 4721:Spanish America 4595:Encyclopédistes 4558:Civil liberties 4535: 4524: 4519: 4457: 4437:Singer, Isidore 4426: 4420:Wayback Machine 4400: 4355: 4309: 4304: 4303: 4287: 4283: 4267: 4263: 4244: 4240: 4229: 4225: 4218: 4200: 4196: 4189: 4173: 4169: 4160: 4156: 4144:(1977): 17–32. 4136: 4132: 4104: 4100: 4091: 4087: 4074: 4070: 4061: 4057: 4052: 4048: 4039: 4035: 4025: 4023: 4013: 4009: 4004: 4000: 3987: 3983: 3975:Shmuel Feiner. 3974: 3970: 3953: 3949: 3942: 3938: 3929: 3925: 3912: 3908: 3891: 3887: 3877: 3875: 3869: 3865: 3860: 3855: 3854: 3845: 3841: 3836: 3819: 3804:Kalman Schulman 3764:Ephraim Deinard 3710: 3704: 3672:Mussar Movement 3664:Israel Jacobson 3660:Reform movement 3615:Jewish identity 3603: 3546: 3540: 3537: 3530:needs expansion 3515: 3507:Berlin Haskalah 3503:Berlin Haskalah 3464:religious texts 3422:The example of 3396: 3351: 3350: 3238: 3228: 3227: 3218:Judeo-Malayalam 3198:Judaeo-Georgian 3118: 3109: 3099: 3098: 2999:Yiddish theatre 2941: 2879: 2869: 2868: 2827: 2800: 2790: 2789: 2726: 2679: 2603: 2197: 1981:Genetic studies 1952: 1942: 1941: 1759: 1749: 1748: 1736: 1735: 1655: 1654: 1647: 1637: 1632: 1614:and Middle Ages 1612:Rabbinic period 1599: 1593: 1586: 1574: 1545: 1531: 1501: 1494: 1485: 1477: 1473: 1464: 1459:in Judaism 1456: 1441: 1364: 1354: 1353: 1233: 1223: 1222: 1166: 1154: 1099: 1053: 1028:Heinrich Graetz 873: 751:Congress Poland 712:rabbinic courts 626:stating that a 616:Hartwig Wessely 603: 522:in the east to 436:Hasidic Judaism 395:Melukhat Sha'ul 386: 376:Shirei Tif'eret 321:Mishnaic Hebrew 313:Jonah ibn Janah 243: 241:Literary circle 238: 106: 82: 62: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7444: 7434: 7433: 7428: 7423: 7418: 7401: 7400: 7398: 7397: 7383: 7363: 7360: 7359: 7357: 7356: 7355: 7354: 7353: 7352: 7347: 7342: 7336:non-Christian 7334: 7333: 7332: 7327: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7307: 7292: 7285: 7278: 7273: 7266: 7261: 7256: 7249: 7244: 7239: 7232: 7227: 7226: 7225: 7220: 7215: 7210: 7205: 7194: 7192: 7186: 7185: 7183: 7182: 7177: 7176: 7175: 7170: 7160: 7155: 7150: 7145: 7140: 7139: 7138: 7128: 7127: 7126: 7121: 7111: 7106: 7105: 7104: 7094: 7093: 7092: 7082: 7077: 7076: 7075: 7070: 7059: 7057: 7051: 7050: 7048: 7047: 7042: 7037: 7035:Shulchan Aruch 7032: 7031: 7030: 7025: 7023:Sefer Yetzirah 7020: 7015: 7010: 7005: 7003:Pardes Rimonim 7000: 6993:Kabbalah texts 6990: 6989: 6988: 6983: 6978: 6973: 6963: 6962: 6961: 6956: 6951: 6937: 6931: 6929: 6923: 6922: 6920: 6919: 6914: 6909: 6904: 6899: 6894: 6889: 6884: 6883: 6882: 6877: 6872: 6871: 6870: 6860: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6840: 6839: 6838: 6833: 6832: 6831: 6826: 6805: 6803: 6797: 6796: 6794: 6793: 6788: 6786:Land of Israel 6783: 6782: 6781: 6771: 6766: 6761: 6760: 6759: 6749: 6744: 6739: 6738: 6737: 6727: 6722: 6717: 6712: 6711: 6710: 6699: 6697: 6691: 6690: 6688: 6687: 6682: 6681: 6680: 6679: 6678: 6673: 6672: 6671: 6664: 6662:Judeo-Alsatian 6654: 6653: 6652: 6645: 6640: 6635: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6589: 6588: 6583: 6573: 6568: 6563: 6558: 6553: 6548: 6543: 6538: 6533: 6528: 6527: 6526: 6521: 6516: 6514:Judeo-Hamedani 6511: 6506: 6501: 6491: 6489:Judaeo-Occitan 6486: 6481: 6476: 6471: 6470: 6469: 6459: 6454: 6449: 6448: 6447: 6442: 6437: 6430:Jewish English 6427: 6422: 6421: 6420: 6419: 6418: 6408: 6403: 6398: 6393: 6388: 6383: 6378: 6373: 6368: 6361:Judaeo-Aramaic 6358: 6357: 6356: 6351: 6349:Judeo-Tunisian 6346: 6341: 6339:Judeo-Moroccan 6336: 6335: 6334: 6332:Judeo-Baghdadi 6319: 6314: 6309: 6308: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6236: 6234: 6222: 6221: 6218: 6217: 6215: 6214: 6213: 6212: 6211: 6210: 6200: 6199: 6198: 6188: 6183: 6181:Livornese Jews 6178: 6168: 6163: 6162: 6161: 6151: 6150: 6149: 6148: 6147: 6142: 6137: 6132: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6102: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6072: 6071: 6070: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6044: 6043: 6038: 6028: 6023: 6022: 6021: 6011: 6006: 6001: 6000: 5999: 5994: 5984: 5983: 5982: 5977: 5967: 5966: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5930: 5928:Afrikaner-Jode 5919: 5917: 5908: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5896: 5895: 5885: 5880: 5875: 5870: 5865: 5860: 5855: 5849: 5847: 5841: 5840: 5838: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5802: 5797: 5791: 5789: 5783: 5782: 5780: 5779: 5774: 5768: 5765: 5764: 5753: 5752: 5745: 5738: 5730: 5721: 5720: 5717: 5716: 5698: 5697: 5696: 5693: 5692: 5689: 5688: 5685: 5684: 5682: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5655: 5653: 5647: 5646: 5644: 