Grassland - Knowledge

575:. Grassland species have an extensive fibrous root system, with grasses often accounting for 60-80% of the biomass carbon in this ecosystem. This underground biomass can extend several meters below the surface and store abundant carbon into the soil, resulting in deep, fertile soils with high organic matter content. For this reason, soil carbon accounts for about 81% of the total ecosystem carbon in grasslands. The close link between soil carbon and underground biomass leads to similar responses of these carbon pools to fluctuations in annual precipitation and temperature on a broad spatial scale. Because plant productivity is limited by grassland precipitation, carbon stocks are highest in regions where precipitation is heaviest, such as the high grass prairie in the humid temperate region of the United States. Similarly, as annual temperatures rise, grassland carbon stocks decrease due to increased 868:

drought-prone or less productive, are more likely to persist as semi-natural grasslands than grasslands with fertile soil and low gradient of the terrain. Furthermore, the accessibility of the land is also important, as it is then easier to fertilize, for example. For instance, if it is located near a road. With the development of technology, it is becoming increasingly easy to cultivate land with a steeper gradient, to the detriment of grasslands. The management of grasslands is also changing permanently. There is increased use of mineral fertilizers, furthermore borders and field edges are removed to enlarge fields and leveling the terrain to facilitate the use of agricultural machinery.

693: 1034: 453: 992: 311: 954: 45: 1127: 358: 1364: 56: 516: 289:

evidence for the local persistence of natural grasslands in Europe, originally maintained by wild herbivores, throughout the pre-Neolithic Holocene. The removal of the plants by the grazing animals and later the mowing farmers led to co-existence of other plant species around. In the following, the biodiversity of the plants evolve. Also, the species that already lived there adapted to the new conditions.

134: 547:, like cane toads in northern Australia, have disrupted the balance in these ecosystems and damaged a number of other species. Grasslands are home to a number of the foremost magnificent animals on the planet—elephants, bison, lions—and hunters have found them to be enticing prey. But when hunting is not controlled or is conducted illegally, species can become extinct. 307:

grasslands contain many species of wild plants, including grasses, sedges, rushes, and herbs; 25 plant-species per 100 square centimeters can be found. A European record that was found on a meadow in Estonia described 76 species of plants in one square meter. Chalk downlands in England can support over 40 species per square meter.

825:

to persist, although this subject is still controversial. A study in Brazilian Subtropical Highland Grasslands found that grasslands without traditional land management—which uses fire every two years and extensive cattle grazing—can disappear within 30 years. This study showed that grasslands inside

905:

Despite growing recognition of the importance of grasslands, understanding of restoration options remains limited. Cost of grassland restoration is highly variable and respective data is scarce. Successful grassland restoration has several dimensions, including recognition in policy, standardisation

636:

Grasslands are among the most threatened ecosystems. Global losses from grassland degradation are estimated to be over $ 7 billion per year. According to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the most significant threat to grasslands is human land use, especially agriculture

867:

A quarter of semi-natural grassland was lost through intensification, i.e. it was converted into arable or pasture land and forests. It is more likely that intensification will occur in flat semi-natural grasslands, especially if the soil is fertile. On the other hand, grasslands, where the land is

611:

There is a lack of agreement on the amount of carbon that can be stored in grassland ecosystem. This is partly caused by different methodologies applied to measure soil organic carbon and limited respective datasets. Further, carbon accumulation in soils changes significantly over time and point in

863:

and there was also more semi-natural grassland (18.8%) than arable land (15.8%). In 2015 this has changed drastically. The forest cover has increased (50.8%) and arable land has also increased (20.4%), but the semi-natural grassland cover has decreased. Although it still covers a large area of the

879:

associated with the grass-dominated arid and semi-arid rangelands of the world. Rangelands account for an estimated 70% of the earth's landmass; thus, many cultures including those of the United States are indebted to the economics that the world's grasslands have to offer, from producing grazing

3776:

Shipley, J.R.; Frei, E.R.; Bergamini, A.; Boch, S.; Schulz, T.; Ginzler, C.; Barandun, M.; Bebi, P.; Bollman, K.; Bolliger, J.; Graham, C.H.; Krumm, F.; Pichon, N.; Delpouve, N.; Rigling, A.; Rixen, C. (August 19, 2024). "Agricultural practices and biodiversity: Conservation policies for natural

292:

Most of the grassland areas have been turned to arable fields and disappeared again. The grasslands permanently became arable cropping fields due to the steady decrease in organic matter. Nowadays, semi-natural grasslands are rather located in areas that are unsuitable for agricultural farming.

