389:, people and material are moved where they are needed. Large cities might field good teams due to the greater availability of high quality players; and teams that can practice longer (possibly due to sunnier weather and better facilities) can reasonably be expected to be better. In addition, you put your best and brightest in places where they can do the most good—such as on high-value weapons programs. It is an anomaly for a small city to field such a good team. The anomaly indirectly described a condition by which the observer inferred a new meaningful pattern—that the small city was no longer small. Why would you put a large city of your best and brightest in the middle of nowhere? To hide them, of course.
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The validity of an inference depends on the form of the inference. That is, the word "valid" does not refer to the truth of the premises or the conclusion, but rather to the form of the inference. An inference can be valid even if the parts are false, and can be invalid even if some parts are true.
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By contrast, everyday reasoning is mostly non-monotonic because it involves risk: we jump to conclusions from deductively insufficient premises. We know when it is worth or even necessary (e.g. in medical diagnosis) to take the risk. Yet we are also aware that such inference is defeasible—that new
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Bayesians identify probabilities with degrees of beliefs, with certainly true propositions having probability 1, and certainly false propositions having probability 0. To say that "it's going to rain tomorrow" has a 0.9 probability is to say that you consider the possibility of rain tomorrow as
459:(KB) is a set of propositions that represent what the system knows about the world. Several techniques can be used by that system to extend KB by means of valid inferences. An additional requirement is that the conclusions the system arrives at are
217:
This definition is disputable (due to its lack of clarity. Ref: Oxford
English dictionary: "induction ... 3. Logic the inference of a general law from particular instances." ) The definition given thus applies only when the "conclusion" is general.
744:, inference to the best explanation, etc.). More recently logicians have begun to approach the phenomenon from a formal point of view. The result is a large body of theories at the interface of philosophy, logic and artificial intelligence.
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to find this best explanation. The
Bayesian view has a number of desirable features—one of them is that it embeds deductive (certain) logic as a subset (this prompts some writers to call Bayesian probability "probability logic", following
214:. The conclusion may be correct or incorrect, or correct to within a certain degree of accuracy, or correct in certain situations. Conclusions inferred from multiple observations may be tested by additional observations.
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starts winning game after game. The team even defeats the Moscow team. Inference: The small city in
Siberia is not a small city anymore. The Soviets are working on their own nuclear or high-value secret weapons program.
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uses mathematics to draw conclusions in the presence of uncertainty. This generalizes deterministic reasoning, with the absence of uncertainty as a special case. Statistical inference uses quantitative or qualitative
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information may undermine old conclusions. Various kinds of defeasible but remarkably successful inference have traditionally captured the attention of philosophers (theories of induction, Peirce's theory of
382:: people and material are told where to go and what to do. The small city was remote and historically had never distinguished itself; its soccer season was typically short because of the weather.
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Various fields study how inference is done in practice. Human inference (i.e. how humans draw conclusions) is traditionally studied within the fields of logic, argumentation studies, and
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Through the rules of probability, the probability of a conclusion and of alternatives can be calculated. The best explanation is most often identified with the most probable (see
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470:. In this context, an 'inference engine' refers to the system or hardware performing these operations. This type of inference is widely used in applications ranging from
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The reader can check that the premises and conclusion are true, but logic is concerned with inference: does the truth of the conclusion follow from that of the premises?
1783:
Waltz, James A.; Knowlton, Barbara J.; Holyoak, Keith J.; Boone, Kyle B.; Mishkin, Fred S.; de
Menezes Santos, Marcia; Thomas, Carmen R.; Miller, Bruce L. (Mar 1999).
736:. Deductive inference is monotonic: if a conclusion is reached on the basis of a certain set of premises, then that conclusion still holds if more premises are added.
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AI systems first provided automated logical inference and these were once extremely popular research topics, leading to industrial applications under the form of
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When a valid argument is used to derive a false conclusion from a false premise, the inference is valid because it follows the form of a correct inference.
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A valid argument with a false premise may lead to a false conclusion, (this and the following examples do not follow the Greek syllogism):
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249:, correct three part inferences, that can be used as building blocks for more complex reasoning. We begin with a famous example:
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Psillos, Stathis (2009). "An
Explorer upon Untrodden Ground". In Gabbay, Dov M.; Hartmann, Stephan; Woods, John (eds.).
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599:). Finally ?- mortal(X) (Is anything mortal) would result in "Yes" (and in some implementations: "Yes": X=socrates)
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This states that all men are mortal and that
Socrates is a man. Now we can ask the Prolog system about Socrates:
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Additionally, the term 'inference' has also been applied to the process of generating predictions from trained
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can be used for vastly more complicated inference tasks. See the corresponding article for further examples.
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To show that this form is invalid, we demonstrate how it can lead from true premises to a false conclusion.
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if the addition of premises does not undermine previously reached conclusions; otherwise the relation is
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In this case we have one false premise and one true premise where a true conclusion has been inferred.
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830: – Cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject to another
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Burns, B. D. (1996). "Meta-Analogical
Transfer: Transfer Between Episodes of Analogical Reasoning".