5643: 5638: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5608: 5603: 5598: 5593: 5588: 5583: 5578: 5573: 5568: 5563: 5557: 5555: 5549: 5548: 5546: 5545: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5514: 5512: 5506: 5505: 5503: 5502: 5497: 5491: 5489: 5485: 5484: 5482: 5481: 5476: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5451: 5446: 5440: 5438: 5432: 5431: 5429: 5428: 5423: 5418: 5413: 5407: 5405: 5401: 5400: 5398: 5397: 5391: 5389: 5385: 5384: 5382: 5381: 5376: 5371: 5366: 5361: 5356: 5351: 5346: 5340: 5338: 5332: 5331: 5329: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5298: 5293: 5288: 5283: 5278: 5272: 5270: 5266: 5265: 5263: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5226: 5224: 5218: 5217: 5215: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5188: 5186: 5182: 5181: 5179: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5163: 5157: 5155: 5149: 5148: 5146: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5125: 5120: 5115: 5110: 5105: 5100: 5095: 5090: 5085: 5080: 5074: 5072: 5068: 5067: 5065: 5064: 5059: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5033: 5031: 5027: 5026: 5024: 5023: 5018: 5013: 5008: 5003: 4998: 4993: 4988: 4983: 4978: 4973: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4877: 4875: 4871: 4870: 4868: 4867: 4865:Wollstonecraft 4862: 4857: 4852: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4797: 4792: 4787: 4782: 4777: 4772: 4766: 4764: 4756: 4755: 4745: 4744: 4741: 4740: 4737: 4736: 4734: 4733: 4728: 4723: 4718: 4713: 4708: 4699: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4664: 4659: 4654: 4649: 4642: 4633: 4628: 4623: 4618: 4613: 4604: 4599: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4570: 4565: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4544: 4537: 4536: 4526: 4525: 4518: 4517: 4510: 4503: 4495: 4489: 4488: 4478: 4472: 4467: 4456: 4455:External links 4453: 4452: 4451: 4423: 4409: 4398: 4385: 4367: 4358: 4348: 4339: 4330: 4325: 4319: 4308: 4305: 4302: 4301: 4281: 4261: 4238: 4223: 4216: 4194: 4187: 4167: 4154: 4130: 4098: 4085: 4075:David Sorkin, 4068: 4066:, pp. 204–207. 4055: 4046: 4044:, pp. 188–191. 4033: 4007: 3998: 3981: 3968: 3947: 3936: 3923: 3906: 3885: 3862: 3861: 3859: 3856: 3853: 3852: 3838: 3837: 3835: 3832: 3831: 3830: 3825: 3818: 3815: 3814: 3813: 3807: 3801: 3795: 3789: 3783: 3777: 3767: 3761: 3755: 3749: 3739: 3733: 3723: 3717: 3703: 3700: 3640: 3639: 3632: 3625: 3611:Jewish history 3602: 3599: 3548: 3547: 3527: 3525: 3514: 3511: 3440:man of letters 3398: 3397: 3395: 3394: 3387: 3380: 3372: 3369: 3368: 3367: 3366: 3361: 3353: 3352: 3347: 3346: 3345: 3344: 3339: 3334: 3329: 3324: 3319: 3314: 3309: 3304: 3296: 3295: 3289: 3288: 3287: 3286: 3281: 3279:Territorialism 3276: 3271: 3266: 3261: 3256: 3248: 3247: 3239: 3234: 3233: 3230: 3229: 3226: 3225: 3220: 3215: 3210: 3205: 3200: 3195: 3190: 3185: 3180: 3175: 3170: 3165: 3163:Judaeo-Spanish 3160: 3158:Judaeo-Iranian 3155: 3150: 3145: 3140: 3135: 3130: 3125: 3124: 3123: 3110: 3105: 3104: 3101: 3100: 3095: 3094: 3093: 3092: 3087: 3082: 3074: 3073: 3067: 3066: 3065: 3064: 3059: 3054: 3049: 3044: 3039: 3034: 3029: 3021: 3020: 3014: 3013: 3012: 3011: 3006: 3001: 2996: 2988: 2987: 2981: 2980: 2979: 2978: 2973: 2965: 2964: 2958: 2957: 2956: 2955: 2950: 2945: 2938: 2929: 2924: 2919: 2910: 2905: 2900: 2895: 2887: 2886: 2880: 2875: 2874: 2871: 2870: 2867: 2866: 2861: 2856: 2851: 2846: 2841: 2836: 2831: 2824: 2823: 2822: 2817: 2812: 2801: 2796: 2795: 2792: 2791: 2786: 2785: 2784: 2783: 2778: 2773: 2768: 2763: 2755: 2754: 2748: 2747: 2746: 2745: 2740: 2735: 2730: 2723: 2718: 2713: 2708: 2703: 2698: 2693: 2688: 2683: 2676: 2671: 2666: 2661: 2656: 2651: 2643: 2642: 2636: 2635: 2634: 2633: 2628: 2623: 2615: 2614: 2610: 2609: 2608: 2607: 2604:United Kingdom 2600: 2595: 2590: 2585: 2580: 2575: 2570: 2565: 2560: 2555: 2550: 2545: 2540: 2535: 2530: 2525: 2520: 2515: 2510: 2505: 2500: 2495: 2490: 2485: 2480: 2475: 2470: 2465: 2460: 2452: 2451: 2445: 2444: 2443: 2442: 2437: 2432: 2427: 2422: 2417: 2412: 2407: 2402: 2397: 2392: 2387: 2382: 2377: 2372: 2367: 2362: 2357: 2352: 2347: 2342: 2337: 2332: 2327: 2322: 2317: 2312: 2307: 2302: 2297: 2292: 2287: 2282: 2277: 2272: 2267: 2262: 2257: 2252: 2244: 2243: 2239: 2238: 2237: 2236: 2231: 2226: 2216: 2211: 2206: 2201: 2194: 2189: 2184: 2179: 2174: 2164: 2159: 2154: 2149: 2144: 2139: 2134: 2129: 2124: 2119: 2114: 2109: 2104: 2099: 2094: 2089: 2084: 2079: 2074: 2069: 2064: 2059: 2054: 2049: 2044: 2039: 2037:Bilad-el-Sudan 2034: 2029: 2021: 2020: 2014: 2013: 2012: 2011: 2006: 2001: 1993: 1992: 1990:Land of Israel 1986: 1985: 1984: 1983: 1978: 1973: 1968: 1963: 1953: 