204:
used for graphs ranged from 0% to 31%, and the variation was primarily due to the number of graphs included rather than their sizes. Further analyses by Smith in 2000, based on samples of graphs from journals in seven major scientific disciplines, found that the amount of graph usage correlated "almost perfectly" with hardness (r=0.97). They also suggested that the hierarchy applies to individual fields, and demonstrated the same result using ten subfields of psychology (r=0.93).
200:
textbooks in soft sciences to rely on more recent work, while the material in textbooks from the hard sciences was more consistent over time. After he published in 1983, it has been suggested that Cole might have missed some relationships in the data because he studied individual measurements, without accounting for the way multiple measurements could trend in the same direction, and because not all the criteria that could indicate a discipline's scientific status were analysed.
2368:
2356:
208:
field. For example, the social sciences as a whole had a 2.3-fold increased odds of positive results compared to the physical sciences, with the biological sciences in between. They added that this supported the idea that the social sciences and natural sciences differ only in degree, as long as the social sciences follow the scientific approach.
212:
possibilities (hierarchy, hard/soft distinction, or no ordering), the results supported a hierarchy, with physical sciences performing the best followed by biological sciences and then social sciences. The results also held within disciplines, as well as when mathematics and the humanities were included.
199:
conducted a number of empirical studies attempting to find evidence for a hierarchy of scientific disciplines, and was unable to find significant differences in terms of core of knowledge, degree of codification, or research material. Differences that he did find evidence for included a tendency for
226:
stated that social science findings are more likely to intersect with everyday experience and may be dismissed as "obvious or insignificant" as a result. Being labelled a soft science can affect the perceived value of a discipline to society and the amount of funding available to it. In the 1980s,
203:
In 1984, Cleveland performed a survey of 57 journals and found that natural science journals used many more graphs than journals in mathematics or social science, and that social science journals often presented large amounts of observational data in the absence of graphs. The amount of page area
186:
specifically distinguished between the natural sciences as hard and the social sciences as soft. He defined hardness in terms of the degree to which a field uses mathematics and described a trend of scientific fields increasing in hardness over time, identifying features of increased hardness as
207:
In a 2010 article, Fanelli proposed that we expect more positive outcomes in "softer" sciences because there are fewer constraints on researcher bias. They found that among research papers that tested a hypothesis, the frequency of positive results was predicted by the perceived hardness of the
137:
or selectivity in accepting new results. Commonly cited methodological differences are also not a reliable indicator. For example, social sciences such as psychology and sociology use mathematical models extensively, but are usually considered soft sciences. However, there are some measurable
211:
In 2013, Fanelli tested whether the ability of researchers in a field to "achieve consensus and accumulate knowledge" increases with the hardness of the science, and sampled 29,000 papers from 12 disciplines using measurements that indicate the degree of scholarly consensus. Out of the three
169:(1798‒1857). He identified astronomy as the most general science, followed by physics, chemistry, biology, then sociology. This view was highly influential, and was intended to classify fields based on their degree of intellectual development and the complexity of their subject matter.
334:
Comte viewed astronomy as studying the physics of the entire cosmos, calling it "celestial physics". He classified the rest of physics (under the modern definition) as "terrestrial physics", which was therefore less
1454:
239:, describing Huntington's use of mathematics to quantify the relationship between factors such as "social frustration" (Lang asked Huntington if he possessed a "social-frustration meter") as "
262:
with a higher proportion of women in a given field leading to a "soft" perception even within STEM fields. This perception of softness is accompanied by a devaluation of the field's worth.
149:
The metaphor has been criticised for unduly stigmatizing soft sciences, creating an unwarranted imbalance in the public perception, funding, and recognition of different fields.
133:
have questioned the relationship between these characteristics and perceived hardness or softness. The more "developed" hard sciences do not necessarily have a greater degree of
182:. He explored why he considered some scientific fields to be more productive than others, though he did not actually use the terms themselves. In 1967, sociologist of science
220:
Critics of the concept argue that soft sciences are implicitly considered to be less "legitimate" scientific fields, or simply not scientific at all. An editorial in
1485:
187:
including better integration and organization of knowledge, an improved ability to detect errors, and an increase in the difficulty of learning the subject.