288:

The semi-natural grasslands first appeared when humans started farming. So for the use of agriculture, forests got cleared in Europe. Ancient meadows and pastures were the parts that were suitable for cultivation. The semi-natural grasslands were formed from these areas. However, there's also

771:

on plant growth will vary with local climate patterns, species adaptations to water limitations, and nitrogen availability. Studies indicate that nutrient depletion may happen faster in drier regions, and with factors like plant community composition and grazing. Nitrogen deposition from air

737:

Grasslands often occur in areas with annual precipitation is between 600 mm (24 in) and 1,500 mm (59 in) and average mean annual temperatures ranges from −5 and 20 °C. However, some grasslands occur in colder (−20 °C) and hotter (30 °C) climatic conditions.

318:

In many parts of the world, few examples have escaped agricultural improvement (fertilizing, weed killing, plowing, or re-seeding). For example, original North American prairie grasslands or lowland wildflower meadows in the UK are now rare and their associated wild flora equally threatened.

306:

Grasslands dominated by unsown wild-plant communities ("unimproved grasslands") can be called either natural or "semi-natural" habitat. Although their plant communities are natural, their maintenance depends upon anthropogenic activities such as grazing and cutting regimes. The semi-natural

754:

grasslands, where woody encroachment is prevented as low nutrient levels in the soil may inhibit the growth of forest and shrub species. Another common predicament often experienced by the ill-fated grassland creatures is the constant burning of plants, fueled by oxygen and many expired

788:

Misguided afforestation efforts, for example as part of the global effort to increase carbon sequestration, can harm grasslands and their core ecosystem services. Forest centric restoration efforts can create the risk of misreading and misclassifying of landscapes. A map created by the

284:

dominated in Northern and Central Europe whereas a higher amount of xerothermic grasslands occurred in the Mediterranean area. Within temperate Europe, the range of types is quite wide and also became unique due to the exchange of species and genetic material between different biomes.

1341:

and occur mostly in the tropics and subtropics. The species that live in these grasslands are well adapted to the hydrologic regimes and soil conditions. The Everglades—the world's largest rain-fed flooded grassland—is rich in 11,000 species of seed-bearing plants, 25 species of

334:

Almost 90% of the European semi-natural grasslands do not exist anymore due to political and economic reasons. This loss took place during the 20th century. The ones in Western and Central Europe have almost disappeared completely. There are a few left in Northern Europe.

3177: 2441: 3317: 3635: 855:

and buildings. The line style and relative thickness of the lines indicates the percentage of the total area that changed. Changes less than 1% and land-cover classes with all changes less than 1% (i.e. semi-natural wetlands and water) are not included.

3441: 893:, which is the expansion of woody plants at the expense of the herbaceous layer. Woody encroachment is caused by a combination of human impact (e.g. fire exclusion, overstocking and resulting overgrazing) and environmental factors (i.e. increased CO 349:. In many parts of the world, "unimproved" grasslands are one of the most threatened types of habitat, and a target for acquisition by wildlife conservation groups or for special grants to landowners who are encouraged to manage them appropriately. 1674: 3381: 3170: 2434: 327:. Owing to semi-natural grasslands being referred to as one of the most-species rich ecosystems in the world and essential habitat for many specialists, also including pollinators, there are many approaches to conservation activities lately. 3310: 330:

Agriculturally improved grasslands, which dominate modern intensive agricultural landscapes, are usually poor in wild plant species due to the original diversity of plants having been destroyed by cultivation and by the use of fertilizers.

801:. It is criticised for including 900 million hectares of grasslands. It is expected that non-native grasses will continue to outperform native species under warmer and drier conditions that occur in many grasslands due to climate change. 5583:

Monteiro, Antonio T.; Fava, Francesco; Hiltbrunner, Erika; Della Marianna, Giampaolo; Bocchi, Stefano (April 2011). "Assessment of land cover changes and spatial drivers behind loss of permanent meadows in the lowlands of Italian Alps".

1594: 1502: 3628: 5730:

Buisson, Elise; Le Stradic, Soizig; Silveira, Fernando A. O.; Durigan, Giselda; Overbeck, Gerhard E.; Fidelis, Alessandra; Fernandes, G. Wilson; Bond, William J.; Hermann, Julia-Maria; Mahy, Gregory; Alvarado, Swanni T. (April 2019).