1948: 1947: 1944: 1943: 1938: 1937: 1936: 1935: 1930: 1925: 1920: 1919: 1918: 1913: 1908: 1903: 1898: 1888: 1883: 1878: 1873: 1868: 1863: 1858: 1850: 1849: 1848:Related groups 1845: 1844: 1843: 1842: 1837: 1832: 1827: 1822: 1817: 1812: 1807: 1802: 1797: 1792: 1787: 1782: 1781: 1780: 1775: 1760: 1755: 1754: 1751: 1750: 1745: 1744: 1743: 1742: 1732: 1727: 1722: 1717: 1712: 1707: 1705:Jewish atheism 1702: 1697: 1692: 1684: 1683: 1679: 1678: 1677: 1676: 1671: 1666: 1661: 1656:Islamic–Jewish 1651: 1644: 1629: 1624: 1616: 1615: 1608: 1607: 1606: 1605: 1581: 1568: 1540: 1535: 1528: 1523: 1521:Yehud Medinata 1515: 1514: 1508: 1507: 1506: 1505: 1498: 1491: 1483: 1470: 1462: 1450: 1445: 1438: 1430: 1429: 1427:Ancient Israel 1423: 1422: 1421: 1420: 1415: 1410: 1405: 1400: 1395: 1390: 1385: 1383:Land of Israel 1380: 1372: 1371: 1365: 1360: 1359: 1356: 1355: 1350: 1349: 1348: 1347: 1342: 1338:Shulchan Aruch 1333: 1328: 1323: 1318: 1310: 1309: 1308: 1307: 1302: 1294: 1293: 1287: 1286: 1285: 1284: 1279: 1271: 1270: 1264: 1263: 1262: 1261: 1256: 1251: 1243: 1242: 1234: 1229: 1228: 1225: 1224: 1221: 1220: 1215: 1210: 1205: 1200: 1195: 1190: 1185: 1180: 1175: 1170: 1163: 1158: 1151: 1146: 1141: 1136: 1131: 1126: 1116: 1111: 1104:God in Judaism 1100: 1095: 1094: 1091: 1090: 1089: 1088: 1083: 1075: 1074: 1064: 1063: 1052: 1049: 888:Virtually all 872: 869: 716:child marriage 602: 599: 559:Kokhvei Yizhak 514:, launched by 440:Megaleh Tmirin 424:(Eloquence of 353:Jews of Poland 319:– distaste of 242: 239: 237: 234: 161:Western Europe 157:Eastern Europe 86:, Austria and 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7443: 7432: 7429: 7427: 7424: 7422: 7419: 7417: 7414: 7413: 7411: 7396: 7395: 7384: 7382: 7381: 7372: 7371: 7370: 7366: 7361: 7351: 7348: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7338: 7337: 7335: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7320:Protestantism 7318: 7316: 7313: 7311: 7308: 7306: 7303: 7302: 7301: 7298: 7297: 7296: 7293: 7291: 7290: 7286: 7284: 7283: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7271: 7267: 7265: 7262: 7260: 7257: 7255: 7254: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7237: 7233: 7231: 7228: 7224: 7221: 7219: 7216: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7201: 7200: 7199: 7196: 7195: 7193: 7191: 7187: 7181: 7178: 7174: 7171: 7169: 7166: 7165: 7164: 7161: 7159: 7156: 7154: 7151: 7149: 7146: 7144: 7141: 7137: 7134: 7133: 7132: 7129: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7116: 7115: 7112: 7110: 7107: 7103: 7100: 7099: 7098: 7095: 7091: 7088: 7087: 7086: 7083: 7081: 7078: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7066: 7065: 7064: 7061: 7060: 7058: 7056: 7052: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7009: 7008:Sefer HaBahir 7006: 7004: 7001: 6999: 6996: 6995: 6994: 6991: 6987: 6984: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6972: 6969: 6968: 6967: 6964: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6946: 6945: 6941: 6938: 6936: 6935:Sifrei Kodesh 6933: 6932: 6930: 6928: 6924: 6918: 6915: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6890: 6888: 6885: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6869: 6866: 6865: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6837: 6834: 6830: 6827: 6825: 6822: 6821: 6820: 6817: 6816: 6815: 6812: 6811: 6810: 6807: 6806: 6804: 6802: 6798: 6792: 6791:Who is a Jew? 6789: 6787: 6784: 6780: 6777: 6776: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6762: 6758: 6755: 6754: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6743: 6740: 6736: 6733: 6732: 6731: 6728: 6726: 6723: 6721: 6720:Chosen people 6718: 6716: 6713: 6709: 6706: 6705: 6704: 6701: 6700: 6698: 6696: 6692: 6686: 6683: 6677: 6676:Scots-Yiddish 6674: 6670: 6669: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6659: 6658: 6655: 6651: 6650: 6649:Klezmer-loshn 6646: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6630: 6629: 6626: 6625: 6624: 6621: 6620: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6578: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6562: 6559: 6557: 6554: 6552: 6549: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6539: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6519:Judeo-Shirazi 6517: 6515: 6512: 6510: 6507: 6505: 6502: 6500: 6497: 6496: 6495: 6494:Judeo-Persian 6492: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6484:Judeo-Marathi 6482: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6468: 6465: 6464: 6463: 6462:Judeo-Italian 6460: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6446: 6443: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6432: 6431: 6428: 6426: 6423: 6417: 