247:, social science was disproportionately targeted for funding cuts compared to mathematics and natural science. Proposals were made for the United States'
1346:
1049:
Platt, J. R. (16 October 1964). "Strong
Inference: Certain systematic methods of scientific thinking may produce much more rapid progress than others".
1462:
183:
157:
The origin of the terms "hard science" and "soft science" is obscure. The earliest attested use of "hard science" is found in an 1858 issue of the
1529:
1320:
1190:
Simonton DK (2004). "Psychology's Status as a
Scientific Discipline: Its Empirical Placement Within an Implicit Hierarchy of the Sciences".
822:
Lodahl, Janice Beyer; Gordon, Gerald (1972). "The
Structure of Scientific Fields and the Functioning of University Graduate Departments".
450:
409:
2148:
1585:
751:
1814:
1985:
1807:
1522:
720:
1557:
667:
1428:
2168:
2163:
2116:
1797:
700:
499:
Smith LD, Best LA, Stubbs A, Johnston J, Archibald AB (2000). "Scientific Graphs and the
Hierarchy of the Sciences".
255:
altogether. Both of these incidents prompted critical discussion of the distinction between hard and soft sciences.
2178:
2392:
2348:
1515:
95:, higher levels of consensus, faster progression of the field, greater explanatory success, cumulativeness,
2038:
2031:
305:
236:
17:
1890:
1865:
1850:
248:
172:
The modern distinction between hard and soft science is often attributed to a 1964 article published in
196:
72:
Precise definitions vary, but features often cited as characteristic of hard science include producing
874:"Random Drift versus Selection in Academic Vocabulary: An Evolutionary Analysis of Published Keywords"
2063:
2043:
1951:
1947:
1870:
1562:
557:
162:
108:
1486:"More women in a STEM field leads people to label it as a 'soft science,' according to new research"
799:
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1708:
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84:
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1956:
1910:
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1669:
1595:
1552:
794:
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783:"How hard is hard science, how soft is soft science? The empirical cumulativeness of research"
2106:
2058:
2026:
2016:
1975:
1755:
1632:
1538:
126:
92:
76:
684:
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1961:
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960:
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612:
285:
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232:
134:
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8:
2153:
1835:
1728:
1703:
1688:
1617:
472:
445:
271:
1277:
996:
Winkworth, Thos. (29 October 1858). "Journal of the
Society of Arts, Vol. 6, no. 310]".
964:
899:
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616:
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2143:
1966:
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310:
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130:
88:
80:
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1990:
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1131:
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1074:
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371:
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42:
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1995:
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1286:
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908:
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139:
120:
54:
1402:
2372:
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2101:
1740:
1649:
1109:
808:
512:
276:
62:
50:
857:
Latour, B. (1990). "Drawing things together". In M. Lynch; S. Woolgar (eds.).
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1203:
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240:
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96:
38:
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differences between hard and soft sciences. For example, hard sciences make
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1938:
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259:
1507:
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2213:
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1933:
1920:
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843:
574:
228:
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1980:
1573:
376:
359:
143:
103:. A closely related idea (originating in the nineteenth century with
1238:
973:
948:
835:
2000:
1718:
1030:(3rd ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. June 2015
566:
73:
1429:"Social science emulates scientific method to escape retrenchment"
890:
1698:
1151:"The hard sciences and the soft: some sociological observations"
601:""Positive" results increase down the Hierarchy of the Sciences"
1765:
112:
1455:"Congress should cut funding for political science research"
165:
can be found earlier, in the work of the French philosopher
1644:
1375:"Serge Lang, 78, a Gadfly and Mathematical Theorist, Dies"
1225:
Cleveland WS (1984). "Graphs in
Scientific Publications".
142:, and soft sciences are more prone to a rapid turnover of
1403:"Humanities to lose English universities teaching grant"
815:
660:
Scientific
Uncertainty and Environmental Problem Solving
543:
Cole, Stephen (1983). "The
Hierarchy of the Sciences?".