700:

Grasslands may occur naturally or as a result of human activity. Hunting cultures around the world often set regular fires to maintain and extend grasslands and prevent fire-intolerant trees and shrubs from taking hold. The tallgrass

3163: 2427: 607:

management can all have potential impacts on grassland organic carbon stocks. Good grassland management can reverse historical soil carbon losses. The relationship of improved biodiversity with carbon storage is subject of research.

5014:

Ochoa-Hueso, R.; Delgado-Baquerizo, M.; King, P.T.A.; Benham, M.; Arca, V.; Power, S.A. (2019). "Ecosystem type and resource quality are more important than global change drivers in regulating early stages of litter decomposition".

4545: 3303: 260:

in the New World and the Pliocene in the Old World, the first true grasslands occurred. Existing forest biomes declined, and grasslands became much more widespread. It is known that grasslands have existed in Europe throughout the

658:. To feed a growing human population, most of the world's grasslands are converted from natural landscapes to fields of corn, wheat or other crops. Grasslands that have remained largely intact thus far, such as the East African 4758:

Hungate, Bruce A.; Barbier, Edward B.; Ando, Amy W.; Marks, Samuel P.; Reich, Peter B.; van Gestel, Natasja; Tilman, David; Knops, Johannes M. H.; Hooper, David U.; Butterfield, Bradley J.; Cardinale, Bradley J. (April 2017).

3621: 3434: 1667: 4826:

Jordon, W. Matthew; Buffet, Jean-Charles; Dungait, A.J. Jennifer; Galdos, V. Marcelo; Garnett, Tara; Lee, R. Michael; Lynch, John; Röös, Elin; Searchinger, D. Timothy; Smith, Pete; Godfray, H.J. Charles (January 2024).

3374: 1926: 5905:

Buisson, Elise; Fidelis, Alessandra; Overbeck, Gerhard E.; Schmidt, Isabel B.; Durigan, Giselda; Young, Truman P.; Alvarado, Swanni T.; Arruda, André J.; Boisson, Sylvain; Bond, William; Coutinho, André (April 2021).

2072: 280:), grasslands expanded in the hotter, drier climates, and began to become the dominant land feature worldwide. Since the grasslands have existed for over 1.8 million years, there is high variability. For example 3427: 1587: 1495: 5256:

Di Sacco, Alice; Hardwick, Kate A.; Blakesley, David; Brancalion, Pedro H. S.; Breman, Elinor; Cecilio Rebola, Loic; Chomba, Susan; Dixon, Kingsley; Elliott, Stephen; Ruyonga, Godfrey; Shaw, Kirsty (April 2021).

542:

The plants and animals that live in grasslands are connected through an unlimited web of interactions. But the removal of key species—such as buffalo and prairie dogs within the American West—and introduction of

1660: 586:

due to soil disturbances, vegetation degradation, fires, erosion, nutrient deficiencies, and water shortages. The type, frequency and intensity of the disturbance can play a key role in the soil organic carbon

5847:

Bardgett, Richard D.; Bullock, James M.; Lavorel, Sandra; Manning, Peter; Schaffner, Urs; Ostle, Nicholas; Chomel, Mathilde; Durigan, Giselda; L. Fry, Ellen; Johnson, David; Lavallee, Jocelyn M. (2021-09-07).

3367: 916:

appropriate management of livestock and wild herbivores: in light of land use intensification caused by global food demand, grassland land use practices may need to be adjusted to better support key ecosystem

5173:

Craven, Dylan; Isbell, Forest; Manning, Pete; Connolly, John; Bruelheide, Helge; Ebeling, Anne; Roscher, Christiane; van Ruijven, Jasper; Weigelt, Alexandra; Wilsey, Brian; Beierkuhnlein, Carl (2016-05-19).

124:

on Earth and dominate the landscape worldwide. There are different types of grasslands: natural grasslands, semi-natural grasslands, and agricultural grasslands. They cover 31–69% of the Earth's land area.