6414: 6413: 6412: 6409: 6407: 6404: 6402: 6399: 6397: 6394: 6392: 6389: 6387: 6384: 6382: 6379: 6377: 6374: 6372: 6369: 6367: 6364: 6363: 6362: 6359: 6355: 6352: 6350: 6347: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6337: 6333: 6330: 6329: 6328: 6325: 6324: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6317:Judeo-Amazigh 6315: 6313: 6310: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6242: 6241: 6238: 6237: 6235: 6232: 6227: 6223: 6209: 6206: 6205: 6204: 6201: 6197: 6194: 6193: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6173: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6164: 6160: 6157: 6156: 6155: 6152: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6140:Hadhrami Jews 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6127: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6105:Mountain Jews 6103: 6101: 6100:Egyptian Jews 6098: 6096: 6095:Bukharan Jews 6093: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6081: 6078: 6077: 6076: 6073: 6069: 6066: 6065: 6064: 6061: 6059: 6056: 6054: 6051: 6049: 6046: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6033: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6020: 6017: 6016: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6002: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5989: 5988: 5985: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5972: 5971: 5968: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5929: 5926: 5925: 5924: 5921: 5920: 5918: 5916: 5912: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5894: 5891: 5890: 5889: 5886: 5884: 5883:Lists of Jews 5881: 5879: 5876: 5874: 5871: 5869: 5866: 5864: 5861: 5859: 5856: 5854: 5851: 5850: 5848: 5846: 5842: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5796: 5793: 5792: 5790: 5788: 5784: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5769: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5751: 5746: 5744: 5739: 5737: 5732: 5731: 5728: 5715: 5707: 5706: 5704: 5702: 5694: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5656: 5654: 5652: 5651:United States 5648: 5642: 5639: 5637: 5634: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5612: 5609: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5597: 5594: 5592: 5589: 5587: 5584: 5582: 5579: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5569: 5567: 5564: 5562: 5559: 5558: 5556: 5554: 5550: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5521: 5519: 5516: 5515: 5513: 5511: 5507: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5492: 5490: 5486: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5442: 5441: 5439: 5437: 5433: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5411:Budai-Deleanu 5409: 5408: 5406: 5402: 5396: 5393: 5392: 5390: 5386: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5355: 5352: 5350: 5347: 5345: 5342: 5341: 5339: 5337: 5333: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5289: 5287: 5284: 5282: 5279: 5277: 5274: 5273: 5271: 5267: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5227: 5225: 5223: 5219: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5189: 5187: 5183: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5162: 5159: 5158: 5156: 5154: 5150: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5114: 5111: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5099: 5096: 5094: 5091: 5089: 5086: 5084: 5081: 5079: 5076: 5075: 5073: 5069: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5034: 5032: 5028: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4952: 4949: 4947: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4878: 4876: 4872: 4866: 4863: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4853: 4851: 4848: 4846: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4836: 4833: 4831: 4828: 4826: 4823: 4821: 4818: 4816: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4796: 4793: 4791: 4788: 4786: 4783: 4781: 4778: 4776: 4775:Ashley-Cooper 4773: 4771: 4768: 4767: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4750: 4746: 4732: 4729: 4727: 4724: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4714: 4712: 4709: 4706: 4705: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4678: 4677:Progressivism 4675: 4673: 4670: 4668: 4665: 4663: 4660: 4658: 4655: 4653: 4650: 4648: 4647: 4643: 4640: 4639: 4634: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4626:Individualism 4624: 4622: 4619: 4617: 4614: 4611: 4610: 4605: 4603: 4600: 4597: 4596: 4591: 4589: 4586: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4576: 4574: 4571: 4569: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4551: 4549: 4546: 4545: 4542: 4538: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4516: 