258:
The perception of hard vs soft science is influenced by
1262:"Bibliometric Evidence for a Hierarchy of the Sciences"
498:
473:"What Is the Difference Between Hard and Soft Science?"
1344:
1347:"Science Academy Rejects Harvard Political Scientist"
231:
successfully blocked influential political scientist
1373:Change, Kenneth; Warren Leary (25 September 2005).
752:"Soft sciences are often harder than hard sciences"
1372:
688:
2384:
1094:"On the Hard and Soft Sciences in Public Health"
111:of hard to soft on the basis of factors such as
1345:Johnson, George; Laura Mansnerus (3 May 1987).
745:
743:
741:
49:, exactitude, and objectivity. In general, the
1259:
943:
941:
939:
937:
1523:
1218:
1183:
1091:
594:
592:
403:
401:
399:
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395:
354:
352:
99:, and generally applying a purer form of the
1224:
865:
821:
738:
709:
471:Helmenstine, Anne Marie (29 November 2019).
410:"'Soft' sciences don't deserve the snobbery"
1253:
1189:
934:
872:Bentley, R. A. (2008). Allen, Colin (ed.).
861:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 19–68.
538:
536:
534:
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486:
470:
1530:
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1400:
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589:
434:
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430:
392:
349:
2186:
2149:Relationship between religion and science
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1125:
995:
972:
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798:
634:
624:
598:
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375:
676:
527:
483:
107:) is that scientific disciplines can be
1318:
871:
749:
721:"How Reliable Are the Social Sciences?"
715:
427:
152:
14:
2385:
1401:Richardson, Hannah (26 October 2010).
1148:
856:
780:
657:
407:
115:, "development", and whether they are
1511:
1048:
859:Representation in scientific practice
691:Lifelines: Biology Beyond Determinism
251:to cease funding disciplines such as
1452:
1426:
682:
542:
190:
65:and other sciences are described as
695:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
408:Wilson, Timothy D. (12 July 2012).
24:
998:The Journal of the Society of Arts
25:
2404:
2169:Sociology of scientific knowledge
2164:Sociology of scientific ignorance
2117:History and philosophy of science
1483:
1319:Berezow, Alex B. (13 July 2012).
438:
2366:
2354:
91:, a high degree of accuracy and
1477:
1446:
1420:
1394:
1366:
1338:
1312:
1085:
1042:
1016:
989:
850:
774:
328:
1558:Analytic–synthetic distinction
1427:Jump, Paul (20 January 2011).
1321:"Why psychology isn't science"
750:Diamond, Jared (August 1987).
651:
464:
159:Journal of the Society of Arts
13:
1:
1453:Lane, Charles (4 June 2012).
1260:Fanelli D, Glänzel W (2013).
545:American Journal of Sociology
342:
1287:10.1371/journal.pone.0066938
1192:Review of General Psychology
1092:VanLandingham, Mark (2014).
1063:10.1126/science.146.3642.347
909:10.1371/journal.pone.0003057
824:American Sociological Review
781:Hedges, Larry (1 May 1987).
626:10.1371/journal.pone.0010068
441:"Soft science and hard news"
306:Philosophy of social science
237:National Academy of Sciences
215:
140:more extensive use of graphs
7:
1891:Hypothetico-deductive model
1866:Deductive-nomological model
1851:Constructivist epistemology
360:"In praise of soft science"
265:
249:National Science Foundation
10:
2409:
1110:10.1177/003335491412900204
809:10.1037/0003-066X.42.5.443
513:10.1177/030631200030001003
45:on the basis of perceived
27:Fields of scientific study
2345:
2177:
2079:
2009:
1952:Semantic view of theories
1871:Epistemological anarchism
1823:
1808:dependent and independent
1545:
1227:The American Statistician
1028:Oxford English Dictionary
662:. Blackwell. p. 99.
501:Social Studies of Science
370:(7045): 1003–2005. 2005.