1580: 1488: 1919: 2065: 319:

Associated with the wild-plant diversity of the "unimproved" grasslands is usually a rich invertebrate fauna; there are also many species of birds that are grassland "specialists", such as the

847:

Land cover has always changed during the years. The following relates to the changes between 1960 and 2015. There has been a decrease in semi-natural grasslands and an increase in areas with

662:, are in danger of being lost to agriculture. Grasslands are very sensitive to disturbances, such as people hunting and killing key species, or plowing the land to make more space for farms. 162:"...terrestrial ecosystems dominated by herbaceous and shrub vegetation, and maintained by fire, grazing, drought and/or freezing temperatures." (Pilot Assessment of Global Ecosystems, 2000) 1430:(hence tundra) but were nevertheless productive grassland ecosystems supporting a wide variety of fauna. As the temperature increased and the climate became wetter at the beginning of the 1399:

and can be tropical, subtropical, and temperate. The plants and animals, that can be found in the tropical montane, are able to adapt to cool, wet conditions as well as intense sunlight.

780:

as faster-growing plants outcompete others. A study of a California grassland found that global change may speed reductions in diversity and forb species are most prone to this process.

1912: 2058: 4022: 571:(non-wooded) vegetation dominates grasslands and carbon is stored in the roots and soil underground. Above-ground biomass carbon is relatively short-lived due to grazing, fire, and 338:

Unfortunately, a large amount of red-listed species are specialists of semi-natural grasslands and are affected by the landscape change due to agriculture of the last century.

421:. Woody plants, shrubs or trees may occur on some grasslands—forming savannas, scrubby grassland or semi-wooded grassland, such as the African savannas or the Iberian deheza. 4340: 4088: 3612: 3418: 3358: 3294: 3154: 2418: 1092: 3932: 504:

inhabit deep soil, which can reach 6 metres (20 feet) underground in undisturbed grasslands on the richest soils of the world. These invertebrates, along with symbiotic

173:

Grassland existing as a result of human activity (mowing or livestock grazing), where environmental conditions and the species pool are maintained by natural processes.

4142: 1095:. The rainfall level for that grassland type is between 90 and 150 centimeters per year. Grasses and scattered trees are common for that ecoregion, as well as large 759:

concentration in the air increases plant growth, similarly as water use efficiency, which is very important in drier regions. However, the advantages of elevated CO

1547: 1450:. Temperature extremes and low amount of rainfall characterise these kinds of grasslands. Therefore, plants and animals are well adapted to minimize water loss. 555:

Grasslands provide a range of marketed and non-marketed ecosystem services that are fundamental to the livelihoods of an estimated one billion people globally.

512:

and other natural fertilizers, trap minerals and water and promote growth. Some types of fungi make the plants more resistant to insect and microbial attacks.

2866: 2694: 1531: 4520:

Menta, Cristina (2012-08-29). "Soil Fauna Diversity - Function, Soil Degradation, Biological Indices, Soil Restoration". In Lameed, Gbolagade Akeem (ed.).

3812:

Challenges and opportunities for carbon sequestration in grassland systems : a technical report on grassland management and climate change mitigation

372:

can vary considerably depending on the grassland type and on how strong it is affected by human impact. Dominant trees for the semi-natural grassland are

6057: 2822: 2846: 4018:"Traditional semi-natural grassland management with heterogeneous mowing times enhances flower resources for pollinators in agricultural landscapes" 929:

reintroduction of native grasses and forbs via seeding or transplant: a main challenge for grassland restoration is how to overcome seed limitation.

5733:"Resilience and restoration of tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and grassy woodlands: Tropical grassland resilience and restoration" 4395:

Wahlman, Henrik; Milberg, Per (2002). "Management of semi-natural grassland vegetation: evaluation of a long-term experiment in southern Sweden".

5144: 4458: 4437: 4115: 5113: 897:

levels in the atmosphere). It can have severe negative consequences on key ecosystem services, like land productivity and groundwater recharge.

809:

The type of land management used in grasslands can also lead to grassland loss/degradation. Many grasslands and other open ecosystems depend on

4313: 3762: 2049: 1903: 1651: 1571: 1479: 1463: 1186: 794: 755:

photosynthesizing organisms, with the lack of rain pushing this problem to further heights. When not limited by other factors, increasing CO

2902: 2718: 4016:

Johansen, Line; Westin, Anna; Wehn, Sølvi; Iuga, Anamaria; Ivascu, Cosmin Marius; Kallioniemi, Eveliina; Lennartsson, Tommy (April 2019).