4511: 4509: 4504: 4502: 4497: 4496: 4493: 4486: 4482: 4479: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4462: 4459: 4458: 4448: 4447: 4442: 4438: 4433: 4432:public domain 4424: 4421: 4417: 4414: 4410: 4407: 4401: 4395: 4391: 4386: 4384: 4381: 4380: 4373: 4368: 4364: 4359: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4340: 4336: 4331: 4329: 4326: 4323: 4320: 4318: 4314: 4311: 4310: 4299: 4298:0-8135-2868-2 4295: 4291: 4285: 4279: 4278:0-8047-5371-7 4275: 4271: 4265: 4257: 4252: 4251: 4242: 4234: 4227: 4219: 4217:9780899066325 4213: 4209: 4205: 4198: 4190: 4184: 4180: 4179: 4171: 4164: 4158: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4140: 4134: 4127: 4123: 4120:(1): 129–136 4119: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4102: 4095: 4089: 4082: 4078: 4072: 4065: 4059: 4050: 4043: 4037: 4022: 4018: 4011: 4002: 3995: 3991: 3990:Enlightenment 3985: 3978: 3972: 3965: 3964: 3959: 3958: 3951: 3945: 3940: 3933: 3930:Moshe Pelli, 3927: 3920: 3916: 3910: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3889: 3874: 3867: 3863: 3849: 3843: 3839: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3823:Immanuel Kant 3821: 3820: 3811: 3808: 3805: 3802: 3799: 3796: 3793: 3790: 3787: 3784: 3781: 3778: 3775: 3771: 3768: 3765: 3762: 3759: 3756: 3753: 3750: 3747: 3743: 3740: 3737: 3734: 3731: 3727: 3724: 3721: 3718: 3715: 3712: 3711: 3709: 3699: 3695: 3692: 3688: 3682: 3679: 3678: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3655: 3653: 3652:Theodor Herzl 3650:, founded by 3649: 3645: 3637: 3633: 3630: 3626: 3624: 3620: 3619: 3618: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3598: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3544: 3535: 3531: 3528:This section 3526: 3523: 3519: 3518: 3510: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3483:German Empire 3480: 3476: 3472: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3456: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3426:(1729–86), a 3425: 3420: 3418: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3393: 3388: 3386: 3381: 3379: 3374: 3373: 3371: 3370: 3365: 3362: 3360: 3357: 3356: 3355: 3354: 3343: 3340: 3338: 3335: 3333: 3330: 3328: 3325: 3323: 3320: 3318: 3315: 3313: 3310: 3308: 3305: 3303: 3300: 3299: 3298: 3297: 3294: 3291: 3290: 3285: 3282: 3280: 3277: 3275: 3272: 3270: 3267: 3265: 3262: 3260: 3257: 3255: 3252: 3251: 3250: 3249: 3246: 3243: 3242: 3237: 3232: 3231: 3224: 3221: 3219: 3216: 3214: 3211: 3209: 3206: 3204: 3203:Judeo-Aramaic 3201: 3199: 3196: 3194: 3193:Judeo-Italian 3191: 3189: 3186: 3184: 3181: 3179: 3176: 3174: 3173:Ghardaïa Sign 3171: 3169: 3166: 3164: 3161: 3159: 3156: 3154: 3151: 3149: 3146: 3144: 3141: 3139: 3136: 3134: 3131: 3129: 3126: 3121: 3117: 3116: 3115: 3112: 3111: 3108: 3103: 3102: 3091: 3088: 3086: 3083: 3081: 3078: 3077: 3076: 3075: 3072: 3069: 3068: 3063: 3060: 3058: 3055: 3053: 3050: 3048: 3045: 3043: 3040: 3038: 3035: 3033: 3030: 3028: 3025: 3024: 3023: 3022: 3019: 3016: 3015: 3010: 3007: 3005: 3002: 3000: 2997: 2995: 2992: 2991: 2990: 2989: 2986: 2983: 2982: 2977: 2974: 2972: 2969: 2968: 2967: 2966: 2963: 2960: 2959: 2954: 2951: 2949: 2946: 2944: 2939: 2936: 2935: 2930: 2928: 2925: 2923: 2920: 2917: 2916: 2911: 2909: 2906: 2904: 2901: 2899: 2896: 2894: 2891: 2890: 2889: 2888: 2884: 2883: 2878: 2873: 2872: 2865: 2862: 2860: 2857: 2855: 2852: 2850: 2847: 2845: 2842: 2840: 2837: 2835: 2832: 2830: 2825: 2821: 2818: 2816: 2813: 2811: 2808: 2807: 2806: 2803: 2802: 2799: 2798:Denominations 2794: 2793: 2782: 2779: 2777: 2774: 2772: 2769: 2767: 2764: 2762: 2759: 2758: 2757: 2756: 2753: 2750: 2749: 2744: 2741: 2739: 2736: 2734: 2731: 2729: 2724: 2722: 2719: 2717: 2714: 2712: 2709: 2707: 2704: 2702: 2699: 2697: 2694: 2692: 2689: 2687: 2684: 2682: 2677: 2675: 2672: 2670: 2667: 2665: 2662: 2660: 2657: 2655: 2652: 2650: 2647: 2646: 2645: 2644: 2641: 2638: 2637: 2632: 2629: 2627: 2626:United States 2624: 2622: 2619: 2618: 2617: 2616: 2612: 2611: 2606: 2601: 2599: 2596: 2594: 2591: 2589: 2586: 2584: 2581: 2579: 2576: 2574: 2571: 2569: 2566: 2564: 2561: 2559: 2556: 2554: 2551: 2549: 2546: 2544: 2541: 2539: 2536: 2534: 2531: 2529: 2526: 2524: 2521: 2519: 2516: 2514: 2511: 2509: 2506: 2504: 2501: 2499: 2496: 2494: 2491: 2489: 2486: 2484: 2481: 2479: 2476: 2474: 2471: 2469: 2466: 2464: 2461: 2459: 2456: 2455: 2454: 2453: 2450: 2447: 2446: 2441: 2438: 2436: 2433: 2431: 2428: 2426: 2423: 2421: 2418: 2416: 2413: 2411: 2408: 2406: 2403: 2401: 2398: 2396: 2393: 2391: 2388: 2386: 2383: 2381: 2378: 2376: 2373: 2371: 2368: 2366: 2363: 2361: 2358: 2356: 2353: 2351: 2348: 2346: 2343: 2341: 2338: 2336: 2333: 2331: 2328: 