195:In the 1970s sociologist
163:hierarchy of the sciences
109:arranged into a hierarchy
1694:Intertheoretic reduction
1683:Ignoramus et ignorabimus
1660:Functional contextualism
1204:10.1037/1089-2680.8.1.59
321:
2179:Philosophers of science
1957:Scientific essentialism
1906:Model-dependent realism
1841:Constructive empiricism
1734:Evidence-based practice
235:'s admission to the US
2262:Alfred North Whitehead
2252:Charles Sanders Peirce
1433:Times Higher Education
1149:Storer, N. W. (1967).
296:Methodological dualism
81:controlled experiments
41:terms used to compare
2393:Philosophy of science
2361:Philosophy portal
2112:Hard and soft science
2107:Faith and rationality
1976:Scientific skepticism
1756:Scientific Revolution
1539:Philosophy of science
1098:Public Health Reports
787:American Psychologist
683:Rose, Steven (1997).
658:Lemons, John (1996).
245:late 2000s recessions
131:historians of science
2087:Criticism of science
1962:Scientific formalism
1846:Constructive realism
1751:Scientific pluralism
1724:Problem of induction
949:"A different agenda"
286:soft science fiction
233:Samuel P. Huntington
161:, but the idea of a
153:History of the terms
47:methodological rigor
2154:Rhetoric of science
2092:Descriptive science
1836:Confirmation holism
1729:Scientific evidence
1689:Inductive reasoning
1618:Demarcation problem
1490:theconversation.com
1459:The Washington Post
1278:2013PLoSO...866938F
1155:Bull Med Libr Assoc
1024:"hard, adj. and n."
965:2012Natur.487Q.271.
959:(7407): 271. 2012.
900:2008PLoSO...3.3057B
762:on 13 December 2012
617:2010PLoSO...510068F
446:Columbia University
272:Demarcation problem
89:mathematical models
2373:Science portal
2302:Carl Gustav Hempel
2257:Wilhelm Windelband
2144:Questionable cause
1967:Scientific realism
1788:Underdetermination
1623:Empirical evidence
1613:Creative synthesis
1492:. The Conversation
1465:on 29 October 2013
1380:The New York Times
1352:The New York Times
725:The New York Times
599:Fanelli D (2010).
311:Positivism dispute
291:History of science
2380:
2379:
2222:
2221:
2134:Normative science
1991:Uniformitarianism
1746:Scientific method
1640:Explanatory power
1325:Los Angeles Times
1057:(3642): 347–353.
414:Los Angeles Times
253:political science
191:Empirical support
101:scientific method
43:scientific fields
16:(Redirected from
2400:
2371:
2370:
2359:
2358:
2357:
2332:Bas van Fraassen
2287:Hans Reichenbach
2267:Bertrand Russell
2184:
2183:
2010:Philosophy of...
1793:Unity of science
1586:Commensurability
1532:
1525:
1518:
1509:
1508:
1502:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1484:Light, Alysson.
1481:
1475:
1474:
1472:
1470:
1461:. Archived from
1450:
1444:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1398:
1392:
1391:
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1370:
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1363:
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1342:
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1316:
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1299:
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1257:
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1146:
1140:
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1129:
1089:
1083:
1082:
1046:
1040:
1039:
1037:
1035:
1020:
1014:
1013:
1004:(310): 697–706.
993:
987:
986:
976:
945:
932:
931:
921:
911:
893:
869:
863:
862:
854:
848:
847:
819:
813:
812:
802:
778:
772:
771:
769:
767:
758:. Archived from
747:
736:
735:
733:
731:
713:
707:
706:
694:
680:
674:
673:
655:
649:
648:
638:
628:
596:
587:
586:
560:
558:10.1.1.1033.9702
540:
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524:
496:
481:
480:
468:
462:
461:
459:
457:
436:
425:
424:
422:
420:
405:
390:
389:
379:
377:10.1038/4351003a
356:
336:
332:
184:Norman W. Storer
55:natural sciences
21:
2408:
2407:
2403:
2402:
2401:
2399:
2398:
2397:
2383:
2382:
2381:
2376:
2365:
2355:
2353:
2341:
2322:Paul Feyerabend
2282:Michael Polanyi
2218:
2204:Galileo Galilei
2173:
2159:Science studies
2075:
2005:
1996:Verificationism
1901:Instrumentalism
1886:Foundationalism
1861:Conventionalism
1819:
1655:Feminist method
1541:
1536:
1506:
1505:
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1371:
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1355:
1343:
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1327:
1317:
1313:
1258:
1254:
1239:10.2307/2683400
1223:
1219:
1188:
1184:
1147:
1143:
1090:
1086:
1047:
1043:
1033:
1031:
1022:
1021:
1017:
994:
990:
974:10.1038/487271a
947:
946:
935:
870:
866:
855:
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836:10.2307/2093493
820:
816:
800:10.1.1.408.2317
779:
775:
765:
763:
748:
739:
729:
727:
719:(17 May 2012).