3042: 1434:

much of the mammoth steppe transitioned to forest, while the drier parts in central Eurasia remained as a grassland, becoming the modern

637:

and mining. The vulnerability of grasslands stems from a range of factors, such as misclassification, poor protection and cultivation.

4581: 689:, sheep or goats. Grasslands have an impact on climate change by slower decomposition rates of litter compared to forest environments. 341:

The original wild-plant communities having been replaced by sown monocultures of cultivated varieties of grasses and clovers, such as

5231: 4945:"Large scale land investments, household displacement and the effect on land degradation in semiarid agro-pastoral areas of Ethiopia" 1150: 6105: 5327: 4985: 2954: 1727: 6050:

Ellenberg, H. & D. Mueller-Dombois. 1967. Tentative physiognomic-ecological classification of plant formations of the Earth

5963:

Savage, Joanna; Woodcock, Ben A.; Bullock, James M.; Nowakowski, Marek; Tallowin, Jeremy R. B.; Pywell, Richard F. (2021-06-01).

1607: 4829:"A restatement of the natural science evidence base concerning grassland management, grazing livestock and soil carbon storage" 2365: 1787: 523:

Grassland in all its form supports a vast variety of mammals, reptiles, birds, and insects. Typical large mammals include the

6085: 5854: 5420:"Superior performance of invasive grasses over native counterparts will remain problematic under warmer and drier conditions" 4674: 4529: 4289: 3989: 3910: 3867: 3824: 3738: 3330: 1715: 1631: 6318: 3210: 1687: 938: 476:, African elephant, Sunda tiger, black rhino, white rhino, savanna elephant, greater one-horned rhino, Indian elephant and 253:

epochs, a period of some 25 million years, created a continental climate favourable to the evolution of grasslands.

2654: 2494: 2273: 1619: 677:. Some of the world's largest expanses of grassland are found in the African savanna, and these are maintained by wild 159:"...any plant community, including harvested forages, in which grasses and/or legumes make up the dominant vegetation." 5702: 4720: 4658: 4191: 3816: 3648: 2586: 2085: 1396: 942: 6131: 5259:"Ten golden rules for reforestation to optimize carbon sequestration, biodiversity recovery and livelihood benefits" 5070:

Liu, Jun; Feng, Chao; Wang, Deli; Wang, Ling; Wilsey, Brian J.; Zhong, Zhiwei (August 2015). Firn, Jennifer (ed.).

4282:

Species conservation in managed habitats : the myth of a pristine nature with a preamble by Josef H. Reichholf

3859: 3660: 3276: 3260: 3051: 2963: 2942: 2911: 2731: 2543: 2507: 2337: 2149: 738:

Grassland can exist in habitats that are frequently disturbed by grazing or fire, as such disturbance prevents the

3394: 2209: 2193: 1338: 937:

has proclaimed the UN Decade on Restoration, involving a joint resolution by over 70 countries. It is led by the

934: 5694: 4336:"Loss of semi-natural grassland in a boreal landscape: impacts of agricultural intensification and abandonment" 3078: 2482: 2385: 1411:

can have grasses, but high soil moisture means that few tundras are grass-dominated today. However, during the

967: 6055: 4185:

Feurdean, Angelica; Ruprecht, Eszter; Molnár, Zsolt; Hutchinson, Simon M.; Hickler, Thomas (1 December 2018).

3978:

Restoration of semi-natural grasslands Impacts on biodiversity, ecosystem services and stakeholder perceptions

1426:

occupied large areas of the Northern Hemisphere. These areas were very cold and arid and featured sub-surface

460:

Grasslands support the greatest aggregations of large animals on Earth, including jaguars, African wild dogs,

5912: 5796: 5387: 5017: 2806: 773: 5477:"New perspectives in fire management in South American savannas: The importance of intercultural governance" 5586: 4911:"Confronting a biome crisis: global disparities of habitat loss and protection: Confronting a biome crisis" 3220: 3190: 3118: 3062: 2353: 2105: 1751: 1447: 6183: 1883: 1775: 830:, in which fire is not allowed and cattle grazing is banned, grasslands were quickly replaced by shrubs ( 673:, cutting, or natural or man-made fires, all discouraging colonization by and survival of tree and shrub 169:

Semi-natural grasslands are a very common subcategory of the grasslands biome. These can be defined as:

6720: 6157: 5076: 4744: 3240: 3230: 1515: 38: 5176:"Plant diversity effects on grassland productivity are robust to both nutrient enrichment and drought" 5152: 5123: 4466: 4186: 3980:. Lindborg, Regina., Helm, Aveliina., Landscape Ecology. Stockholm: Department of Physical Geography, 3512: 776:

from higher temperatures can increase plant productivity, but increases are often among a discount in

692: 165:"A region with sufficient average annual precipitation (25-75 cm) to support grass..." (Stiling, 1999) 6331: 5418:

Duell, Eric B.; Londe, Dave W.; Hickman, K. R.; Greer, Mitchell J.; Wilson, Gail W. T. (2021-07-15).