2326: 2323: 2321: 2318: 2316: 2313: 2311: 2308: 2306: 2303: 2301: 2298: 2296: 2293: 2291: 2288: 2286: 2283: 2281: 2278: 2276: 2273: 2271: 2268: 2266: 2263: 2261: 2258: 2256: 2253: 2251: 2248: 2247: 2246: 2245: 2241: 2240: 2235: 2232: 2230: 2227: 2224: 2220: 2217: 2215: 2212: 2210: 2207: 2205: 2202: 2200: 2195: 2193: 2190: 2188: 2185: 2183: 2180: 2178: 2175: 2172: 2168: 2165: 2163: 2160: 2158: 2155: 2153: 2150: 2148: 2145: 2143: 2140: 2138: 2135: 2133: 2130: 2128: 2125: 2123: 2120: 2118: 2115: 2113: 2112:Guinea-Bissau 2110: 2108: 2105: 2103: 2100: 2098: 2095: 2093: 2090: 2088: 2085: 2083: 2080: 2078: 2075: 2073: 2070: 2068: 2065: 2063: 2060: 2058: 2055: 2053: 2050: 2048: 2045: 2043: 2040: 2038: 2035: 2033: 2030: 2028: 2025: 2024: 2023: 2022: 2019: 2016: 2015: 2010: 2007: 2005: 2002: 2000: 1997: 1996: 1995: 1994: 1991: 1988: 1987: 1982: 1979: 1977: 1974: 1972: 1969: 1967: 1966:Lists of Jews 1964: 1962: 1959: 1958: 1957: 1956: 1951: 1946: 1945: 1934: 1931: 1929: 1926: 1924: 1921: 1917: 1914: 1912: 1909: 1907: 1904: 1902: 1899: 1897: 1894: 1893: 1892: 1889: 1887: 1884: 1882: 1879: 1877: 1874: 1872: 1869: 1867: 1864: 1862: 1859: 1857: 1854: 1853: 1852: 1851: 1847: 1846: 1841: 1838: 1836: 1833: 1831: 1828: 1826: 1823: 1821: 1818: 1816: 1813: 1811: 1808: 1806: 1803: 1801: 1798: 1796: 1793: 1791: 1788: 1786: 1783: 1779: 1776: 1774: 1771: 1770: 1769: 1766: 1765: 1764: 1763: 1758: 1753: 1752: 1741: 1733: 1731: 1728: 1726: 1725:The Holocaust 1723: 1721: 1718: 1716: 1713: 1711: 1708: 1706: 1703: 1701: 1698: 1696: 1693: 1691: 1688: 1687: 1686: 1685: 1681: 1680: 1675: 1672: 1670: 1667: 1665: 1662: 1660: 1652: 1650: 1645: 1641: 1635: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1623: 1620: 1619: 1618: 1617: 1613: 1610: 1609: 1602: 1596: 1590: 1585: 1582: 1578: 1572: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1544: 1541: 1539: 1536: 1534: 1529: 1527: 1524: 1522: 1519: 1518: 1517: 1516: 1513: 1510: 1509: 1504: 1499: 1497: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1481: 1476: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1460: 1454: 1451: 1449: 1446: 1444: 1439: 1437: 1434: 1433: 1432: 1431: 1428: 1425: 1424: 1419: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1409: 1406: 1404: 1401: 1399: 1396: 1394: 1391: 1389: 1386: 1384: 1381: 1379: 1376: 1375: 1374: 1373: 1369: 1368: 1363: 1358: 1357: 1346: 1343: 1340: 1339: 1334: 1332: 1329: 1327: 1326:Mishneh Torah 1324: 1322: 1319: 1317: 1314: 1313: 1312: 1311: 1306: 1303: 1301: 1298: 1297: 1296: 1295: 1292: 1289: 1288: 1283: 1280: 1278: 1275: 1274: 1273: 1272: 1269: 1266: 1265: 1260: 1257: 1255: 1252: 1250: 1247: 1246: 1245: 1244: 1241: 1238: 1237: 1232: 1227: 1226: 1219: 1216: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1199: 1196: 1194: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1184: 1181: 1179: 1176: 1174: 1171: 1169: 1164: 1162: 1159: 1157: 1152: 1150: 1147: 1145: 1142: 1140: 1137: 1135: 1132: 1130: 1127: 1124: 1120: 1117: 1115: 1112: 1109: 1105: 1102: 1101: 1098: 1093: 1092: 1087: 1086:Who is a Jew? 1084: 1082: 1079: 1078: 1077: 1076: 1073: 1069: 1066: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1056: 1048: 1046: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1016: 1014: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 991: 989: 985: 981: 977: 973: 969: 963: 961: 957: 953: 949: 944: 940: 935: 930: 928: 924: 920: 919: 914: 909: 903: 901: 896: 891: 886: 883: 878: 868: 865: 860: 855: 853: 848: 844: 843: 838: 834: 830: 826: 825: 820: 816: 810: 808: 804: 800: 795: 794:Judaeo-German 791: 786: 784: 783: 778: 774: 770: 769: 764: 760: 759:I'vri-Taitsch 756: 752: 748: 744: 740: 736: 732: 728: 723: 721: 717: 713: 709: 705: 700: 696: 693: 689: 688:Enlightenment 685: 680: 677: 672: 668: 663: 660: 656: 652: 648: 644: 638: 636: 635: 629: 628:Torah scholar 625: 621: 617: 613: 608: 598: 596: 592: 588: 587: 582: 578: 575:(1860–1880), 574: 573: 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 545: 541: 537: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 513: 512: 507: 503: 498: 496: 488: 484: 483:Beseter ra'am 480: 476: 475: 469: 465: 461: 457: 453: 452:Hebrew poetry 449: 445: 441: 437: 433: 429: 427: 423: 419: 418: 413: 409: 404: 400: 396: 390: 385: 381: 377: 373: 369: 368:Qohelet Musar 365: 361: 360:modern Hebrew 356: 354: 350: 349:Ashkenazi one 346: 342: 339:as a single " 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 318: 314: 308: 306: 301: 297: 293: 292:Isaac Satanow 289: 285: 281: 277: 272: 270: 266: 262: 258: 257: 252: 248: 233: 231: 227: 223: 222: 217: 212: 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 186: 182: 178: 172: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 