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An
Application of the Theory of Computational Complexity to the Study of Inductive Inference
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Proceedings of the 30th Annual
Conference of the Cognitive Science Society. Washington/DC
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have compiled large lists of them, and cognitive psychologists have documented many
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A valid argument can also be used to derive a true conclusion from a false premise:
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899: – Systematic logical process capable of deriving a conclusion from hypotheses
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means to "carry forward". Inference is theoretically traditionally divided into
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1286:. Handbook of the History of Logic. Vol. 10. Elsevier. pp. 117–152.
19:
For the 1992 album by pianist
Marilyn Crispell and saxophonist Tim Berne, see
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conclusion. A third type of inference is sometimes distinguished, notably by
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595:, and hence defaults to any property about Plato being false (the so-called
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researchers develop automated inference systems to emulate human inference.
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An inference system's job is to extend a knowledge base automatically. The
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1420:"Reasoning, Models, and Images: Behavioral Measures and Cortical Activity"
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Evidence: It is the early 1950s and you are an American stationed in the
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If the premises are true, then the conclusion is necessarily true, too.
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But a valid form with true premises will always have a true conclusion.
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Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
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798: – Inference seeking the simplest and most likely explanation
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can be logically processed, i.e., inferences can be made upon it.
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be deduced from the KB using the rules) gives the answer "Yes".
515:. We enter into our Knowledge Base the following piece of code:
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2018:
1054:(2nd ed.), Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall,
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367:
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114:
1785:"A System for Relational Reasoning in Human Prefrontal Cortex"
1689:"Preferred mental models in reasoning about spatial relations"
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2408:
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Gabbay, Dov M.; Hartmann, Stephan; Woods, John, eds. (2009).
890: – Type of diagrammatic notation for propositional logic
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842:
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159:
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1225:. Handbook of the History of Logic. Vol. 10. Elsevier.
1143:"Inductive Inference of Formal Languages from Positive Data"
627:
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A conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning.
206:
The process by which a conclusion is inferred from multiple
2170:
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On the other hand, asking the Prolog system the following:
792: – Two types of knowledge, justification, or argument
26:. For the process in statistics and machine learning, see
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1782:
1894:
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910: – In mathematics, a statement that has been proven
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1414:
Knauff, Markus; Fangmeier, Thomas; Ruff, Christian C.;
892:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
883:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
838:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
818:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1280:
An Explorer upon Untrodden Ground: Peirce on Abduction
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Automated abduction: Inference to the best explanation
1023:
Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms
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Therefore, John Lennon was a musician. (Valid, True)
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Psychological investigations about human reasoning:
1220:
1117:. Vol. 2. The University of California Press.
33:"Inferred" redirects here. Not to be confused with
1351:
1339:
1106:. Vol. 1. The University of California Press.
1102:Carnap, Rudolf; Jeffrey, Richard C., eds. (1971).
1072:
968:An Introduction to Probability and Inductive Logic
541:
198:) data which may be subject to random variations.
1517:"Illusory Inferences about Embedded Disjunctions"
1500:Mental Models, Deductive Reasoning, and the Brain
1313:(Ph.D.). University of London, Imperial College.
933:
853: – Logical inference from a single statement
139:, a distinction that in Europe dates at least to
4439:
1551:The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology
1358:""If" and the Problems of Conditional Reasoning"
270:For example, consider the form of the following
67:but its sources remain unclear because it lacks
1136:(Ph.D.). University of California at Berkeley.
2357:
1910:
1599:
1493:
1101:
1040:
616:a new field of application. Being based upon
340:All tall people are musicians. (Valid, False)
221:Two possible definitions of "inference" are:
1184:
642:for inference use the mathematical rules of
353:
237:
662:). A central rule of Bayesian inference is
638:Philosophers and scientists who follow the
620:, knowledge expressed using one variant of
551:(if P then Q) then in Prolog we would code
518:mortal(X) :- man(X). man(socrates).
2364:
2350:
1917:
1903:
1605:"Mental Models and Probabilistic Thinking"
1268:O'Rourke, P.; Josephson, J., eds. (1997).
1185:Angluin, Dana; Smith, Carl H. (Sep 1983).
1114:Studies in Inductive Logic and Probability
1104:Studies in Inductive Logic and Probability
1051:Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach
845: – Statement that is taken to be true
452:has had a stronger basis in formal logic.
329:Therefore, John Lennon was French. (False)
315:Therefore, all bananas are apples. (False)
228:The process of reaching such a conclusion.
1757:
1707:
1438:
1318:
1187:"Inductive Inference: Theory and Methods"
1161:
628:Bayesian statistics and probability logic
98:Learn how and when to remove this message
1823:Bucciarelli, Monica; Khemlani, Sangeet;
988:Probability Theory: The Logic of Science
1276:
1239:
1140:
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284:Therefore, all beef comes from animals.