3672: 3200: 2918: 2325: 1827: 1811: 1130: 790: 17: 6235: 4696: 181:"Semi-natural grasslands are one of the world's most biodiverse habitats on a small spatial scales." 6311: 5969: 4397: 3849: 2882: 2727: 2570: 2535: 2466: 2454: 2117: 1871: 1843: 890: 884: 831: 739: 706: 4629: 436:

ranges between 500 and 900 mm (20 and 35 in). The root systems of perennial grasses and

6031: 5424: 5352: 5072:"Impacts of grazing by different large herbivores in grassland depend on plant species diversity" 2746: 2638: 1739: 37:

This article is about the landscape of grasslands, a common vegetation type. For other uses, see

5631:"Regional-scale land-cover change during the 20th century and its consequences for biodiversity" 1033: 6613: 6277:

Perspectives in Grassland Ecology: Results and Applications of the US/IBP Grassland Biome Study

5526:"Preventing traditional management can cause grassland loss within 30 years in southern Brazil" 4909:

Hoekstra, Jonathan M.; Boucher, Timothy M.; Ricketts, Taylor H.; Roberts, Carter (2004-12-03).

3892: 2678: 1446:

Also called desert grasslands, they are composed of sparse grassland ecoregions located in the

4110: 6287: 5263: 4243:"Plant diversity effects on soil heterotrophic activity in experimental grassland ecosystems" 4086:

Pärtel, M. (2005). "Biodiversity in temperate European grasslands: origin and conservation".

3055: 2994: 2526: 2129: 1979: 810: 655: 536: 242: 6296: 5629:

Cousins, Sara A. O.; Auffret, Alistair G.; Lindgren, Jessica; Tränk, Louise (January 2015).

5475:

Mistry, Jayalaxshmi; Schmidt, Isabel Belloni; Eloy, Ludivine; Bilbao, Bibiana (2022-06-03).

5351:

Bond, William J.; Stevens, Nicola; Midgley, Guy F.; Lehmann, Caroline E.R. (November 2019).

5921: 5908:"A research agenda for the restoration of tropical and subtropical grasslands and savannas" 5863: 5805: 5642: 5595: 5539: 5433: 5366: 5272: 5085: 5026: 4774: 4349: 4200: 4151: 4031: 3981: 3250: 2406: 2229: 1799: 1524: 872: 400: 6052:

Berichte des Geobotanischen Institutes der Eidg. Techn. Hochschule, Stiftung Rübel, Zürich

4712:

The potential of U.S. grazing lands to sequester carbon and mitigate the greenhouse effect

4595: 4576: 906:

of indicators of degradation, scientific innovation, knowledge transfer and data sharing.

8: 6715: 6700: 6651: 6304: 6240: 6214: 6188: 6162: 6136: 6110: 5118: 4575:

Stevens, Nicola; Bond, William; Feurdean, Angelica; Lehmann, Caroline E.R. (2022-10-17).

4499: 1058: 880:

animals, tourism, ecosystems services such as clean water and air, and energy extraction.

465: 81: 5925: 5907: 5867: 5809: 5791: 5646: 5599: 5543: 5437: 5370: 5276: 5089: 5030: 4993: 4861: 4828: 4778: 4353: 4241:

Spehn, Eva M.; Joshi, Jasmin; Schmid, Bernhard; Alphei, Jörn; Körner, Christian (2000).

4204: 4155: 4035: 187:"...have been formed over the course of centuries through extensive grazing and mowing." 6618: 5945: 5887: 5829: 5772: 5737: 5671: 5630: 5560: 5530: 5525: 5501: 5476: 5457: 5419: 5400: 5208: 5175: 5052: 4803: 4760: 4738: 4684: 4608: 4414: 4307: 4262: 3756: 3151: 2415: 1568: 1476: 1053: 876: 798: 747: 596: 576: 452: 403:, the plants can vary from very tall to very short. Quite tall grasses can be found in 342: 48: 5607: 729:

when people gradually cleared the forest to create areas for raising their livestock.