138: 134: 133: 125: 121: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 77: 73: 69: 65: 61: 57: 53: 52:Solomon Dubno 49: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 7385: 7378: 7364: 7287: 7280: 7268: 7251: 7234: 7068:perspectives 6902:Samaritanism 6863:Neo-Hasidism 6843:Conservative 6768: 6757:Names of God 6666: 6647: 6457:Judaeo-Greek 6452:Judeo-Gascon 6391:Lishán Didán 6386:Lishana Deni 6354:Judeo-Yemeni 6322:Judeo-Arabic 6196:Meshuchrarim 6115:Persian Jews 6048:Kurdish Jews 6026:Kaifeng Jews 5975:Beta Abraham 5938:Galitzianers 5893:Antisemitism 5868:Israeli Jews 5853:Assimilation 5699: 5444:Catherine II 4896:Beaumarchais 4726:Universality 4697:Reductionism 4644: 4621:Human rights 4608: 4444: 4405: 4389: 4377: 4371: 4362: 4351: 4343: 4334: 4289: 4284: 4269: 4264: 4249: 4241: 4235:. p. 5. 4232: 4226: 4203: 4197: 4177: 4170: 4162: 4157: 4141: 4138: 4133: 4117: 4114: 4111:Moshe Rosman 4106: 4101: 4093: 4088: 4080: 4076: 4071: 4063: 4058: 4049: 4041: 4036: 4024:. Retrieved 4020: 4010: 4001: 3993: 3989: 3984: 3976: 3971: 3961: 3955: 3950: 3939: 3931: 3926: 3918: 3909: 3893: 3888: 3876:. Retrieved 3866: 3842: 3810:Leopold Zunz 3745: 3729: 3696: 3683: 3675: 3668:Leopold Zunz 3656: 3641: 3604: 3551: 3538: 3534:adding to it 3529: 3506: 3502: 3473: 3468:Julius Fürst 3457: 3448: 3421: 3401: 3342:Post-Zionism 3213:Judeo-Berber 3208:Judeo-Arabic 3168:Judeo-Gascon 2915:Pidyon haben 2834:Conservative 2380:Saudi Arabia 2198:South Africa 2187:Sierra Leone 2009:Israeli Jews 1923:Mosaic Arabs 1876:Kaifeng Jews 1737:Arab–Israeli 1710:Emancipation 1689: 1589:Great Revolt 1398:Anti-Judaism 1393:Antisemitism 1388:Name "Judea" 1183:Baal teshuva 1044: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1019: 1017: 1012: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 992: 988:Simon Dubnow 975: 971: 964: 959: 942: 938: 933: 931: 926: 922: 916: 913:David Sorkin 907: 904: 899: 894: 889: 887: 881: 876: 874: 863: 858: 856: 846: 840: 836: 832: 822: 811: 806: 802: 789: 787: 780: 776: 766: 758: 742: 726: 724: 698: 697: 691: 684:universalist 681: 675: 666: 664: 658: 650: 646: 642: 639: 632: 619: 611: 606: 604: 584: 576: 570: 562: 558: 554: 546: 531: 527: 509: 499: 482: 471: 467: 459: 456:Abraham Mapu 447: 439: 430: 421: 415: 394: 375: 367: 357: 332: 325:Biblical one 309: 296:Isaac Euchel 275: 273: 268: 264: 260: 254: 246: 244: 220: 219: 215: 213: 188: 173: 165:Muslim world 144: 131: 130: 128: 116:Abraham Mapu 107: 83: 63: 43: 36: 7310:Catholicism 6892:Hellenistic 6730:Eschatology 6668:Lachoudisch 6593:Lotegorisch 6571:Lachoudisch 6561:Koiné Greek 6474:Judeo-Latin 6411:Palestinian 6305:Palestinian 6154:Mustaʿravim 6080:Afghan Jews 6068:Berber Jews 5992:Bene Israel 5980:Falash Mura 5970:Beta Israel 5888:Persecution 5830:Middle Ages 5701:Romanticism 5523:Charles III 5364:Poniatowski 5301:Leeuwenhoek 5281:de la Court 5269:Netherlands 5113:Mendelssohn 5108:Lichtenberg 4986:Montesquieu 4704:Sapere aude 4687:Rationalism 4682:Rationality 4672:Objectivity 4356:(in French) 4352:ContreTemps 4254:. pp. 4109:; also cf. 3944:Psalms 81:7 3878:19 December 3828:Saul Ascher 3792:Joseph Perl 3583:Joseph Perl 3575:Rationalist 3436:Joseph Perl 3337:Revisionist 3327:Neo-Zionism 2934:Zeved habat 2727:Puerto Rico 2553:Netherlands 2385:South Korea 2370:Philippines 2250:Afghanistan 2117:Ivory Coast 1891:Crypto-Jews 1856:Bnei Anusim 1835:Bene Israel 1800:Beta Israel 1757:Communities 1664:Middle Ages 1403:Persecution 1178:Bereavement 918:Ha-Me'assef 731:Joseph Perl 577:Ha-Tsefirah 555:Kerem Hemed 504:(and later 472:Qotzo shel 460:Ahavat Zion 432:Joseph Perl 412:Shakespeare 387: [ 341:Holy Tongue 236:Definitions 193:rationalism 141:הַשְׂכָּלָה 100:Joseph Perl 56:Tobias Cohn 7410:Categories 7305:Anabaptism 7247:Jew (word) 7114:Leadership 6927:Literature 6912:Secularism 6858:Humanistic 6725:Conversion 6695:Philosophy 6536:Judeo-Urdu 6300:Babylonian 6145:Saada Jews 6130:Adeni Jews 5923:Ashkenazim 5878:Samaritans 5845:Population 5800:Israelites 5543:Villarroel 5538:Jovellanos 5474:Radishchev 5421:Micu-Klein 5359:Niemcewicz 5326:Swammerdam 5316:Nieuwentyt 5306:Mandeville 5161:Farmakidis 5047:Burlamaqui 4956:La Mettrie 4931:Fontenelle 4886:d'Argenson 4881:d'Alembert 4805:Harrington 4731:Utopianism 4631:Liberalism 4588:Empiricism 4563:Classicism 4553:Capitalism 4441:"Haskalah" 4307:Literature 4026:23 January 3858:References 3706:See also: 3654:in 1896." 