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715:
612:Recently automatic reasoners found in
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1739:"Visual imagery can impede reasoning"
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916: – Type of statistical inference
397:An incorrect inference is known as a
150:from premises known or assumed to be
679:
417:
39:
2092:Analytic and synthetic propositions
1963:Formal semantics (natural language)
1890:Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
1829:"The Psychology of Moral Reasoning"
1538:McCloy, Rachel; Byrne, Ruth M. J.;
1311:Hybrid Abductive Inductive Learning
1308:
881: – Statement in a metalanguage
810: – Method of logical reasoning
527:can be read as "if". Generally, if
343:John Lennon was tall. (Valid, True)
323:All tall people are French. (False)
143:(300s BCE). Deduction is inference
13:
4473:Concepts in the philosophy of mind
1292:10.1016/B978-0-444-52936-7.50004-5
965:
958:
870: – Study of correct reasoning
489:(for "Programming in Logic") is a
14:
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1865:
1427:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
1111:Jeffrey, Richard C., ed. (1980).
984:
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2304:
1881:Inference example and definition
1497:(1995). Gazzaniga, M. S. (ed.).
1067:
1016:
768:
754:
683:
481:
409:that favor incorrect reasoning.
291:Now we turn to an invalid form.
44:
1544:"Understanding Cumulative Risk"
1506:. MIT Press. pp. 999–1008.
985:Jaynes, Edwin Thompson (2003).
914:Transduction (machine learning)
607:
412:
2371:
1457:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-DC8B-C
1341:Johnson-Laird, Philip Nicholas
1079:. Cambridge University Press.
1026:. Cambridge University Press.
991:. Cambridge University Press.
970:. Cambridge University Press.
927:
669:
536:
378:Knowns: The Soviet Union is a
162:. Induction is inference from
1:
4104:
1683:Jahn, Georg; Knauff, Markus;
1163:10.1016/s0019-9958(80)90285-5
920:
591:does not know anything about
312:All bananas are fruit. (True)
201:
3893:Ordinary language philosophy
2384:
1836:Judgment and Decision Making
1624:10.1016/0010-0277(94)90028-0
1365:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
1343:; Byrne, Ruth M. J. (1992).
1246:. Harvard University Press.
326:John Lennon was tall. (True)
309:All apples are fruit. (True)
278:All meat comes from animals.
7:
3943:Contemporary utilitarianism
3858:Internalism and externalism
1669:10.1037/0278-7393.22.4.1032
1243:Fact, Fiction, and Forecast
747:
728:A relation of inference is
476:natural language processing
232:
125:; etymologically, the word
10:
4539:
4463:Concepts in metaphilosophy
3207:Svatantrika and Prasangika
2846:
1449:10.1162/089892903321662949
1377:10.1016/j.tics.2009.04.003
903:List of rules of inference
719:
673:
631:
421:
370:team from a small city in
243:Ancient Greek philosophers
32:
18:
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2419:Philosophy of information
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2176:Necessity and sufficiency
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1996:
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1848:10.1017/S1930297500001479
1563:10.1080/17470210903024784
1075:Understanding Probability
804: – Form of reasoning
450:automated theorem proving
407:biases in human reasoning
401:. Philosophers who study
354:Example for definition #2
238:Example for definition #1
4453:Concepts in epistemology
1601:Johnson-Laird, Philip N.
1540:Johnson-Laird, Philip N.
1495:Johnson-Laird, Philip N.
1309:Ray, Oliver (Dec 2005).
1240:Goodman, Nelson (1983).
660:Bayesian decision theory
53:This article includes a
4468:Concepts in metaphysics
3898:Postanalytic philosophy
3839:Experimental philosophy
1801:10.1111/1467-9280.00118
1150:Information and Control
857:Inferential programming
597:closed world assumption
584:gives the answer "No".
571:signifies a query: Can
301:Therefore, all C are A.
187:artificial intelligence
174:, contradistinguishing
156:laws of valid inference
82:more precise citations.
4031:Social constructionism
3043:Hellenistic philosophy
2459:Theoretical philosophy
2434:Philosophy of religion
2424:Philosophy of language
1746:Memory & Cognition
1696:Memory & Cognition
1141:Angluin, Dana (1980).
1132:Angluin, Dana (1976).
543:
448:. More recent work on
259:All Greeks are mortal.
256:All Greeks are humans.
253:All humans are mortal.
172:Charles Sanders Peirce
4414:Philosophy portal
3933:Scientific skepticism
3913:Reformed epistemology
2439:Philosophy of science
2311:Philosophy portal
1789:Psychological Science
1526:. pp. 2128–2133.
1206:10.1145/356914.356918
966:Hacking, Ian (2001).
564:?- mortal(socrates).
544:
508:Let us return to our
446:business rule engines
191:Statistical inference
28:Statistical inference
4518:Sources of knowledge
4493:Logic and statistics
4483:Intellectual history
3834:Critical rationalism
3541:Edo neo-Confucianism
3385:Acintya bheda abheda
3364:Renaissance humanism
3075:School of the Sextii
2449:Practical philosophy
2444:Political philosophy
1825:Johnson-Laird, P. N.