714:
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703:
681:
677:
670:
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597:
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541:
528:
497:
484:
469:
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455:
453:
439:Frost, Pamela.
437:
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358:
357:
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333:
329:
324:
268:
218:
193:
155:
63:social sciences
57:are considered
51:formal sciences
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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2307:W. V. O. Quine
2304:
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2269:
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2259:
2254:
2249:
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2242:Rudolf Steiner
2239:
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2232:Henri Poincaré
2229:
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2220:
2219:
2217:
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2211:
2206:
2201:
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2172:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2131:
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2129:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2102:Exact sciences
2099:
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2089:
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2080:Related topics
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2051:
2046:
2039:Social science
2036:
2035:
2034:
2032:Space and time
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2019:
2013:
2011:
2007:
2006:
2004:
2003:
1998:
1993:
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1983:
1978:
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1741:Scientific law
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1701:
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1650:Falsifiability
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2247:Karl Pearson
2237:Pierre Duhem
2209:Isaac Newton
2139:Protoscience
2111:
2097:Epistemology
1971:Anti-realism
1969: /
1950: /
1941: /
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1925:Reductionism
1923: /
1896:Inductionism
1876:Evolutionism
1681:
1568:a posteriori
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85:quantifiable
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2312:Thomas Kuhn
2297:Karl Popper
2277:C. D. Broad
2194:Roger Bacon
2122:Non-science
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2044:Archaeology
1939:Rationalism
1929:Determinism
1916:Physicalism
1881:Fallibilism
1831:Coherentism
1761:Testability
1714:Observation
1709:Objectivity
1670:alternative
1601:Correlation
1591:Consilience
1469:19 December
1438:19 December
1412:19 December
1386:19 December
1358:19 December
1330:19 December
766:19 December
730:19 December
419:19 December
316:STEM fields
301:Non-science
260:gender bias
93:objectivity
77:predictions
2214:David Hume
2187:Precursors
2069:Psychology
2049:Economics‎
1943:Empiricism
1934:Pragmatism
1921:Positivism
1911:Naturalism
1781:scientific
1665:Hypothesis
1628:Experiment
1496:25 January
343:References
229:Serge Lang
39:colloquial
2054:Geography
2022:Chemistry
1981:Scientism
1776:ladenness
1596:Construct
1574:Causality
1212:145134072
1118:0033-3549
1071:0036-8075
1034:10 August
891:0807.1182
795:CiteSeerX
583:144920176
553:CiteSeerX
521:145685575
477:ThoughtCo
456:10 August
216:Criticism
144:buzzwords
135:consensus
87:data and
2387:Category
2349:Category
2001:Vitalism
1824:Theories
1798:Variable
1719:Paradigm
1606:function
1564:A priori
1553:Analysis
1546:Concepts
1407:BBC News
1306:23840557
1266:PLOS ONE
1136:24587545
1079:17739513
1010:41323682
983:22810654
928:18728786
878:PLOS ONE
756:Discover
645:20383332
605:PLOS ONE
451:Metanews
386:15973363
335:general.
266:See also
74:testable
2059:History
2027:Physics
2017:Biology
1815:more...
1803:control
1699:Inquiry
1297:3694152
1274:Bibcode
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1177:6016373
1127:3904890
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896:Bibcode
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175:Science
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517:S2CID
322:Notes
117:basic
113:rigor
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