3541:April 2010 3404:segregated 3322:Maximalism 3274:Secularism 3254:Autonomism 3071:Literature 2864:Humanistic 2468:Azerbaijan 2430:Uzbekistan 2405:Tajikistan 2325:Kyrgyzstan 2310:Kazakhstan 2157:Mozambique 2132:Madagascar 2052:Cape Verde 2004:New Yishuv 1999:Old Yishuv 1950:Population 1928:Subbotniks 1886:Samaritans 1825:Romanyotim 1768:Ashkenazim 1715:Old Yishuv 1695:Sabbateans 1682:Modern era 1674:Golden Age 1601:Bar Kokhba 1321:Beit Yosef 1188:Philosophy 984:Ahad Ha'am 755:Pentateuch 704:vernacular 671:Ashkenazim 511:Ha-Meassef 502:Königsberg 397:"Reign of 265:Ha-Meassef 201:relativism 197:liberalism 110:, Russia: 108:Bottom row 7367:indicate 7315:Mormonism 7300:Christian 7180:Symbolism 7168:Synagogue 7148:Mythology 7109:Education 7080:Astronomy 7063:Astrology 6880:relations 6685:Zarphatic 6633:Galitzish 6435:Yeshivish 6312:Catalanic 6275:Samaritan 6250:Ashkenazi 6231:Diasporic 6226:Languages 6171:Sephardim 6166:Romaniote 6053:Krymchaks 5987:Desi Jews 5863:Buddhists 5664:Jefferson 5606:Hutcheson 5495:Obradović 5464:Lomonosov 5459:Kheraskov 5369:Śniadecki 5133:Weishaupt 5128:Thomasius 5118:Pufendorf 4961:Lavoisier 4946:d'Holbach 4941:Helvétius 4921:Descartes 4916:Condorcet 4911:Condillac 4845:Priestley 4662:Modernity 4583:Democracy 3960:; Pelli, 3558:Misnagdic 3332:Religious 3188:Zarphatic 3178:Bukharian 3148:Judeo-Tat 3133:Yeshivish 3107:Languages 3062:Sephardic 3052:Israelite 3042:Ethiopian 3032:Ashkenazi 2971:Religious 2761:Australia 2743:Venezuela 2649:Argentina 2631:Greenland 2543:Lithuania 2395:Sri Lanka 2390:Singapore 2315:Kurdistan 2280:Indonesia 2270:Hong Kong 2223:Abayudaya 2147:Mauritius 1881:Igbo Jews 1871:Krymchaks 1790:Sephardim 1658:relations 1552:Sadducees 1548:Pharisees 1538:Sanhedrin 1453:Jerusalem 1213:Synagogue 1081:Etymology 1018:The term 1000:Parnassim 968:Socialism 782:midrashim 586:Ha-Melitz 572:Ha-Karmel 374:compiled 256:Ha-Melitz 191:promoted 185:exogenous 7416:Haskalah 7380:Category 7350:Hinduism 7340:Buddhism 7242:Genetics 7158:Politics 7131:Marriage 7090:Holidays 7085:Calendar 6966:Rabbinic 6942:/Hebrew 6887:Haymanot 6814:Orthodox 6801:Branches 6774:Kabbalah 6769:Haskalah 6747:Holiness 6623:dialects 6603:Shassagh 6566:Krymchak 6546:Kayliñña 6440:Yinglish 6416:Galilean 6406:Talmudic 6401:Biblical 6376:Betanure 6295:Biblical 6290:Mishnaic 6285:Medieval 6270:Tiberian 6265:Yemenite 6255:Sephardi 6191:Paradesi 6135:Ḥabbanim 6125:Teimanim 6090:Baghdadi 6063:Maghrebi 6031:Karaites 6009:Gruzínim 5997:Kochinim 5915:Diaspora 5873:Karaites 5858:Atheists 5795:Timeline 5714:Category 5659:Franklin 5626:Playfair 5596:Ferguson 5553:Scotland 5500:Mrazović 5454:Kantemir 5449:Fonvizin 5388:Portugal 5354:Krasicki 5349:Konarski 5344:Kołłątaj 5296:Koerbagh 5245:Genovesi 5230:Beccaria 5192:Berkeley 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1690:Haskalah 1595:Diaspora 1466:timeline 1378:Timeline 1291:Rabbinic 1198:Kabbalah 1173:Marriage 1149:Tzedakah 1139:Holidays 1097:Religion 1060:a series 1058:Part of 1045:Haskalah 1040:Haskalah 1036:Haskalah 1020:Haskalah 1013:maskilic 1008:maskilim 1004:Haskalah 996:maskilim 976:maskilim 972:Haskalah 960:maskilim 943:Haskalah 939:maskilim 934:Haskalah 927:maskilic 923:Sulamith 908:Haskalah 900:Haskalah 895:maskilic 890:maskilim 882:Haskalah 877:Haskalah 864:maskilic 859:maskilim 847:maskilim 837:Kabbalah 833:Haskalah 829:exegesis 824:Kabbalah 807:maskilim 790:maskilim 777:maskilim 768:melamdim 743:maskilim 739:Tarnopol 720:anathema 699:Haskalah 692:maskilim 676:maskilim 667:maskilim 659:maskilim 651:maskilim 647:maskilim 643:Haskalah 620:maskilim 607:Haskalah 563:Haskalah 547:Haskalah 544:Galician 540:Moravian 528:Haskalah 508:)-based 491:בסתר רעם 468:Haskalah 426:Jeshurun 276:Maskilim 269:Maskilim 247:Haskalah 226:rabbinic 221:Maskilim 216:Haskalah 189:Haskalah 163:and the 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1564:Sicarii 1560:Zealots 1556:Essenes 1543:Schisms 1408:Leaders 1370:General 1362:History 1305:Tosefta 1300:Midrash 1277:Mishnah 1259:Ketuvim 1254:Nevi'im 1203:Customs 1134:Shabbat 1129:Halakha 1121: ( 1119:Mitzvot 1106: ( 1072:Judaism 1051:Origins 956:Maghreb 948:Vilnius 735:Galicia 569:-based 567:Vilnius 553:-based 337:Aramaic 205:enquiry 153:Central 88:Galicia 84:3rd row 64:2nd row 44:Top row 18:Haskala 7173:Hazzan 7163:Prayer 7040:Siddur 6976:Talmud 6940:Tanakh 6875:Neolog 6848:Reform 6836:Modern 6819:Haredi 6742:Ethics 6608:Shassi 6576:Ladino 6541:Karaim 6524:Juhuri 6366:Targum 6280:Signed 6245:Modern 6240:Hebrew 6208:Xuetes 6004:Dönmeh 5963:Yekkes 5621:Newton 5611:Hutton 5591:Cullen 5488:Serbia 5436:Russia 5426:Șincai 5336:Poland 5276:Bekker 5250:Pagano 5212:Toland 5176:Korais 5171:Kairis 5153:Greece 5083:Herder 5078:Goethe 5042:Bonnet 5030:Geneva 5016:Turgot 5006:Raynal 4996:Pascal 4936:Gouges 4874:France 4860:Tindal 4855:Sidney 4830:Newton 4825:Milton 4800:Godwin 4795:Gibbon 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