1735:Johnson-Laird, P. N.
1685:Johnson-Laird, P. N.
1513:Johnson-Laird, P. N.
1416:Johnson-Laird, P. N.
1354:Johnson-Laird, P. N.
1262:Abductive inference:
1096:Inductive inference:
874:Logic of information
542:{\displaystyle \to }
533:
491:programming language
436:business rule engine
245:defined a number of
183:cognitive psychology
123:logical consequences
4503:Metaphysics of mind
4498:Logical consequence
3405:Nimbarka Sampradaya
3316:Korean Confucianism
3063:Academic Skepticism
1973:Philosophy of logic
1511:Khemlani, Sangeet;
1352:Byrne, Ruth M. J.;
950:on 9 December 2003.
851:Immediate inference
808:Inductive reasoning
802:Deductive reasoning
796:Abductive reasoning
722:Non-monotonic logic
716:Non-monotonic logic
393:Incorrect inference
212:inductive reasoning
148:logical conclusions
4026:Post-structuralism
3928:Scientific realism
3883:Quinean naturalism
3863:Logical positivism
3819:Analytical Marxism
3038:Peripatetic school
2950:Chinese naturalism
2477:Aesthetic response
2404:Applied philosophy
2272:Rules of inference
2241:Mathematical logic
1983:Semantics of logic
1759:10.3758/bf03194937
1709:10.3758/bf03192939
1042:Russell, Stuart J.
937:Nonmonotonic Logic
695:. You can help by
655:extremely likely.
640:Bayesian framework
634:Bayesian inference
581:?- mortal(plato).
539:
499:predicate calculus
385:Explanation: In a
362:. You read in the
55:list of references
16:Steps in reasoning
4458:Concepts in logic
4435:
4434:
4397:
4396:
4393:
4392:
4389:
4388:
4095:
4094:
4091:
4090:
4087:
4086:
3814:Analytic feminism
3786:
3785:
3748:Kierkegaardianism
3710:Transcendentalism
3670:Neo-scholasticism
3516:Classical Realism
3493:
3492:
3265:
3264:
3080:Neopythagoreanism
2837:
2836:
2833:
2832:
2454:Social philosophy
2339:
2338:
2295:
2294:
2129:Deductive closure
2075:
2074:
2014:Critical thinking
1301:978-0-444-52936-7
1232:978-0-444-52936-7
1194:Computing Surveys
1086:978-0-521-70172-3
1033:978-0-521-64298-9
1018:McKay, David J.C.
998:978-0-521-59271-0
977:978-0-521-77501-4
934:Fuhrmann, André.
897:Rule of inference
879:Logical assertion
776:Psychology portal
762:Philosophy portal
713:
712:
618:description logic
573:mortal(socrates).
503:backward chaining
472:image recognition
418:Inference engines
366:newspaper that a
281:All beef is meat.
158:being studied in
108:
107:
100:
4530:
4478:History of logic
4424:
4423:
4412:
4411:
4410:
4127:
4126:
4118:
4117:
4101:
4100:
3991:Frankfurt School
3938:Transactionalism
3888:Normative ethics
3868:Legal positivism
3844:Falsificationism
3829:Consequentialism
3824:Communitarianism
3797:
3796:
3665:New Confucianism
3504:
3503:
3311:Neo-Confucianism
3276:
3275:
3085:Second Sophistic
3070:Middle Platonism
2913:
2912:
2854:
2853:
2843:
2842:
2686:Epiphenomenalism
2553:Consequentialism
2487:Institutionalism
2392:
2391:
2381:
2380:
2366:
2359:
2352:
2343:
2342:
2309:
2308:
2307:
2229:
2228:
1994:
1993:
1958:Computer science
1919:
1912:
1905:
1896:
1895:
1859:
1833:
1812:
1779:
1761:
1743:
1733:Knauff, Markus;
1729:
1711:
1702:(8): 2075–2087.
1693:
1672:
1663:(4): 1032–1048.
1643:
1618:(1–3): 189–209.
1609:
1596:
1594:
1593:
1587:
1581:. Archived from
1548:
1527:
1521:
1507:
1505:
1490:
1488:
1487:
1481:
1475:. Archived from
1442:
1424:
1410:
1408:
1407:
1401:
1395:. Archived from
1362:
1348:
1324:
1322:
1305:
1285:
1273:
1257:
1236:
1217:
1191:
1181:
1179:
1178:
1172:
1166:. Archived from
1165:
1147:
1137:
1128:
1107:
1090:
1078:
1064:
1037:
1013:
1011:
1010:
1001:. Archived from
981:
952:
951:
949:
943:. Archived from
942:
931:
893:
884:
839:
819:
778:
773:
772:
771:
764:
759:
758:
757:
708:
705:
687:
680:
587:This is because
548:
546:
545:
540:
428:Inference engine
424:Reasoning system
178:from induction.
103:
96:
92:
89:
83:
78:this article by
69:inline citations
48:
47:
40:
4538:
4537:
4533:
4532:
4531:
4529:
4528:
4527:
4438:
4437:
4436:
4431:
4408:
4406:
4385:
4349:
4249:
4211:
4158:
4112:
4111:
4083:
4072:Russian cosmism
4045:
4041:Western Marxism
4006:New Historicism
3971:Critical theory
3957:
3953:Wittgensteinian
3849:Foundationalism
3782:
3719:
3700:Social contract
3556:Foundationalism
3489:
3471:
3455:Illuminationism
3440:Aristotelianism
3426:
3415:Vishishtadvaita
3368:
3320:
3261:
3228:
3099:
3028:Megarian school
3023:Eretrian school
2964:
2925:Agriculturalism
2902:
2848:
2829:
2776:
2748:
2705:
2657:
2614:
2598:Incompatibilism
2567:
2539:
2491:
2463:
2386:
2375:
2370:
2340:
2335:
2305:
2303:
2291:
2255:
2246:Boolean algebra
2220:
2071:
2062:Metamathematics
2040:
1992:
1946:
1928:
1923:
1868:
1831:
1741:
1691:
1607:
1591:
1589:
1585:
1546:
1519:
1503:
1485:
1483:
1479:
1440:10.1.1.318.6615
1422:
1405:
1403:
1399:
1360:
1302:
1283:
1254:
1233:
1223:Inductive Logic
1189:
1176:
1174:
1170:
1145:
1125:
1093:
1087:
1062:
1034:
1008:
1006:
999:
978:
961:
959:Further reading
956:
955:
947:
940:
932:
928:
923:
891:
882:
837:
817:
774:
769:
767:
760:
755:
753:
750:
724:
718:
709:
703:
700:
693:needs expansion
678:
672:
636:
630:
610:
600:
582:
565:
560:
534:
531:
530:
519:
484:
468:neural networks
438:
422:Main articles:
420:
415:
395:
387:command economy
380:command economy
356:
240:
235:
204:
104:
93:
87:
84:
73:
59:related reading
49:
45:
38:
31:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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4217:Middle Eastern
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4023:
4018:
4013:
4008:
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3998:
3993:
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3983:
3981:Existentialism
3978:
3976:Deconstruction
3973:
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3965:
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3956:
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3809:Applied ethics
3805:
3803:
3794:
3788:
3787:
3784:
3783:
3781:
3780:
3775:
3773:Nietzscheanism
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3744:
3743:
3733:
3727:
3725:
3721:
3720:
3718:
3717:
3715:Utilitarianism
3712:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3616:
3615:
3613:Transcendental
3610:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3580:
3579:
3578:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3551:Existentialism
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3507:
3501:
3495:
3494:
3491:
3490:
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3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3376:
3374:
3370:
3369:
3367:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3339:Augustinianism
3336:
3330:
3328:
3322:
3321:
3319:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3282:
3280:
3273:
3267:
3266:
3263:
3262:
3260:
3259:
3254:
3252:Zoroastrianism
3249:
3244:
3238:
3236:
3230:
3229:
3227:
3226:
3225:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3209:
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3199:
3194:
3189:
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3174:
3173:
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3167:
3157:
3156:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3109:
3107:
3101:
3100:
3098:
3097:
3095:Church Fathers
3092:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3066:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3040:
3035:
3030:
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3020:
3015:
3010:
3009:
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3003:
2998:
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2698:
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2673:
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2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
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2622:
2616:
2615:
2613:
2612:
2610:Libertarianism
2607:
2606:
2605:
2595:
2594:
2593:
2583:
2577:
2575:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2565:
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2522:
2517:
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2462:
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2456:
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2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2414:Metaphilosophy
2411:
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2387:
2377:
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2354:
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2198:
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2158:
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2136:
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2114:
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2033:
2028:
2023:
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2016:
2006:
2000:
1998:
1991:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
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1878:
1867:
1866:External links
1864:
1863:
1862:
1861:
1860:
1842:(2): 121–139.
1815:
1814:
1813:
1795:(2): 119–125.
1780:
1752:(3): 363–371.
1730:
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1597:
1557:(3): 499–515.
1530:
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1433:(4): 559–573.
1411:
1371:(7): 282–287.
1349:
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1320:10.1.1.66.1877
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1200:(3): 237–269.
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720:Main article:
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674:Main article:
671:
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664:Bayes' theorem
632:Main article:
629:
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609:
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580:
563:
538:
517:
483:
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457:knowledge base
442:expert systems
419:
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403:informal logic
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117:, moving from
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63:external links
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4354:Miscellaneous
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4050:Miscellaneous
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4021:Postmodernism
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4014:
4012:
4011:Phenomenology
4009:
4007:
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3999:
3997:
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3989:
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3948:Vienna Circle
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3878:Moral realism
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3680:Phenomenology
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3620:Individualism
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3509:
3508:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3496:
3486:
3485:Judeo-Islamic
3483:
3482:
3480:
3478:
3474:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3462:
3461:ʿIlm al-Kalām
3458:
3456:
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3441:
3438:
3437:
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3410:Shuddhadvaita
3408:
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3398:
3396:
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3382:
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3371:
3365:
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3357:
3355:
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3350:
3347:
3345:
3344:Scholasticism
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3331:
3329:
3327:
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3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
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3200:
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3149:
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3141:
3139:
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3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
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3110:
3108:
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3096:
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3016:
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3007:
3004:
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2999:
2997:
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2989:
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2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2795:Conceptualism
2793:
2791:
2788:
2787:
2785:
2783:
2779:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
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2760:
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2757:
2755:
2751:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2724:Particularism
2722:
2720:
2717:
2716:
2714:
2712:
2708:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2691:Functionalism
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2676:Eliminativism
2674:
2672:
2669:
2668:
2666:
2664:
2660:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
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2617:
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2608:
2604:
2601:
2600:
2599:
2596:
2592:
2589:
2588:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2581:Compatibilism
2579:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2570:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2546:
2542:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2520:Particularism
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2502:
2500:
2498:
2494:
2488:
2485:
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2478:
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2474:
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2470:
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2401:
2399:
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2362:
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2355:
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2347:
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2332:
2329:
2326:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2302:
2301:
2298:
2288:
2287:Logic symbols
2285:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2264:
2262:
2258:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2238:
2236:
2234:
2230:
2227:
2223:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2166:Logical truth
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2150:
2147:
2146:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2109:
2108:
2107:Contradiction
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2084:
2082:
2078:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2052:Argumentation
2050:
2049:
2047:
2043:
2037:
2036:Philosophical
2034:
2032:
2031:Non-classical
2029:
2027:
2024:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2001:
1999:
1995:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
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1971:
1969:
1966:
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1956:
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1870:
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1802:
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1777:
1773:
1769:
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1747:
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1736:
1731:
1727:
1723:
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1705:
1701:
1697:
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1680:
1679:
1676:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
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1648:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1588:on 2015-05-18
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1545:
1541:
1536:
1535:
1534:
1531:
1525:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1502:
1501:
1496:
1492:
1482:on 2015-05-18
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1421:
1417:
1412:
1402:on 2014-04-07
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1359:
1355:
1350:
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1330:
1321:
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1312:
1307:
1303:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1282:
1281:
1275:
1272:. AAAI Press.
1271:
1266:
1265:
1264:
1263:
1255:
1253:9780674290716
1249:
1245:
1244:
1238:
1234:
1228:
1224:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1188:
1183:
1173:on 2016-03-03
1169:
1164:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1144:
1139:
1135:
1130:
1126:
1124:9780520038264
1120:
1116:
1115:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1099:
1098:
1097:
1088:
1082:
1077:
1076:
1070:
1066:
1063:
1061:0-13-790395-2
1057:
1053:
1052:
1047:
1046:Norvig, Peter
1043:
1039:
1035:
1029:
1025:
1024:
1019:
1015:
1005:on 2004-10-11
1004:
1000:
994:
990:
989:
983:
979:
973:
969:
964:
963:
946:
939:
938:
930:
926:
915:
912:
909:
906:
904:
901:
898:
895:
889:
888:Logical graph
886:
880:
877:
875:
872:
869:
866:
863:
860:
858:
855:
852:
849:
844:
841:
840:
835:
832:
829:
826:
824:
821:
815:
812:
809:
806:
803:
800:
797:
794:
791:
790:
786:
782:
781:
777:
766:
763:
752:
745:
743:
737:
735:
734:non-monotonic
731:
726:
723:
707:
698:
694:
691:This section
689:
686:
682:
681:
677:
667:
665:
661:
656:
652:
650:
645:
641:
635:
625:
623:
619:
615:
605:
603:
598:
594:
590:
585:
579:
576:
574:
570:
562:
558:
556:
550:
526:
525:
516:
514:
511:
506:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
482:Prolog engine
479:
477:
473:
469:
464:
463:to its task.
462:
458:
453:
451:
447:
443:
437:
433:
432:expert system
429:
425:
410:
408:
404:
400:
390:
388:
383:
381:
376:
373:
369:
365:
361:
351:
345:
342:
339:
338:
337:
334:
328:
325:
322:
321:
320:
314:
311:
308:
307:
306:
300:
297:
294:
293:
292:
289:
283:
280:
277:
276:
275:
273:
268:
264:
258:
255:
252:
251:
250:
248:
244:
227:
224:
223:
222:
219:
215:
213:
209:
199:
197:
192:
188:
184:
179:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
129:
124:
120:
116:
113:are steps in
112:
102:
99:
91:
81:
77:
71:
70:
64:
60:
56:
51:
42:
41:
36:
29:
25:
23:
4419:
4405:
4076:
4067:Postcritique
4057:Kyoto School
4016:Posthumanism
3996:Hermeneutics
3851: /
3792:Contemporary
3768:Newtonianism
3731:Cartesianism
3690:Reductionism
3526:Conservatism
3521:Collectivism
3459:
3187:Sarvāstivadā
3165:Anekantavada
3090:Neoplatonism
3058:Epicureanism
2991:Pythagoreans
2930:Confucianism
2896:Contemporary
2886:Early modern
2790:Anti-realism
2744:Universalism
2701:Subjectivism
2497:Epistemology
2206:Substitution
2026:Mathematical
1967:
1951:Major fields
1839:
1835:
1827:(Feb 2008).
1817:
1792:
1788:
1749:
1745:
1699:
1695:
1677:
1660:
1656:
1649:
1615:
1611:
1590:. Retrieved
1583:the original
1554:
1550:
1533:statistical:
1532:
1523:
1499:
1484:. Retrieved
1477:the original
1430:
1426:
1404:. Retrieved
1397:the original
1368:
1364:
1344:
1334:
1328:
1327:
1310:
1279:
1269:
1261:
1260:
1242:
1222:
1197:
1193:
1175:. Retrieved
1168:the original
1153:
1149:
1133:
1113:
1103:
1095:
1094:
1074:
1050:
1022:
1007:. Retrieved
1003:the original
987:
967:
945:the original
936:
929:
834:Axiom system
789:a posteriori
788:
784:
738:
727:
725:
704:October 2016
701:
697:adding to it
692:
657:
653:
649:E. T. Jaynes
637:
614:semantic web
611:
608:Semantic web
586:
583:
577:
572:
568:
566:
554:
552:
528:
523:
522:
520:
507:
485:
465:
454:
439:
413:Applications
396:
384:
377:
360:Soviet Union
357:
349:
335:
332:
318:
304:
298:All C are B.
295:All A are B.
290:
287:
272:symbological
269:
265:
262:
241:
220:
216:
208:observations
205:
180:
126:
110:
109:
94:
85:
74:Please help
66:
21:
4062:Objectivism
4001:Neo-Marxism
3963:Continental
3873:Meta-ethics
3853:Coherentism
3758:Hegelianism
3695:Rationalism
3655:Natural law
3635:Materialism
3561:Historicism
3531:Determinism
3422:Navya-Nyāya
3197:Sautrāntika
3192:Pudgalavada
3128:Vaisheshika
2981:Presocratic
2881:Renaissance
2820:Physicalism
2805:Materialism
2711:Normativity
2696:Objectivism
2681:Emergentism
2671:Behaviorism
2620:Metaphysics
2586:Determinism
2525:Rationalism
2321:WikiProject
2191:Proposition
2186:Probability
2139:Description
2080:Foundations
1650:analogical:
1069:Tijms, Henk
676:Fuzzy logic
670:Fuzzy logic
644:probability
493:based on a
196:categorical
154:, with the
80:introducing
4442:Categories
4361:Amerindian
4268:Australian
4207:Vietnamese
4187:Indonesian
3736:Kantianism
3685:Positivism
3675:Pragmatism
3650:Naturalism
3630:Liberalism
3608:Subjective
3546:Empiricism
3450:Avicennism
3395:Bhedabheda
3279:East Asian
3202:Madhyamaka
3182:Abhidharma
3048:Pyrrhonism
2815:Nominalism
2810:Naturalism
2739:Skepticism
2729:Relativism
2719:Absolutism
2648:Naturalism
2558:Deontology
2530:Skepticism
2515:Naturalism
2505:Empiricism
2469:Aesthetics
2373:Philosophy
2251:Set theory
2149:Linguistic
2144:Entailment
2134:Definition
2102:Consequent
2097:Antecedent
1876:PhilPapers
1592:2013-08-09
1486:2013-08-09
1406:2013-08-09
1347:. Erlbaum.
1335:deductive:
1177:2013-08-09
1009:2004-11-29
921:References
814:Entailment
559:(Q if P).)
444:and later
247:syllogisms
210:is called
202:Definition
164:particular
111:Inferences
4513:Semantics
4508:Reasoning
4448:Inference
4240:Pakistani
4202:Taiwanese
4149:Ethiopian
4122:By region
4108:By region
3923:Scientism
3918:Systemics
3778:Spinozism
3705:Socialism
3640:Modernism
3603:Objective
3511:Anarchism
3445:Averroism
3334:Christian
3286:Neotaoism
3257:Zurvanism
3247:Mithraism
3242:Mazdakism
3013:Cyrenaics
2940:Logicians
2573:Free will
2535:Solipsism
2482:Formalism
2282:Fallacies
2277:Paradoxes
2267:Logicians
2201:Statement
2196:Reference
2161:Induction
2124:Deduction
2087:Abduction
2057:Metalogic
2004:Classical
1968:Inference
1886:Inference
1872:Inference
1612:Cognition
1435:CiteSeerX
1345:Deduction
1315:CiteSeerX
823:Epilogism
742:abduction
730:monotonic
537:→
513:syllogism
176:abduction
168:universal
141:Aristotle
137:induction
133:deduction
115:reasoning
88:July 2023
22:Inference
4426:Category
4381:Yugoslav
4371:Romanian
4278:Scottish
4263:American
4192:Japanese
4172:Buddhist
4154:Africana
4144:Egyptian
3986:Feminist
3908:Rawlsian
3903:Quietism
3801:Analytic
3753:Krausism
3660:Nihilism
3625:Kokugaku
3588:Absolute
3583:Idealism
3571:Humanism
3359:Occamism
3326:European
3271:Medieval
3217:Yogacara
3177:Buddhist
3170:Syādvāda
3053:Stoicism
3018:Cynicism
3006:Sophists
3001:Atomists
2996:Eleatics
2935:Legalism
2876:Medieval
2800:Idealism
2754:Ontology
2734:Nihilism
2638:Idealism
2396:Branches
2385:Branches
2316:Category
2216:Validity
2117:Antinomy
2045:Theories
2009:Informal
1809:44019775
1768:12061757
1737:(2002).
1726:25356700
1718:18265622
1687:(2007).
1678:spatial:
1603:(1994).
1571:19591080
1542:(2009).
1515:(2008).
1465:12803967
1418:(2003).
1385:19540792
1356:(2009).
1071:(2004).
1048:(2003),
1020:(2003).
785:A priori
748:See also
510:Socrates
461:relevant
233:Examples
145:deriving
119:premises
35:Infrared
4523:Thought
4376:Russian
4345:Spanish
4340:Slovene
4330:Maltese
4325:Italian
4305:Finland
4273:British
4255:Western
4245:Turkish
4230:Islamic
4225:Iranian
4177:Chinese
4164:Eastern
4131:African
4078:more...
3763:Marxism
3593:British
3536:Dualism
3432:Islamic
3390:Advaita
3380:Vedanta
3354:Scotism
3349:Thomism
3291:Tiantai
3234:Persian
3222:Tibetan
3212:Śūnyatā
3153:Cārvāka
3143:Ājīvika
3138:Mīmāṃsā
3118:Samkhya
3033:Academy
2986:Ionians
2960:Yangism
2917:Chinese
2908:Ancient
2871:Western
2866:Ancient
2825:Realism
2782:Reality
2772:Process
2653:Realism
2633:Dualism
2628:Atomism
2510:Fideism
2331:changes
2323: (
2181:Premise
2112:Paradox
1942:History
1937:Outline
1888:at the
1776:7330724
1640:9439284
1632:8039361
1579:7741180
1214:3209224
908:Theorem
862:Inquiry
828:Analogy
567:(where
521:( Here
399:fallacy
372:Siberia
274:track:
76:improve
24:(album)
4335:Polish
4315:German
4310:French
4295:Danish
4285:Canada
4235:Jewish
4197:Korean
4182:Indian
3724:People
3645:Monism
3598:German
3566:Holism
3499:Modern
3477:Jewish
3400:Dvaita
3373:Indian
3296:Huayan
3148:Ajñana
3105:Indian
2970:Greco-
2955:Taoism
2945:Mohism
2891:Modern
2858:By era
2847:By era
2762:Action
2643:Monism
2563:Virtue
2545:Ethics
2233:topics
2019:Reason
1997:Logics
1988:Syntax
1856:327124
1854:
1818:moral:
1807:
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1393:657803
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1030:
995:
974:
602:Prolog
589:Prolog
495:subset
487:Prolog
434:, and
368:soccer
364:Moscow
4488:Logic
4366:Aztec
4320:Greek
4300:Dutch
4290:Czech
4139:Bantu
3576:Anti-
3123:Nyaya
3113:Hindu
2973:Roman
2767:Event
2409:Logic
2260:other
2225:Lists
2211:Truth
1978:Proof
1926:Logic
1852:S2CID
1832:(PDF)
1805:S2CID
1772:S2CID
1742:(PDF)
1722:S2CID
1692:(PDF)
1636:S2CID
1608:(PDF)
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1575:S2CID
1547:(PDF)
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1480:(PDF)
1469:S2CID
1423:(PDF)
1400:(PDF)
1389:S2CID
1361:(PDF)
1284:(PDF)
1210:S2CID
1190:(PDF)
1171:(PDF)
1146:(PDF)
948:(PDF)
941:(PDF)
868:Logic
843:Axiom
593:Plato
160:logic
128:infer
61:, or
3467:Sufi
3301:Chan
3160:Jain
3133:Yoga
2663:Mind
2603:Hard
2591:Hard
2325:talk
2171:Name
2156:Form
1764:PMID
1714:PMID
1628:PMID
1567:PMID
1461:PMID
1381:PMID
1296:ISBN
1248:ISBN
1227:ISBN
1119:ISBN
1081:ISBN
1056:ISBN
1028:ISBN
993:ISBN
972:ISBN
787:and
152:true
135:and
3741:Neo
3306:Zen
2067:Set
1874:at
1844:doi
1797:doi
1754:doi
1704:doi
1665:doi
1620:doi
1559:doi
1453:hdl
1445:doi
1373:doi
1288:doi
1202:doi
1158:doi
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651:).
622:OWL
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