6661: 6461: 6429: 6421: 6081: 6006: 5988: 5949: 5937: 5891: 5879: 5849: 5833: 5821: 5764: 5676: 5658: 5611: 5565: 5506: 5461: 5449: 5404: 5392: 5357: 5308: 5300: 5213: 5195: 4944: 4929: 4910: 4891: 4866: 4848: 4808: 4790: 4726: 4716: 4670: 4612: 4600: 4525: 4406: 4377: 4295: 4285: 4216: 4167: 3995: 3985: 3951: 3906: 3873: 3863: 3830: 3820: 3744: 3734: 3584: 3498: 3415: 3291: 2162: 2004: 1939: 1330: 1282: 1047: 407: 145: 5776: 5056: 4494: 4266: 1540: 991: 6710: 6705: 5978: 5929: 5871: 5813: 5754: 5746: 5666: 5650: 5603: 5555: 5547: 5496: 5488: 5441: 5382: 5374: 5290: 5280: 5203: 5187: 5093: 5042: 5034: 4924: 4856: 4840: 4798: 4782: 4765: 4662: 4590: 4367: 4357: 4254: 4242: 4208: 4159: 4049: 4039: 3941: 3898: 3786: 3466: 3269: 2487: 2046: 2029: 2021: 1996: 1552: 726: 722: 568: 544: 386: 105: 5524:

Sühs, Rafael Barbizan; Giehl, Eduardo Luís Hettwer; Peroni, Nivaldo (2022-06-03).

5038: 4362: 4335: 1536: 1008:

Savannas and related grasslands (tropical or subtropical grasslands and parklands)

953: 184:"Semi-natural grasslands belong to the most species rich ecosystems in the world." 6725: 6671: 6276: 6075: 6061: 4915: 4212: 3524: 1951: 1763: 1435: 1415: 1392: 1384: 1368: 827: 818: 524: 473: 44: 4666: 4044: 4017: 310: 6560: 6415: 6327: 5875: 5551: 5445: 5378: 4715:. R. F. Follett, J. M. Kimble, R. Lal. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers. 2001. 3609: 3355: 2261: 2017: 1992: 1699: 1648: 1423: 1134: 852: 743: 651: 583: 532: 528: 380: 324: 281: 273: 60: 6209: 5965:"Management to Support Multiple Ecosystem Services from Productive Grasslands" 5654: 5492: 5295: 4895: 4258: 3999: 3877: 3790: 357: 6694: 6466: 6106:"Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas and shrublands | Biomes | WWF" 5992: 5941: 5883: 5825: 5662: 5615: 5453: 5304: 5199: 4959:"010 - Protecting and restoring endangered grassland and savannah ecosystems" 4852: 4794: 4604: 4410: 4381: 4299: 4220: 4171: 3955: 3855:

Global Biodiversity in a Changing Environment: Scenarios for the 21st Century

3834: 3748: 3403: 2615: 2293: 2245: 2198: 1888: 1876: 1864: 1859: 1852: 1836: 1820: 1804: 1792: 1780: 1768: 1756: 1744: 1732: 1720: 1708: 1692: 1408: 1233:

are also found in temperate grasslands. Other animals of this region include

1154: 1126: 1120: 600: 411: 404: 374: 5098: 5071: 4730: 1453: 1363: 6595: 6494: 6091: 5768: 5680: 5569: 5510: 5396: 5312: 5217: 5191: 4870: 4844: 4812: 4786: 3681: 3454: 3103: 3003: 2947: 2891: 2855: 2751: 2667: 2595: 1963: 1556: 1063: 777: 666: 469: 346: 277: 257: 31: 4958: 55: 6666: 6577: 6451: 6377: 5732: 4710: 4054: 3544: 3023: 2979: 2795: 2735: 2707: 2619: 2555: 2177: 1900: 1612: 1412: 1357: 1343: 1274: 1246: 1238: 848: 682: 588: 564: 266: 262: 5047: 4418: 2407:

Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions

230:

of a variety of grasses that include grasses that are related to modern

6676: 6525: 6488: 6390: 5983: 5964: 5759: 4372: 3902: 3095: 2927: 2779: 2759: 2575: 2398: 2394: 2298: 2266: 2250: 2234: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2186: 2158: 2110: 2098: 2094: 2090: 1459: 1427: 1372: 1306: 1278: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1190: 1100: 751: 572: 515: 369: 364:, also known as the English oak, dominating the semi-natural grasslands 215: 109: 89: 77: 5933: 5817: 5750: 5285: 5258: 5180:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

5013: 4885: 4187:"Biodiversity-rich European grasslands: Ancient, forgotten ecosystems" 4163: 3946: 3927: 3891:

Lindhjem, Henrik; Reinvang, Rasmus; Zandersen, Marianne (2015-08-19).

3853: 6566: 6554: 6456: 6360: 6354: 5582: 3810: 3615: 3589: 3573: 3549: 3537: 3517: 3421: 3361: 3297: 3265: 3157: 2421: 2052: 2034: 2009: 1984: 1968: 1956: 1944: 1906: 1654: 1636: 1624: 1574: 1482: 1334: 1162: 871:

The professional study of dry grasslands falls under the category of

678: 501: 481: 477: 461: 392: 227: 219: 207: 113: 93: 5706: 5232:"Can tree campaigns curb climate change without harming grasslands?" 4111:"University of California Museum of Paleontology Grasslands website" 1388: 1185:. They are classified with temperate savannas and shrublands as the 1011:

Steppes and related grasslands (e.g. North American "prairies" etc.)

783: 194:

There are many different types of semi-natural grasslands, e.g. hay

6628: 6623: 6499: 6446: 6381: 6349: 5255: 4137: 3577: 3557: 3491: 3139: 3127: 3111: 3087: 3083: 2983: 2967: 2935: 2895: 2887: 2875: 2831: 2815: 2771: 2755: 2723: 2699: 2683: 2671: 2659: 2643: 2599: 2579: 2551: 2531: 2515: 2342: 2318: 2282: 2138: 1431: 1326: 1314: 1174: 814: 764: 710: 674: 497: 250: 223: 211: 1093:

tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas and shrublands biome

763:

are limited by factors including water availability and available

190:"...without the use of pesticides or fertilisers in modern times." 6535: 6530: 6520: 6504: 6484: 6411: 6402: 6368: 6293:

Wilsey, B.J. 2018. Biology of Grasslands. Oxford University Press

3597: 3561: 3483: 3478: 3459: 3131: 3099: 3035: 3031: 2959: 2839: 2827: 2791: 2787: 2767: 2687: 2663: 2627: 2623: 2547: 2503: 2475: 2314: 2306: 2302: 2202: 2154: 1972: 1419: 1322: 1310: 1230: 1226: 1198: 1170: 1146: 1015: 986: 822: 714: 702: 670: 659: 604: 592: 508:, extend the root systems, break apart hard soil, enrich it with 485: 429: 418: 269: 246: 97: 85: 65: 5729: 4986:"Grasslands and Climate Change | Climate Change Resource Center" 4184: 6425: 6398: 6345: 5962: 4334:

Aune, Sigrun; Bryn, Anders; Hovstad, Knut Anders (2018-07-04).

4138:"Origin and history of grasslands in Central Europe - a review" 3700: 3695: 3677: 3665: 3653: 3593: 3568: 3553: 3533: 3529: 3505: 3487: 3471: 3399: 3335: 3135: 3123: 3107: 3091: 3071: 3067: 3047: 3015: 3007: 2987: 2975: 2931: 2923: 2907: 2739: 2711: 2647: 2611: 2603: 2563: 2519: 2511: 2499: 2471: 2459: 2374: 2358: 2346: 2330: 2310: 2286: 2254: 2238: 2170: 2142: 2122: 1848: 1832: 1816: 1704: 1360:

are grasslands that are deliberately flooded for short periods.

1318: 1305:

Grasslands that are flooded seasonally or year-round, like the

1270: 1254: 1182: 1178: 1166: 1158: 1116: 1096: 1071: 980: 974: 860: 686: 493: 415: 235: 195: 149: 141: 101: 6132:"Temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands | Biomes | WWF" 4908: 4630:"Grassland Carbon Management | Climate Change Resource Center" 155:

Included among the variety of definitions for grasslands are:

6656: 6633: 6364: 6326: 6074:

Laycock, W.A. (1979). "Introduction". In French, N R. (ed.).

5904: 5846: 4432: 3613: